E-ISSN: 2502-3519 P-ISSN: 2798-3234

JGA, Vol. 9(3), September 2024 (409-419)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.14421/jga.2024.93-04

Enhancing Early Childhood Problem-Solving

Abilities through Game-Based Learning and
Computational Thinking: The Impact of
Cognitive Styles
Dhita Paranita Ningtyas 1, Punaji Setyosari 2
, Dedi Kuswandi 3
,
Saida Ulfa 4
1,2,3,4
Universitas Negeri Malang, Indonesia.
Keywords:
Computational Thinking,
Cognitive Styles, Game- Abstract
Based Learning, Early Children's understanding of solving problems related to early cognitive abilities with
Childhood, Problem-Solving several levels of complexity makes children feel difficult, and students are less able to
Abilities.
solve problems correctly according to the sequential order of how to do them. The
Correspondence to main factor that causes low problem-solving abilities is the use of inappropriate
Punaji Setyosari, Universitas learning strategies. So that children in the process of solving problems in a lesson also
Negeri Malang, Indonesia. become less than optimal. This study explores the effects of computational thinking
e-mail:
[email protected] strategies with game-based learning compared to conventional approaches on early
d childhood problem-solving abilities, considering the cognitive styles of field-
independent (FI) and field-dependent (FD) children. A quasi-experimental pretest-
Received 12 03 2024 posttest nonequivalent control group design involved 60 children from Blitar
Revised 25 07 2024 Kindergarten. The experimental group received computational thinking instruction
Accepted 02 08 2024
Published Online First through game-based learning, while the control group followed conventional
30 09 2024 methods. Posttests followed a pretest established baseline abilities and an eight-week
intervention. Data were analyzed using a two-way ANOVA, revealing significant
improvements in problem-solving skills for the experimental group (p < 0.05). FI
children outperformed FD peers, indicating cognitive style's impact on learning
outcomes. An interaction effect between learning strategies and cognitive styles was
identified, emphasizing the importance of tailored educational approaches. The
study's findings suggest that computational thinking through game-based learning
enhances critical thinking, creativity, and engagement in young learners. However,
limitations such as a small sample size and short intervention duration highlight the
need for further research. Future studies should involve diverse populations and
longer interventions to understand the long-term effects better and optimize
educational strategies for individual cognitive styles. These results underscore the
potential of innovative educational methods in developing foundational skills
© Author(s) (or their
employer(s)) 2024. Re-use is essential for academic and life success.
permitted under CC BY-NC.
No commercial re-use. See
rights and permissions. To cite: Ningtyas, D. P., Setyosari, P., Kuswandi, D., & Ulfa, S. (2024). Enhancing Early Childhood Problem-Solving
Published Abilities through Game-Based Learning and Computational Thinking: The Impact of Cognitive Styles. Golden Age:
by JGA. Jurnal Ilmiah Tumbuh Kembang Anak Usia Dini, 9(3), 409-419. https://doi.org/10.14421/jga.2024.93-04

Introduction
Developing problem-solving abilities in early childhood is a crucial aspect of cognitive growth
and is essential for fostering logical, critical, and systematic thinking skills (O'Reilly et al., 2022;
Riyadi et al., 2021). As society increasingly relies on technology and innovative solutions,
cultivating these abilities from a young age becomes paramount. The intersection of
computational thinking and game-based learning has emerged as a promising avenue to
enhance these skills, integrating entertainment and problem-solving into the learning process.
This study explores how these methodologies can improve problem-solving abilities in early
childhood, a critical period for cognitive development. Ensuring effective educational strategies
during this formative stage is vital for long-term cognitive benefits.
Previous research has extensively documented the importance of various aspects of early
childhood development, including cognitive skills vital for problem-solving (Izzah et al., 2020;

409
410

Restiyanti et al., 2017; Sriyono et al., 2022). Gardner (2011) defines cognitive development as the
ability to solve problems and create culturally valuable work involving rapid and precise mental
processes (Gardner, 2011). Learning and problem-solving, logical thinking, and symbolic
thinking are core components of cognitive development (Rahman, 2019), each contributing to
a child's ability to navigate everyday challenges effectively. Understanding these components
is crucial for educators aiming to foster robust problem-solving skills in young children.
The significance of problem-solving abilities at the early childhood education level cannot
be overstated. These skills enable children to think logically, critically, and systematically, laying
a foundation for future learning (Dyah & Setiawati, 2019; Pollarolo et al., 2023). The scientific
problem-solving process involves observing, grouping, comparing, measuring, and
summarizing information, which is crucial for cognitive development (Sriwarthini et al., 2024).
Despite the recognized importance of these abilities, traditional teaching methods often fail to
engage young learners effectively, highlighting the need for more interactive and engaging
learning strategies (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020; Agustin Husnul Khotimah et al., 2019).
Innovative approaches are required to address these educational challenges adequately.
Emerging strategies such as computational thinking and game-based learning have
shown promise in addressing these educational challenges. Computational thinking, involving
problem formulation and solution representation in a computationally executable form, has
been proposed as a fundamental skill for the younger generation (Hurt et al., 2023; Su & Yang,
2023). Game-based learning, which combines entertainment with educational content,
provides an interactive platform for developing problem-solving skills (Lin et al., 2020). These
approaches make learning more engaging and offer opportunities for repeated practice and
instant feedback, enhancing cognitive development (Li et al., 2024; Nadeem et al., 2023).
Adopting these methods could revolutionize early childhood education by making it more
effective and enjoyable.
Despite the potential benefits, the application of computational thinking and game-
based learning in early childhood education remains underexplored, particularly in comparison
to studies focusing on older students (Torres-Torres et al., 2019). Research has shown that these
methods can reduce gender disparities in cognitive development at early education stages,
suggesting more homogeneous development between boys and girls (John Lemay et al., 2021).
The role of digital games in facilitating immediate feedback and interactive learning further
underscores their potential to enhance early childhood education (Clark et al., 2016;
Anastasiadis et al., 2018; Flynn et al., 2019). However, significant gaps and limitations persist in
the literature. Addressing these gaps is essential for developing more effective educational
strategies.
Existing studies also highlight several gaps and limitations. There is a paucity of research
on the specific impact of these methodologies on problem-solving abilities in early childhood
(Nouvanty et al., 2023; Smith, 2012). Moreover, the influence of individual cognitive styles on
learning outcomes remains inadequately addressed (Lapp et al., 2019; Sutrisno et al., 2020).
Understanding these nuances is crucial for tailoring educational strategies to accommodate
diverse learning preferences and cognitive styles. Addressing these research gaps could
significantly enhance educational practices and outcomes.
This study aims to address these gaps by examining the impact of computational thinking
and game-based learning on the problem-solving abilities of young children. It investigates the
differences in outcomes between children taught using these innovative strategies versus
traditional methods (Moumoutzis, 2020; Alfaro-Ponce et al., 2023). Additionally, the study
explores the interaction effects between learning strategies and cognitive styles, providing
insights into how these factors influence learning outcomes (Lee, 2020; Zheng et al., 2024). By
doing so, this research seeks to contribute to developing more effective and inclusive
educational practices (Dai, 2022; Deng, 2020). Ultimately, the goal is to enhance early learners'
cognitive and problem-solving skills.

Ningtyas, D. P., et al. Enhancing Early Childhood Problem-Solving Abilities through Game-Based…
 411

Methods
This study employed a quantitative approach with a quasi-experimental pretest-posttest
nonequivalent control group design (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). Four classes of early childhood
children from Blitar Kindergarten participated, with 15 children per class. Classes A and B served
as the experimental group, receiving computational thinking instruction through game-based
learning, while classes C and D formed the control group with conventional learning strategies
(X. Wang et al., 2023). A pretest was administered to all participants to establish baseline
problem-solving abilities, followed by an eight-week intervention for the experimental group.
Posttests were then conducted to measure any changes. The primary tool for this study was a
cognitive styles questionnaire adapted from Saracho (2001), translated into Indonesian, and
validated by two experts. The intervention involved educational games implemented using
digital tablets and specialized software.
Data collection included pretest and posttest scores and cognitive styles questionnaire
responses. Analysis was performed using a two-way (2x2) Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) via SPSS
for Windows, with significance set at 0.05. The reliability of the cognitive styles questionnaire,
previously validated (α = 0.68 for FD and α = 0.74 for FI), was reassessed post-translation by
expert review (Saracho, 2001). Pilot testing in a separate kindergarten class refined the game-
based activities. Training observers maintained inter-rater reliability to consistently assess
children's engagement and problem-solving behaviors. These steps ensured the study's
findings were reliable and valid.

Result
This study investigates the impact of computational thinking learning strategies, combined with
game-based learning approaches, on the problem-solving abilities of young children. The
objective is to enhance students' analytical and problem-solving skills through engaging and
interactive activities. Games are utilized not merely as entertainment but as tools to simplify and
convey complex computational concepts. Table 1 illustrates the stages of learning
computational thinking strategies using a game-based learning approach.
Table 1. Stages of Learning Computational Thinking Strategy with a Game-based Learning
Approach
Computation Definition Game-Based Learning
al Thinking Challenges Response Feedback
Strategy Teacher Child Teacher
Sequencing A series of Ask children to play the The child acts like a Justify/provide
steps or role of a robot and carry robot, and instructions if the
instructions out every direction given peers/teachers give child makes a
used to solve a by the teacher/peer directional arrow mistake/steps not
problem commands (for according to orders.
example, left/right
arrows and
forward/backward
arrows).
Ask children to make a Children construct a Justify/give
traditional Javanese conventional Javanese instructions if the
house from mockup house using mockup child makes a
media media mistake/steps not
according to orders
Decomposition Breaking a Have children break (the Break down and Correct if the child
problem into cat's broken house) into categorize parts of the makes a
smaller parts small parts, which helps house into small parts. mistake/steps not
so that the them identify the main according to orders
problem is parts of the task and the
more main criteria
accessible to
solve

doi: https://doi.org/10.14421/jga.2024.93-04
412

Debugging Finds and Encourage children to 1. Identify an existing Correct if the child
corrects errors analyze and evaluate error. makes a
in instructions activities to look for 2. Make assumptions mistake/steps not
discrepancies/errors. about the according to orders
problems found.
3. Try to solve the
problem.
Pattern The process of Applying the results of 1. Children solve Provide feedback
recognition identifying problem-solving problems. regarding
patterns in planning: 2. Children recognize implementing
data sets to The teacher asks the their algorithmic problem-solving
categorize, children what strategies patterns. planning to
process, and are used to help them recognize
resolve solve problems/puzzles. algorithm patterns
information Teachers can use the owned by children.
more above as an opportunity
effectively to describe the
implementation of
problem-solving
planning as an algorithm
children have designed.

Learning computational thinking through games helps students develop critical

thinking and problem-solving skills. Learning stages include an introduction to the concept of
computational thinking through simple games, application of concepts in more complex
games, and reflection and evaluation to ensure student understanding. This method is fun and
helpful in developing students' skills.
Meanwhile, researchers used direct learning stages as the teacher carried out them to
implement learning in the control group. They started by presenting the material and practicing
questions.

3.1. Test Research Data Assumptions

3.1.1. Data Normality Test Results and Data Variance Homogeneity Problem Solving Ability (Pre-
Test)
The normality test is used to see whether the distribution of data on problem-solving abilities in
the control and experimental groups is usually distributed. The results of the data normality test
using Shapiro-Wilk obtained a p-value for the experimental group = 0.06 > 0.05 and the control
group = 0.1 > 0.05. Thus, it can be concluded that children's problem-solving abilities in both
the control and experimental groups are normally distributed.
Table 2. Normality Data Pre-Test Result
Shapiro-Wilk
Statistic df Sig.
Control Group .941 30 .100
Pre-Test Score
Experiment Group .935 30 .067
Meanwhile, the data homogeneity test was used to see whether the data variance in
problem-solving abilities in the two groups was homogeneous. Levene's test results obtained a
Sig value of 0.22. In other words, the p-value is 0.22 > 0.05. So, the variance of problem-solving
ability data in the two groups is homogeneous.
Table 3. Homogeneity Data Pre-Test Result
Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig.
Pre-test Based on Mean 1.483 1 58 .228

Ningtyas, D. P., et al. Enhancing Early Childhood Problem-Solving Abilities through Game-Based…
 413

3.1.2. Data Normality Test Results and Data Variance Homogeneity Problem Solving Ability
(Post-Test)
The normality test is used to see whether the distribution of data on problem-solving abilities in
the control and experimental groups is usually distributed. The results of the data normality test
using Shapiro-Wilk obtained a standardized residual value = 0.183 > 0.05. Thus, it can be
concluded that children's problem-solving ability scores (post-test) in both the control and
experimental groups and those with FD and FI cognitive styles are typically distributed.
Table 4. Normality Data Post-Test Result
Shapiro-Wilk
Statistic df Sig.
.972 60 .183
Standardized Residual

Meanwhile, the data homogeneity test was used to see whether the data variance in
problem-solving abilities in the two groups was homogeneous. Levene's test results obtained a
Sig value of 0.68. In other words, the p-value is 0.68 > 0.05. So, the variance of children's problem-
solving ability data (post-test) in the two groups is homogeneous.
Table 5. Homogeneity Data Post-Test Result
Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig.
Problem-
Based on Mean .494 3 56 .688
Solving

3.1.3. Different Tests of Children's Problem-Solving Abilities in the Pre-Test

The results of different tests show that children's problem-solving abilities (pre-test) obtained a
Sig. (2-tailed) = 0.57, p > 0.05, it can be concluded that children's problem-solving skills (pre-test)
did not show a significant difference between the control and experimental groups.
Table 6. Test Results for Different Students' Problem-Solving Abilities (Post-Test)
Sig. (2-
Group M SD T Information
tailed)
Experiment 2.86 1.28 Not
.56 .57
Control 3.03 1.07 Significant

3.1.4. Differential Test of Children's Problem-Solving Abilities in the Post-Test

The results of different tests show that children's problem-solving abilities (post-test) are F (1.56)
= 333.25, p= 0.000, p < 0.05, so it can be concluded that children's problem-solving abilities
(post-test) show significant differences between the control and experimental groups.
Table 7. Test Results for Different Students' Problem-Solving Abilities (Post-Test)
Kelompok M SD F Sig Keterangan
Eksperimen 10.61 0.58
333.251 .000 Significance
Kontrol 7.95 0.90

3.1.5. Description of Cognitive Style

Cognitive style is a characteristic related to a person's mental processes. According to (Ismail et
al., 2023), cognitive style is part of a learning style that describes a person's permanent
behavioral habits in receiving, solving problems, and storing information. Teachers can
accommodate children's cognitive styles with various learning strategies by knowing children's
cognitive styles. Overall, 30 groups of children have the FD learning style, with a mean score of
8.78. Meanwhile, 30 groups of children have the FI learning style, with a mean score of 9.77.

doi: https://doi.org/10.14421/jga.2024.93-04
414

3.1.6. Hypothesis testing

Based on the two-way ANOVA assumption test results, which show that the post-test scores
meet the assumption tests of both normality and homogeneity, the hypothesis test in this study
can be analyzed using parametric statistical techniques. Three hypotheses will be tested in this
research. The following are the results of hypothesis testing in Table 8.
Table 8. SPSS Two-Way Anova Test Output
Source Type III sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Corrected Model 122,094 a 3 40,698 127,596 ,000
Intercept 5168.218 1 5168.218 16203.329 ,000
Class 106,294 1 106,294 333,251 ,000
Cognitive Style 14,504 1 14,504 45,473 ,000
Class*Cognitive Style 1,297 1 1,297 4,065 ,049
Error 17,862 56 ,319
Total 5308.174 60
Corrected Total 139,956 59
a. R Squared = .872 (Adjusted R Squared = .866)
Based on the two-way ANOVA test results, the calculated F value is 333.251 with a
probability value 0.000. This means the significance value is smaller than 0.05. So, it can be
concluded that there are differences in the problem-solving abilities of children who are taught
using computational thinking strategies with game-based learning and conventional
approaches. The F-value is 45.473 with a probability value of .000. This means the significance
value is smaller than 0.05. Therefore, it can be concluded that H0 is rejected. In other words, there
are differences in the problem-solving abilities of children who have FI and FD cognitive styles.
The calculated F-value is 4.065, with a probability value of .049. This means the significance value
is smaller than 0.05. These results indicate an interaction effect between learning strategies and
cognitive style on children's problem-solving abilities.

Discussion
This study set out to explore the impact of computational thinking strategies combined with
game-based learning on the problem-solving abilities of young children, comparing these
effects to traditional methods. Additionally, it delved into the differences in problem-solving
skills between children with field-independent (FI) and field-dependent (FD) cognitive styles
and the interaction between learning strategies and these cognitive styles. Previous studies
have indicated that computational thinking can significantly boost problem-solving capabilities
(Dewi et al., 2021; X. Wang et al., 2023; Alfaro-Ponce et al., 2023). Game-based learning, in
particular, has been shown to effectively nurture these skills by offering engaging and
interactive environments (Anastasiadis et al., 2018; LIU, 2021). This research builds on existing
knowledge by examining how these strategies work for young children with different cognitive
styles (Marwazi et al., 2019; Nugroho et al., 2021).
The study's findings reveal that computational thinking strategies paired with game-
based learning significantly enhance children's problem-solving skills compared to
conventional methods. Children engaged in game-based learning showed substantial
improvements in problem-solving, as evidenced by notable differences in post-test scores
between the experimental and control groups (F(1.56) = 333.25, p = 0.000). Moreover, FI children
outperformed FD children in problem-solving tasks, underscoring the role of cognitive styles (F
= 45.473, p = 0.000). Additionally, a significant interaction effect was found between learning
strategies and cognitive styles on problem-solving abilities (F = 4.065, p = 0.049). These
outcomes are consistent with existing literature highlighting FI children's superior performance
in problem-solving tasks compared to their FD peers (He & Li, 2023; Saracho, 2001).
When compared to previous research, these findings are in line with the established
evidence that computational thinking enhances problem-solving skills (Dewi et al., 2021; X.
Wang et al., 2023). Game-based learning has also been noted for fostering critical thinking and

Ningtyas, D. P., et al. Enhancing Early Childhood Problem-Solving Abilities through Game-Based…
 415

creativity (Anastasiadis et al., 2018; LIU, 2021), supporting the observation that children using
these strategies perform better. While earlier studies often focused on older students or adults,
this study uniquely demonstrates these benefits in early childhood, indicating the effectiveness
of such approaches across various age groups (Alfaro-Ponce et al., 2023; Kusumawati &
Andriyani, 2020). The engaging and interactive nature of game-based learning environments is
particularly beneficial for cognitive development (Surur et al., 2020; Wahidah et al., 2024).
Regarding cognitive styles, this study supports the findings by Saracho (2001) and
Hardiansyah et al. (2024), which highlight the superior problem-solving abilities of FI children
over FD children. The observation that FI children excel in problem-solving tasks aligns with the
understanding that they are better equipped to handle abstract and analytical tasks (Saracho,
2001; Ahna et al., 2022). In contrast, FD children, who tend to excel in socially oriented and
concrete tasks, displayed comparatively lower problem-solving abilities, reflecting their
struggles with abstract thinking (He & Li, 2023; Muyassaroh & Masduki, 2023). Previous research
has also noted that FI children thrive in structured problem-solving environments, whereas FD
children perform better in collaborative and socially driven tasks (Son, 2020; Surur et al., 2020).
The significant interaction between learning strategies and cognitive styles suggests that
computational thinking strategies with game-based learning are particularly beneficial for FI
children. This could be due to FI children's natural preference for structured and analytical tasks,
which align well with computational thinking (Muyassaroh & Masduki, 2023; Ahna et al., 2022).
However, while there are benefits for FD children, they are less pronounced, possibly due to
their difficulties with abstract problem-solving tasks (Rasmini, 2017; Yen & Liao, 2019). These
findings highlight the importance of tailoring educational strategies to individual cognitive
styles to maximize learning outcomes (Marwazi et al., 2019; Nugroho et al., 2021).
Despite these promising results, caution is needed to generalize the findings due to the
specific context and sample of the study. The controlled experimental setting and relatively
small sample size may limit the external validity of the results. Additionally, the short duration
of the intervention might not fully capture the long-term effects of computational thinking
strategies on problem-solving abilities (Wahidah et al., 2024; Yen & Liao, 2019). Future research
should examine these dynamics over extended periods and in diverse educational settings to
validate and expand on these findings. It is also crucial to explore how these strategies can be
adapted to better support FD children in enhancing their problem-solving skills effectively
(Muyassaroh & Masduki, 2023; Ahna et al., 2022).
The implications of these findings are significant for educational practice. Implementing
computational thinking strategies through game-based learning can notably improve early
childhood problem-solving abilities, especially for FI children. This approach fosters critical
thinking and creativity and provides an engaging learning environment that can motivate
young learners (Anastasiadis et al., 2018; LIU, 2021). Educators should consider incorporating
these strategies into early childhood curricula while considering individual cognitive styles to
ensure that all children can benefit optimally. This study underscores the potential of innovative
educational approaches to develop foundational skills crucial for future academic and life
success (Hadi. S, 2013; Rasmini, 2017)

Conclusion
This study explored the differences in problem-solving abilities among children taught using
computational thinking strategies with game-based learning versus conventional approaches
and the effects of field-independent (FI) and field-dependent (FD) cognitive styles. The results
indicate that game-based learning strategies significantly enhance problem-solving skills
compared to traditional methods, with children in the experimental group showing substantial
improvement. FI children outperformed their FD peers, demonstrating that cognitive style plays
a crucial role in learning outcomes. The interaction between learning strategies and cognitive
styles further underscores the importance of personalized educational approaches. These
findings significantly impact educational practice, suggesting that integrating computational

doi: https://doi.org/10.14421/jga.2024.93-04
416

thinking and game-based learning can foster young learners' critical thinking, creativity, and
engagement. However, the study's limitations, such as a small sample size and short
intervention duration, highlight the need for further research involving diverse populations and
examining long-term effects. Future studies should continue exploring these innovative
strategies to better tailor educational methods to individual cognitive styles and enhance
children's problem-solving abilities.

References
Agustin Husnul Khotimah, Kuswandi, D., & Sulthoni, S. (2019). Pengaruh Model Problem Based
Learning Terhadap Hasil Belajar PKn Siswa. JKTP: Jurnal Kajian Teknologi Pendidikan,
2(2), 158–165. https://doi.org/10.17977/um038v2i22019p158
Ahna, M., Kusmaryono, I., & Aminudin, M. (2022). Kemampuan Pemecahan Masalah Matematika
Siswa Kelas VII Ditinjau dari Gaya Kognitif Field Independent dan Field Dependent pada
Materi Aritmatika Sosial. Jurnal Pendidikan Sultan Agung, 2(3), 342–352.
https://doi.org/10.30659/jp-sa.v2i3.24896
Alfaro-Ponce, B., Patiño, A., & Sanabria-Z, J. (2023). Components of computational thinking in
citizen science games and its contribution to reasoning for complexity through digital
game-based learning: A framework proposal. Cogent Education, 10(1), 2191751.
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2023.2191751
All, A., Castellar, E. N. P., & Van Looy, J. (2021). Digital Game-Based Learning effectiveness
assessment: Reflections on study design. Computers & Education, 167, 104160.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104160
Anastasiadis, T., Lampropoulos, G., & Siakas, K. (2018). Digital Game-based Learning and Serious
Games in Education. International Journal of Advances in Scientific Research and
Engineering (IJASRE), ISSN:2454-8006, DOI: 10.31695/IJASRE, 4(12), 139–144.
https://doi.org/10.31695/IJASRE.2018.33016
Chami̇dy, T., Degeng, İ. N. S., & Ulfa, S. (2020). The Effect of Problem-Based Learning and Tacit
Knowledge on Problem-Solving Skills of Students in Computer Network Practice Course.
Journal for the Education of Gifted Young Scientists, 8(2), 691–700.
https://doi.org/10.17478/jegys.650400
Clark, D. B., Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Killingsworth, S. S. (2016). Digital Games, Design, and Learning:
A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Review of Educational Research, 86(1), 79–122.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315582065
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed
Methods Approaches. SAGE Publications.
Dai, C. P. (2022). Narrative-supported math problem solving in digital game-based learning. In
Educational Technology Research and Development (Vol. 70, Issue 4, pp. 1261–1281).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-022-10129-5
Darling-Hammond, L., Flook, L., Cook-Harvey, C., Barron, B., & Osher, D. (2020). Implications for
educational practice of the science of learning and development. Applied
Developmental Science, 24(2), 97–140.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2018.1537791
Deng, L. (2020). Digital game-based learning in a Shanghai primary-school mathematics class: A
case study. In Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (Vol. 36, Issue 5, pp. 709–717).
https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12438
Dewi, A. N., Juliyanto, E., & Rahayu, R. (2021). Pengaruh Pembelajaran IPA dengan Pendekatan
Computational Thinking Berbantuan Scratch Terhadap Kemampuan Pemecahan
Masalah. Indonesian Journal of Natural Science Education, 4(2), 492–497.
https://doi.org/10.31002/nse.v4i2.2023
Dyah, A., & Setiawati, F. (2019). The Problem Solving Skills in Kindergarten Student Based on the
Stages of Problem Solving. Jurnal Obsesi : Jurnal Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini, 3, 274.
https://doi.org/10.31004/obsesi.v3i1.174

Ningtyas, D. P., et al. Enhancing Early Childhood Problem-Solving Abilities through Game-Based…
 417

Flynn, R. M., Richert, R. A., & Wartella, E. (2019). How Interactive Digital Games Shape the Lives of
Children •. American Journal of Play, 12(1).
Gardner, H. E. (2011). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Hachette UK.
Hardiansyah, F., Armadi, A., Ar, M. M., & Wardi, M. (2024). Analysis of Field Dependent and Field
Independent Cognitive Styles in Solving Science Problems in Elementary Schools. Jurnal
Penelitian Pendidikan IPA, 10(3), 1159–1166.
https://doi.org/10.29303/jppipa.v10i3.5661
Haruehansawasin, S., & Kiattikomol, P. (2018). Scaffolding in problem-based learning for low-
achieving learners. The Journal of Educational Research, 111(3), 363–370.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2017.1287045
He, X., & Li, Y. (2023). Effect of learning methods and cognitive characteristics on preschoolers’
online English attainment. Education and Information Technologies, 28(9), 11713–
11731. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11551-1
Hurt, T., Greenwald, E., Allan, S., Cannady, M. A., Krakowski, A., Brodsky, L., Collins, M. A.,
Montgomery, R., & Dorph, R. (2023). The computational thinking for science (CT-S)
framework: Operationalizing CT-S for K–12 science education researchers and
educators. International Journal of STEM Education, 10(1), 1.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-022-00391-7
Ismail, I., Hasanuddin, H., & Chandra, A. (2023). The Influence of Thinking Styles and Learning
Styles on Student Learning Achievement. AL-ISHLAH: Jurnal Pendidikan, 15(1), 193–202.
https://doi.org/10.35445/alishlah.v15i1.2896
Izzah, K., Darmiyati, & Noorhapizah. (2020). Developing Religious and Moral Values in Habitating
Through Combination of Number Heads Together Model with Audio-Visual Media and
Reading Aloud Method. Journal of K6 Education and Management, 3(4), 446–455.
https://doi.org/10.11594/jk6em.03.04.04
John Lemay, D., Basnet, R. B., Doleck, T., Bazelais, P., & Saxena, A. (2021). Instructional
interventions for computational thinking: Examining the link between computational
thinking and academic performance. Computers and Education Open, 2, 100056.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2021.100056
Kusumawati, V. G., & Andriyani, A. (2020). The group embedded figure and pattern test for
cognitive styles of deaf-mute students. International Journal on Education Insight, 1(2),
69–76. https://doi.org/10.12928/ijei.v1i2.2769
Lapp, S., Jablokow, K., & McComb, C. (2019). KABOOM: An agent-based model for simulating
cognitive style in team problem solving. Design Science, 5, e13.
https://doi.org/10.1017/dsj.2019.12
Lee, V. R. (2020). Introducing coding through tabletop board games and their digital
instantiations across elementary classrooms and school libraries. In SIGCSE 2020—
Proceedings of the 51st ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education
(pp. 787–793). https://doi.org/10.1145/3328778.3366917
Li, Y., Chen, D., & Deng, X. (2024). The impact of digital educational games on student’s
motivation for learning: The mediating effect of learning engagement and the
moderating effect of the digital environment. PLOS ONE, 19(1), e0294350.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0294350
Li, Y., Xu, S., & Liu, J. (2021). Development and Validation of Computational Thinking Assessment
of Chinese Elementary School Students. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, 15,
18344909211010240. https://doi.org/10.1177/18344909211010240
Lin, S.-Y., Chien, S.-Y., Hsiao, C.-L., Hsia, C.-H., & Chao, K.-M. (2020). Enhancing Computational
Thinking Capability of Preschool Children by Game-based Smart Toys. Electronic
Commerce Research and Applications, 44, 101011.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elerap.2020.101011

doi: https://doi.org/10.14421/jga.2024.93-04
418

LIU, S. (2021). Computational methods for first-order nonlocal mean field games with
applications. In SIAM Journal on Numerical Analysis (Vol. 59, Issue 5, pp. 2639–2668).
https://doi.org/10.1137/20M1334668
Marwazi, M., Masrukan, M., & Putra, N. M. D. (2019). Analysis of Problem Solving Ability Based on
Field Dependent Cognitive Style in Discovery Learning Models. Journal of Primary
Education, 8(2), 127–134.
Maulida, D. A., Hendrawaijaya, A. T., & Imsiyah, N. (2018). Hubungan Antara Permainan Lego
Dengan Perkembangan Kognitif Anak Usia Dini di Play Group Al-Irsyad Al-Islamiyyah
Jember. Jurnal Edukasi, 5(1), 9–11. https://doi.org/10.19184/jukasi.v5i1.8003
Moumoutzis, N. (2020). Employing theatrical games to establish and support onlife learning
communities on mathematical principles of informatics. In Digital Presentation and
Preservation of Cultural and Scientific Heritage (Vol. 2020, pp. 19–43).
Muyassaroh, K. A., & Masduki, M. (2023). Profil Berpikir Aljabar Siswa Dalam Menyelesaikan
Permasalahan Generalisasi dan Berpikir Dinamis Ditinjau Dari Gaya Kognitif FI-FD.
FIBONACCI: Jurnal Pendidikan Matematika Dan Matematika, 9(1), 27–42.
https://doi.org/10.24853/fbc.9.1.27-42
Nadeem, M., Oroszlanyova, M., & Farag, W. (2023). Effect of Digital Game-Based Learning on
Student Engagement and Motivation. Computers, 12(9), 177.
https://doi.org/10.3390/computers12090177
Nousiainen, T., Kangas, M., Rikala, J., & Vesisenaho, M. (2018). Teacher competencies in game-
based pedagogy. Teaching and Teacher Education, 74, 85–97.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2018.04.012
Nouvanty, V., Suryanto, T. L. M., & Faroqi, A. (2023). Evaluation of Uses and Gratifications on
Online Otome Games. Teknika, 12(2), 120–128.
https://doi.org/10.34148/teknika.v12i2.613
Novitasari, Y. (2018). Analisis Permasalahan "Perkembangan Kognitif Anak Usia Dini”. PAUD
Lectura: Jurnal Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini, 2(01), 82–90.
https://doi.org/10.31849/paudlectura.v2i01.2007
Nugroho, I. H., Lestariningrum, A., & Usman, J. (2021). Analysis of Motor and Cognitive
Development in Early Childhood by Gender and Learning Styles Through Drawing and
Coloring Activity. Jurnal Ilmiah Potensia, 6(2), 109–112.
https://doi.org/10.33369/jip.6.2.109-108
O’Reilly, C., Devitt, A., & Hayes, N. (2022). Critical thinking in the preschool classroom—A
systematic literature review. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 46, 101110.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2022.101110
Pollarolo, E., Størksen, I., Skarstein, T. H., & Kucirkova, N. (2023). Children’s critical thinking skills:
Perceptions of Norwegian early childhood educators. European Early Childhood
Education Research Journal, 31(2), 259–271.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2022.2081349
Rahman, Md. M. (2019). 21 st Century Skill ‘Problem Solving’: Defining the Concept. Asian Journal
of Interdisciplinary Research, 2, 71–81. https://doi.org/10.34256/ajir1917
Rahmatika, P., Hartati, S., & Yetti, E. (2019). Metode Pembelajaran Mind Map dan Bercerita
dengan Gaya Kognitif, Pengaruhnya terhadap Kemampuan Membaca Permulaan.
Jurnal Obsesi : Jurnal Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini, 3(2), 548–560.
https://doi.org/10.31004/obsesi.v3i2.260
Restiyanti, D., Sutarto, J., & Suminar, T. (2017). Social Skills: Analysis of Elementary Students in
Strengthening Implementation of Character Education. Journal of Primary Education,
6(3), 242–247. https://doi.org/10.15294/jpe.v6i3.21138
Riyadi, Syarifah, T. J., & Nikmaturrohmah, P. (2021). Profile of Students’ Problem-Solving Skills
Viewed from Polya’s Four-Steps Approach and Elementary School Students. European
Journal of Educational Research, 10(4), 1625–1638.

Ningtyas, D. P., et al. Enhancing Early Childhood Problem-Solving Abilities through Game-Based…
 419

Saracho, O. (2001). Exploring Young Children’s Literacy Development Through Play. Early Child
Development and Care, 167(1), 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/0300443011670109
Smith, R. (2012). Serious Games, Virtual Worlds, and Interactive Digital Worlds. Engineering
Principles of Combat Modeling and Distributed Simulation, 357–383.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118180310.ch17
Son, A. L. (2020). Students’ mathematical problem-solving ability based on teaching models
intervention and cognitive style. In Journal on Mathematics Education (Vol. 11, Issue 2,
pp. 209–222). https://doi.org/10.22342/jme.11.2.10744.209-222
Sriwarthini, N. L. P. N., Nurhasanah, N., & Astawa, I. M. S. (2024). Identification of Science Process
Skills of Group B Students at Kreativa Gebang Kindergarten. Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan
IPA, 10(2), 459–464. https://doi.org/10.29303/jppipa.v10i2.5981
Sriyono, H., Rizkiyah, N., & Widiyarto, S. (2022). What Education Should Be Provided to Early
Childhood in The Millennial Era? Jurnal Obsesi : Jurnal Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini, 6(5),
5018–5028. https://doi.org/10.31004/obsesi.v6i5.2917
Su, J., & Yang, W. (2023). A systematic review of integrating computational thinking in early
childhood education. Computers and Education Open, 4, 100122.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2023.100122
Surur, M., Degeng, M., Setyosari, I., & Kuswandi, P. (2020). The Effect of Problem-Based Learning
Strategies and Cognitive Styles on Junior High School Students’ Problem-Solving
Abilities. International Journal of Instruction, 13. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2020.1343a
Sutrisno, S., Rahayuningsih, D., & Purwati, H. (2020). The Impact of Cognitive Style-based
Learning Models on Students’ Problem-Solving Abilities. Tadris: Jurnal Keguruan Dan
Ilmu Tarbiyah, 5(2), 297–306. https://doi.org/10.24042/tadris.v5i2.5873
Torres-Torres, Y.-D., Román-González, M., & Pérez-González, J.-C. (2019). Implementation of
Unplugged Teaching Activities to Foster Computational Thinking Skills in Primary
School from a Gender Perspective. Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference
on Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality, 209–215.
https://doi.org/10.1145/3362789.3362813
Wahidah, N., Sunardi, S., Suwito, A., Yudianto, E., & Ambarwati, R. (2024). Analisis Habits of Mind
Siswa Dalam Menyelesaikan Masalah Segi Empat Ditinjau Dari Gaya Kognitif Field
Dependent dan Field Independent. Proximal: Jurnal Penelitian Matematika Dan
Pendidikan Matematika, 7(1), 222–234. https://doi.org/10.30605/proximal.v7i1.3131
Wang, L.-H., Chen, B., Hwang, G.-J., Guan, J.-Q., & Wang, Y.-Q. (2022). Effects of digital game-
based STEM education on students’ learning achievement: A meta-analysis.
International Journal of STEM Education, 9(1), 26. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-022-
00344-0
Wang, X., Cheng, M., & Li, X. (2023). Teaching and Learning Computational Thinking Through
Game-Based Learning: A Systematic Review. Journal of Educational Computing
Research, 61(7), 1505–1536. https://doi.org/10.1177/07356331231180951
Zheng, Y., Zhang, J., Li, Y., Wu, X., Ding, R., Luo, X., Liu, P., & Huang, J. (2024). Effects of digital
game-based learning on students’ digital etiquette literacy, learning motivations, and
engagement. Heliyon, 10(1), e23490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e23490

doi: https://doi.org/10.14421/jga.2024.93-04