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C++
Advanced Guide to Learn C++
Programming Effectively
© Copyright 2020 - All rights reserved.
The contents of this book may not be reproduced, duplicated or transmitted
without direct written permission from the author.
Under no circumstances will any legal responsibility or blame be held against the
publisher for any reparation, damages, or monetary loss due to the information
herein, either directly or indirectly.
Legal Notice:
This book is copyright protected. This is only for personal use. You cannot amend,
distribute, sell, use, quote or paraphrase any part or the content within this book
without the consent of the author.
Disclaimer Notice:
Please note the information contained within this document is for educational and
entertainment purposes only. Every attempt has been made to provide accurate,
up to date and reliable complete information. No warranties of any kind are
expressed or implied. Readers acknowledge that the author is not engaging in the
rendering of legal, financial, medical or professional advice. The content of this
book has been derived from various sources. Please consult a licensed
professional before attempting any techniques outlined in this book.
By reading this document, the reader agrees that under no circumstances is the
author responsible for any losses, direct or indirect, which are incurred as a result
of the use of information contained within this document, including, but not limited
to, —errors, omissions, or inaccuracies.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Chapter One: Using Pointers in C++
Introduction to Pointers
How to Use Pointers in C++
Types of Pointers
Chapter Two: References in C++
Difference Between References and Pointers
How to Create References
Chapter Three: Introduction to Data Structures in C++
The Struct Statement
How to Access Members
Using Structures as Arguments
Using Pointers
Typedef Keyword
Chapter Four: Introduction to Object-Oriented Programming in
C++
Definition of Classes
Defining Class Objects
How to Access the Class Members
Classes and Objects
Chapter Five: Differences Between Classes and Structures
Chapter Six: Encapsulation in C++
Example
Chapter Seven: Understanding Inheritance
Introduction to Base and Derived Classes
Inheritance and Access
Inheritance Types
Multiple Inheritance
Chapter Eight: Overloading in C++
Introduction to Function Overloading
Introduction to Operator Overloading
Chapter Nine: Polymorphism in C++
Understanding Virtual Functions
Chapter Ten: Abstraction in C++
Benefits
How to Enforce Abstraction
Example
Why Use Abstraction?
Chapter Eleven: Abstract Classes or Interfaces
Example
Chapter Twelve: Constructors in C++
Constructor Types
Chapter Thirteen: Copy Constructors in C++
Definition
When Do You Call a Copy Constructor?
When Should You Define a Copy Constructor?
Assignment Operators Versus Copy Constructors
Example Where You Use Copy Constructors
What Happens When You Remove a Copy Constructor From the
Code?
Chapter Fourteen: Destructors in C++
Properties
When Do You Call a Destructor?
Difference Between Destructors and Member Functions
Chapter Fifteen: Virtual Destructors in C++
Pure Virtual Destructors
Chapter Sixteen: Introduction to Private Destructors
Chapter Seventeen: Exception Handling in C++
Importance of Exception Handling
Exception Handling Examples
Chapter Eighteen: Stack Unwinding
Chapter Nineteen: Identifying Exceptions in Base and Derived
Classes
Differentiating Between Block and Type Conversions
Chapter Twenty: Object Destruction and Error Handling
Linear Search
Binary Search
Jump Search
Chapter Twenty-Two: Sorting Algorithms
Bubble Sort
Selection Sort
Insertion Sort
Quicksort
Chapter Twenty-Three: Tips to Optimize Code in C++
Using the Appropriate Algorithm to Optimize Code
Optimizing Code
Using Input and Output Operators
Optimizing the Use of Operators
Optimization of Conditional Statements
Dealing with Functions
Optimizing Loops
Optimizing Data Structures
Sequential or Binary Search?
Optimizing the Use of Arrays
Chapter Twenty-Four: Debugging and Testing
Definition
Conditions for Debugging
Debugging Requirements
Debugging Principles
Functionalities to Use
Techniques for Debugging
How to Correct the Errors In Your Code
Conclusion
References
Introduction
I want to thank you for choosing this book, ‘C++ - Advanced Guide to
Learn C++ Programming Effectively,’ and I hope you find the book
informative.
If you have read the previous book, you have gathered a basic idea
of some concepts in C++ and how you can use loops and conditional
statements to address different problems. This, however, does not
mean you have mastered the art of programming in C++. You need
to have more information to help you write robust programs and
applications. This book will shed some light on some advanced
topics in C++, which will enhance your understanding of C++.
The book will shed some light on the references and pointers in C++
and their importance. It also provides information on data structures
and how you can use them in C++. Since object-oriented
programming (OOP) is an important concept in most programming
languages, this book sheds some light on what it is and the various
concepts in OOP.
In this book, you will learn more about how you can optimize the
performance of your code. When you write any code, you need to
test it to determine if it runs correctly. You need to find the errors in
your code and find a way to overcome those errors. So, what are
you waiting for? Grab a copy of this book now and get started. By
the end of the book, you will learn how to write code and improve it,
so there are no errors and issues when you compile the code.
Chapter One: Using Pointers in C++
Pointers make it easier to perform specific types of tasks in C++. They are easy to
use, and it is best to use them to perform activities or tasks, such as dynamic memory
allocation. We have looked at the basics of memory allocation in the previous book.
This chapter will shed some light on how best you can use pointers in C++.
Every variable you enter into a program or code will be stored in a memory location.
Each location has its own address, and these addresses can be accessed in the code
using the ‘&’ operator. This operator denotes that section in the memory where the
variable is stored. Let us look at the following example to see how you can print the
location or every variable defined in the code.
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main () {
int var1;
char var2[10];
cout << "Address of var1 variable: ";
cout << &var1 << endl;
cout << "Address of var2 variable: ";
cout << &var2 << endl;
return 0;
}
When you compile the code written above, you obtain the following output:
Address of var1 variable: 0xbfebd5c0
Address of var2 variable: 0xbfebd5b6
The terms 0xbfebd5c0 and 0xbfebd5b6 are the locations in the memory where these
variables are stored.
Introduction to Pointers
Before we look at how you can use pointers, let us first understand what a pointer is.
Pointers are variables that take the address of a different variable in the code. The
syntax of a pointer is as follows:
type *var-name;
The keyword type in the above syntax is the data or base type of the pointer. Make
sure the type is a valid data type in C++. The value var-name is the pointer’s name.
You need to use the asterisk in the syntax when you define the pointer. C++ throws an
error if you forget to use it. The following are some methods to define pointers.
//The following statements are used to define or declare integer, double, float, and
character pointers.
int *ip;
double *dp;
float *fp;
char *ch;
Pointers will only take hexadecimal values since they only take the values of the
variables you point them to. You can define a pointer as an integer, double, character,
string, etc., but it only represents an address in the memory. The only difference is
that when you assign a data type to a pointer when you define it, you indicate to the
compiler that you are pointing to a variable with the same data type.
You can perform these operations using the operator ‘*’ which indicates to the
compiler that it needs to return the value of the variable stored at the memory location
or address indicated by the pointer. The following example uses these operations:
#include <iostream>
int main () {
int var = 20; // actual variable declaration.
int *ip; // pointer variable
return 0;
}
When you run the code and compile it, you obtain the following output:
Value of var variable: 20
Address stored in ip variable: 0xbfc601ac
Value of *ip variable: 20
Types of Pointers
It is easy to understand how you can use pointers in C++. Having said that, if you
make mistakes when you use them in your code, you will receive multiple errors. The
following are some concepts to bear in mind when it comes to pointers:
S. Concept Description
No.
1 Null Pointers You can use null pointers in C++. This pointer is a
constant variable that has a value of zero defined in
numerous libraries used in C++.
2 Pointer You can use the following operators on pointers:
Arithmetic
1. ++
2. +
3. –
4. --
3 Pointer vs. There is a very close relationship between arrays and
arrays pointers.
4 Arrays of If you do not want to introduce numerous variables for
pointers pointers, you can create an array to store the same data
type pointers.
5 Pointer to pointer C++ allows you to use one pointer to indicate to another
pointer.
6 Passing a You can pass pointers as arguments in functions using
pointer as an either a reference or address. These allow the compiler
argument in a to pass the pointer as the argument in the function.
function
7 Returning You can use a function to indicate a local variable to
pointers from store the value of the pointer. You can use:
functions
1. A static variable
2. A local variable
3. Dynamically allocated memory
Chapter Two: References in C++
Unlike pointers, references are used as aliases in C++. a reference is used to refer to
a variable present in the existing code. When you initialize a reference and assign it to
a variable in the code, you can use the variable itself or the reference variable to call
the value stored in the variable if you need to use it in a different function.
In the following example, we look at how you can use references on variables with the
data types double and int.
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main () {
// The following statements are used to declare the simple variables in the code
int i;
double d;
// The following statements are used to declare and assign the reference variables
to the simple variables
int& r = i;
double& s = d;
i = 5;
cout << "Value of i : " << i << endl;
cout << "Value of i reference : " << r << endl;
d = 11.7;
cout << "Value of d : " << d << endl;
cout << "Value of d reference : " << s << endl ;
return 0;
}
When you compile the above code, you will obtain the following output:
Value of i : 5
Value of i reference : 5
Value of d : 11.7
Value of d reference : 11.7
Coders often use references as function return values or argument lists. The following
are two points to bear in mind when you write code in C++:
S. Concept Description
No.
1 Using references as function You can pass references as parameters in
parameters functions. It is safer to use them as
parameters instead of using simple variables
2 Using references as function References can be used like other
values parameters or data types as return values
Chapter Three: Introduction to Data Structures in
C++
C++ allows you to use different variables and structures, such as
arrays and lists. We have looked at these in brief in the first book.
This chapter introduces the different ways you can use these data
structures to perform different activities in C++. You can use arrays
to define different variables or combine different elements across the
program or code into one variable, as long as they fall into the same
category. A structure, however, allows you to combine different
variables and data types. You can use a structure to define or
represent records. Let us assume you want to track the books on
your bookshelf. You can use a structure to track various attributes of
every book on your shelf, such as:
1. Book ID
2. Book title
3. Genre
4. Author
“Mr. Silverton let you visit his pheasant farm, didn’t he? [56]
And you promised him you’d stick to the main trails and
not disturb the pheasants! But did you keep your
promise? No! The minute you were out of sight, you
sneak into the restricted area!”
“I’ll see to that,” Dobbs said, his eyes blazing. “I knew [57]
there’d be trouble to pay when he let you Cubs onto the
property!”
“He couldn’t have seen them there or he’d have made a [58]
fuss about it yesterday,” reasoned Brad. “No, he’s
learned about it since. Maybe he came upon footprints.”
Troubled, the older boy looked about for the Cub leader.
Both he and Mr. Holloway were talking to the parents of
the Cubs, answering a multitude of questions. They
were so busy he could not get near either of them.
Dan began to beat the tom tom. The Cubs, wearing one [61]
feather to signify Wolf rank, two for Bear, three for Lion,
and four for Webelos, formed a square about the fire.
“Do our friends know the Law of the Pack and are they
ready to follow it?” asked Mr. Hatfield.
“Where, Dan?”
“On Mr. Silverton’s land, or close to it. Near the old [63]
logging road, I’d judge.”
This time both Brad and Mr. Holloway saw the shooting
beam of light. Close to the ground, it shone brightly for
a moment and then disappeared.
CHAPTER 6
Indian Feathers
“I am huh?” Dan shot back. “If that’s so, then why did
Mr. Hatfield—”
“Well, Mr. Silverton has no time to see you. Now git out
and don’t come back!”
Warm and out-of-sorts from the long hike, the four boys
dropped in at a village drugstore for ice cream. The
proprietor glanced rather sharply at them as they
entered a booth at the rear of the store, or so it seemed
to Brad.
But later, after the four had finished their ice cream,
Chips paused at the counter rack a moment to flip the
pages of a comic magazine.
Indignant over the rebuff, the four boys paid their bill
and left the drugstore. However, Brad was deeply
disturbed by what had occurred.
“Let’s trail him there, and have this thing out,” Chips
urged. “We ought to catch him, if we hike right back to
Webster City.”
“Well, get this!” said Mr. Silverton speaking with biting [73]
accent “Your privileges are at an end! Now don’t bother
me again!”
Two blocks farther on, the boys came to Eagle Road, an [76]
exclusive residential street in which the homes were few
and far apart. High above the river valley, the large
dwellings overlooked the business section of the city.
For reply, Mr. Silverton dug into the pocket of his sports
jacket and brought forth a tarnished badge bearing the
design of a wolf with two pointed ears.
“Possibly so. But that’s neither here nor there. They died
from having been jammed against some heavy object
and bruised. Many of the tail feathers were missing.”
“How can you say what your friends did when they were
out of your sight?” he demanded.
[81]
CHAPTER 7
A Night Excursion
“No, but—”
“And showing those Indian feathers at the village the [82]
way they did,” the gardener went on. “Why, it was
circumstantial evidence! When Dobbs told around that
the Cubs had trespassed, it was only natural folks would
put two and two together.”
“That Chips or Red killed those birds for the feathers? [83]
No, I don’t, Dan. But Silverton’s accusation is serious.
We’ve got to see Mr. Hatfield about this right away!”
“To tell you the truth, I’ve been a little afraid something
like this would develop.”
“No, first I want to talk to Chips and Red again. I’ll ask
them to come down here for a few minutes if they can.”
In response to the call from the Cub leader, the other [84]
two boys made a speedy trip downtown again. Mr.
Hatfield, in the presence of the four, then asked Dan to
repeat the accusations made against the Cubs by the
pheasant farm owner.
“We sure did, Mr. Hatfield. I hope you don’t think that
either Chips or I would have taken them from live
birds?”
“I’ll show you the very place we picked them up,” Chips [85]
added. “You can bet your life we didn’t go around
plucking ’em out of live birds!”
With the help of Mr. and Mrs. Holloway, the Den had
planned its weekly meeting on an Indian theme. Midge
and Fred had spent the better part of four days setting
up a tepee in the Holloway back yard. The taut gunny
sacking had been painted with gaudy colors in Indian
designs.
“Hope it doesn’t rain again and ruin the job,” Midge [86]
remarked, as he surveyed his work.
“If our Cubs live up to the rules—if they are square and
game—our Den will be respected and make its influence
felt in the community,” added Mr. Suell, one of the Den
fathers.
Presently the Pow Wow concluded with all the Den [89]
members forming a “living circle.” In close formation,
facing inward, each Cub grasped the thumb of the boy
on his left, raising right hand high in the two-finger Cub
sign.
Up and down like a pump handle went their hands as
the boys shouted: “Akela, we’ll do our Best!”
In the chill night air, the hot food exactly hit the spot.
Time after time, the Cubs went back for more until the
big kettle was nearly empty.
Brad and Dan sat slightly apart from the others, their
faces splashed with firelight. They were silently staring
out across the dark river, when Mr. Hatfield, coming up
behind them, touched their shoulders.
“I’ve already told your parents not to expect you home [91]
for an hour,” the Cub leader said as he shoved off. “I
have my car here and will drop you off at your homes
after we get back.”
Without replying, the Cub leader eased the boat in until [92]
it grated on the beach. Brad and Dan leaped out into
the wet sand, and with Mr. Hatfield’s aid, pulled the
craft well beyond reach of the greedy waves.
The three hid the oars in a clump of bushes and set off
at a fast walk toward the exit of the old logging road.
[95]
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