Frequently Asked

DSA
Interview Questions
w i t h a n s w e r s

Basic Level: Page 2

Intermediate Level: Page 8

Advanced Level: Page 21

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Basic Level

1. What are Data Structures?

Answer:
A data structure is a mechanical or logical way that data is organized within
a program. The organization of data is what determines how a program
performs. There are many types of data structures, each with its own uses.
When designing code, we need to pay particular attention to the way data is
structured. If data isn't stored efficiently or correctly structured, then the
overall performance of the code will be reduced.

2. Describe the types of Data Structures?

Answer:
Data Structures are mainly classified into two types:

Linear Data Structure: A data structure is called linear if all of its elements are
arranged in the sequential order. In linear data structures, the elements are
stored in a non-hierarchical way where each item has the successors and
predecessors except the first and last element.

Non-Linear Data Structure: The Non-linear data structure does not form a
sequence i.e. each item or element is connected with two or more other
items in a non-linear arrangement. The data elements are not arranged in
the sequential structure.

3. Explain the process behind storing a variable in memory.

Answer:
·A variable is stored in memory based on the amount of memory that is
needed. Following are the steps followed to store a variable:
i.The required amount of memory is assigned first.
ii.Then, it is stored based on the data structure being used.

·Using concepts like dynamic allocation ensures high efficiency and that
the storage units can be accessed based on requirements in real-time.

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4. What is a stack data structure? What are the applications of stack?

Answer:
A stack is a data structure that is used to represent the state of an application at
a particular point in time. The stack consists of a series of items that are added to
the top of the stack and then removed from the top. It is a linear data structure
that follows a particular order in which operations are performed. LIFO (Last In
First Out) or FILO (First In Last Out) are two possible orders. A stack consists of a
sequence of items. The element that's added last will come out first, a real-life
example might be a stack of clothes on top of each other. When we remove the
cloth that was previously on top, we can say that the cloth that was added last
comes out first.

Following are some applications for stack data structure:

It acts as temporary storage during recursive operations
Redo and Undo operations in doc editors
Reversing a string
Parenthesis matching
Postfix to Infix Expressions
Function calls order

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5. Which data structure is used to perform recursion?

Answer:
Stack data structure is used in recursion due to its last in first out nature.
Operating system maintains the stack in order to save the iteration variables
at each function call.

6. List the area of applications where stack data structure

can be used?
Answer:
Expression evaluation
Backtracking
Memory Management
Function calling and return

7. What are the operations that can be performed on a stack?

Answer:
Push Operations
Pop Operations
Peek Operations

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8. What is the difference between PUSH and POP?

Answer:
PUSH and POP operations specify how data is stored and retrieved in a stack.
PUSH: PUSH specifies that data is being "inserted" into the stack.
POP: POP specifies data retrieval. It means that data is being deleted
from the stack.

9. What is a postfix expression?

Answer:
An expression in which operators follow the operands is known as postfix
expression. The main benefit of this form is that there is no need to group
sub-expressions in parentheses or to consider operator precedence.

The expression "a + b" will be represented as "ab+" in postfix notation.

10. What is an array?

Answer:
Arrays are defined as the collection of similar types of data items stored at
contiguous memory locations. It is the simplest data structure in which each
data element can be randomly accessed by using its index number.

11. What is a linked list data structure? What are the applications
for the Linked list?
Answer:
A linked list can be thought of as a series of linked nodes (or items) that are
connected by links (or paths). Each link represents an entry into the linked
list, and each entry points to the next node in the sequence. The order in
which nodes are added to the list is determined by the order in which they
are created.
Following are some applications of linked list data structure:
Stack, Queue, binary trees, and graphs are implemented using linked
lists.
Dynamic management for Operating System memory.
Round robin scheduling for operating system tasks.
Forward and backward operation in the browser.

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12. What is an asymptotic analysis of an algorithm?

Answer:
Asymptotic analysis of an algorithm defines the run-time performance as per its
mathematical boundations. Asymptotic analysis helps us articulate the best
case(Omega Notation, Ω), average case(Theta Notation, θ), and worst case(Big
Oh Notation, Ο) performance of an algorithm.

13. How are the elements of a 2D array are stored in the memory?
Answer:
There are two techniques by using which, the elements of a 2D array can be
stored in the memory.

Row-Major Order: In row-major ordering, all the rows of the 2D array are
stored into the memory contiguously. First, the 1st row of the array is stored
into the memory completely, then the 2nd row of the array is stored into the
memory completely and so on till the last row.
Column-Major Order: In column-major ordering, all the columns of the 2D
array are stored into the memory contiguously. first, the 1st column of the
array is stored into the memory completely, then the 2nd row of the array is
stored into the memory completely and so on till the last column of the array.

14. Are linked lists considered linear or non-linear data structures?

Answer:
A linked list is considered both linear and non-linear data structure depending
upon the situation.
On the basis of data storage, it is considered as a non-linear data structure.
On the basis of the access strategy, it is considered as a linear data-structure.

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15. What are the advantages of Linked List over an array?

Answer:

The size of a linked list can be incremented at runtime which is impossible in the
case of the array.
The List is not required to be contiguously present in the main memory, if the
contiguous space is not available, the nodes can be stored anywhere in the
memory connected through the links.
The List is dynamically stored in the main memory and grows as per the program
demand while the array is statically stored in the main memory, size of which
must be declared at compile time.
The number of elements in the linked list are limited to the available memory
space while the number of elements in the array is limited to the size of an array.

16. If you are using C language to implement the heterogeneous

linked list, what pointer type should be used?
Answer:
The heterogeneous linked list contains different data types, so it is not possible to use
ordinary pointers for this. For this purpose, you have to use a generic pointer type like
void pointer because the void pointer is capable of storing a pointer to any type.

17. What is doubly linked list?

Answer:
The doubly linked list is a complex type of linked list in which a node contains a pointer
to the previous as well as the next node in the sequence. In a doubly linked list, a node
consists of three parts:
node data
pointer to the next node in sequence (next pointer)
pointer to the previous node (previous pointer).

18. What is hashmap in data structure?

Answer:
Hashmap is a data structure that uses an implementation of a hash table data structure
which allows access to data in constant time (O(1)) complexity if you have the key.

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19. List some applications of queue data structure.

Answer:
The Applications of the queue is given as follows:
Queues are widely used as waiting lists for a single shared resource like
a printer, disk, CPU.
Queues are used in the asynchronous transfer of data (where data is
not being transferred at the same rate between two processes) for eg.
pipes, file IO, sockets.
Queues are used as buffers in most of the applications like MP3 media
player, CD player, etc.
Queues are used to maintain the playlist in media players to add and
remove the songs from the play-list.
Queues are used in operating systems for handling interrupts.

20. What are the drawbacks of array implementation of Queue?

Answer:
Memory Wastage: The space of the array, which is used to store queue elements, can
never be reused to store the elements of that queue because the elements can only be
inserted at front end and the value of front might be so high so that, all the space before
that, can never be filled.

Array Size: There might be situations in which, we may need to extend the queue to
insert more elements if we use an array to implement queue, It will almost be impossible
to extend the array size, therefore deciding the correct array size is always a problem in
array implementation of queue.

Intermediate Level

21. What is a priority queue? What are the applications for

priority queue?
Answer:
Priority Queue is an abstract data type that is similar to a queue in that each element is
assigned a priority value. The order in which elements in a priority queue are served is
determined by their priority (i.e., the order in which they are removed). If the elements
have the same priority, they are served in the order they appear in the queue.

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Following are some real-time applications for priority queue:

Used in graph algorithms like Dijkstra, Prim’s Minimum spanning tree etc.
Huffman code for data compression
Finding Kth Largest/Smallest element

22. List some applications of queue data structure.

Answer:
The Applications of the queue is given as follows:

Queues are widely used as waiting lists for a single shared resource like
a printer, disk, CPU.
Queues are used in the asynchronous transfer of data (where data is not
being transferred at the same rate between two processes) for eg.
pipes, file IO, sockets.
Queues are used as buffers in most of the applications like MP3 media
player, CD player, etc.
Queues are used to maintain the playlist in media players to add and
remove the songs from the play-list.
Queues are used in operating systems for handling interrupts.

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23. Define the tree data structure.

Answer:
The Tree is a recursive data structure containing the set of one or more data
nodes where one node is designated as the root of the tree while the remaining
nodes are called as the children of the root. The nodes other than the root node
are partitioned into the nonempty sets where each one of them is to be called
sub-tree.

24. List the types of tree.

Answer:
There are six types of tree given as follows.
General Tree
Forests
Binary Tree
Binary Search Tree
Expression Tree
Tournament Tree

25. What are Binary trees?

Answer:
A binary Tree is a special type of generic tree in which, each node can have at most
two children. Binary tree is generally partitioned into three disjoint subsets, i.e. the
root of the node, left sub-tree and Right binary sub-tree.

26. How can AVL Tree be useful in all the operations as compared to
Binary search tree?
Answer:
AVL tree controls the height of the binary search tree by not letting it be skewed.
The time taken for all operations in a binary search tree of height h is O(h).
However, it can be extended to O(n) if the BST becomes skewed (i.e. worst case). By
limiting this height to log n, AVL tree imposes an upper bound on each operation
to be O(log n) where n is the number of nodes.

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27. State the properties of B Tree.

Answer:
A B tree of order m contains all the properties of an M way tree. In addition, it
contains the following properties.
Every node in a B-Tree contains at most m children.
Every node in a B-Tree except the root node and the leaf node contain at
least m/2 children.
The root nodes must have at least 2 nodes.
All leaf nodes must be at the same level.

28. List some applications of Tree-data structure?

Answer:
Applications of Tree- data structure:

The manipulation of Arithmetic expression,

Symbol Table construction,
Syntax analysis
Hierarchal data model

29. Define the graph data structure?

Answer:
A graph G can be defined as an ordered set G(V, E) where V(G) represents
the set of vertices and E(G) represents the set of edges which are used to
connect these vertices. A graph can be seen as a cyclic tree, where the
vertices (Nodes) maintain any complex relationship among them instead of
having parent-child relations.

30. Differentiate among cycle, path, and circuit?

Answer:
Path: A Path is the sequence of adjacent vertices connected by the edges
with no restrictions.
Cycle: A Cycle can be defined as the closed path where the initial vertex is
identical to the end vertex. Any vertex in the path can not be visited twice
Circuit: A Circuit can be defined as the closed path where the intial vertex is
identical to the end vertex. Any vertex may be repeated.

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31. What are the applications of Graph data structure?

Answer:
The graph has the following applications:
Graphs are used in circuit networks where points of connection are drawn
as vertices and component wires become the edges of the graph.
Graphs are used in transport networks where stations are drawn as
vertices and routes become the edges of the graph.
Graphs are used in maps that draw cities/states/regions as vertices and
adjacency relations as edges.
Graphs are used in program flow analysis where procedures or modules
are treated as vertices and calls to these procedures are drawn as edges of
the graph.

32. What are the advantages of Binary search over linear search?
Answer:
There are relatively less number of comparisons in binary search than that in
linear search. In average case, linear search takes O(n) time to search a list of n
elements while Binary search takes O(log n) time to search a list of n elements.

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33. What are the advantages of Selection Sort?

Answer:
It is simple and easy to implement. T
It can be used for small data sets.
It is 60 per cent more efficient than bubble sort.

34. What is the difference between NULL and VOID?

Answer:
Null is actually a value, whereas Void is a data type identifier.
A null variable simply indicates an empty value, whereas void is used to
identify pointers as having no initial size.

35. Differentiate between stack and queue data structure.

Answer:

Stack Queue

Stack is a linear data structure where Queue is a linear data structure

data is added and removed from where data is ended at the rear end
the top. and removed from the front.

Stack is based on LIFO(Last In First Queue is based on FIFO(First In First

Out) principle Out) principle

Insertion operation in Stack is known Insertion operation in Queue is

as push. known as eneque.

Delete operation in Stack is known as Delete operation in Queue is known

pop. as dequeue.

Only one pointer is available for both Two pointers are available for
addition and deletion: addition and deletion: front() and
top() rear()

Used in solving recursion problems Used in solving sequential

processing problems

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36. Elaborate on different types of array data structure

Answer.
There are several different types of arrays:

One-dimensional array: A one-dimensional array stores its elements in

contiguous memory locations, accessing them using a single index
value. It is a linear data structure holding all the elements in a sequence.
Two-dimensional array: A two-dimensional array is a tabular array that
includes rows and columns and stores data. An M × N two-dimensional
array is created by grouping M rows and N columns into N columns and
rows.
Three-dimensional array: A three-dimensional array is a grid that has
rows, columns, and depth as a third dimension. It comprises a cube with
rows, columns, and depth as a third dimension. The three-dimensional
array has three subscripts for a position in a particular row, column, and
depth. Depth (dimension or layer) is the first index, row index is the
second index, and column index is the third index.

37. Elaborate on different types of Linked List data structures?

Answer:
Following are different types of linked lists:
1. Singly Linked List: A singly linked list is a data structure that is used to store
multiple items. The items are linked together using the key. The key is used to
identify the item and is usually a unique identifier. In a singly linked list, each
item is stored in a separate node. The node can be a single object or it can be a
collection of objects. When an item is added to the list, the node is updated and
the new item is added to the end of the list. When an item is removed from the
list, the node that contains the removed item is deleted and its place is taken by
another node. The key of a singly linked list can be any type of data structure
that can be used to identify an object. For example, it could be an integer, a
string, or even another singly linked list. Singly-linked lists are useful for storing
many different types of data. For example, they are commonly used to store lists
of items such as grocery lists or patient records. They are also useful for storing
data that is time sensitive such as stock market prices or flight schedules.

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2. Doubly Linked List: A doubly linked list is a data structure that allows for two-
way data access such that each node in the list points to the next node in the list
and also points back to its previous node. In a doubly linked list, each node can
be accessed by its address, and the contents of the node can be accessed by its
index. It's ideal for applications that need to access large amounts of data in a
fast manner. A disadvantage of a doubly linked list is that it is more difficult to
maintain than a single-linked list. In addition, it is more difficult to add and
remove nodes than in a single-linked list.

3. Circular Linked List: A circular linked list is a unidirectional linked list where
each node points to its next node and the last node points back to the first node,
which makes it circular.

4. Doubly Circular Linked List: A doubly circular linked list is a linked list where
each node points to its next node and its previous node and the last node points
back to the first node and first node’s previous points to the last node.

5. Header List: A list that contains the header node at the beginning of the list, is
called the header-linked list. This is helpful in calculating some repetitive
operations like the number of elements in the list etc.

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38. Difference between Array and Linked List.

Answer:

Arrays Linked Lists

An array is a collection of data A linked list is a collection of entities

elements of the same type. known as nodes. The node is divided
into two sections: data and address.

It keeps the data elements in a single It stores elements at random, or

memory. anywhere in the memory.

The memory size of an array is fixed The memory size of a linked list is
and cannot be changed during allocated during runtime.
runtime.

An array's elements are not Linked List elements are dependent on

dependent on one another. one another.

It is easier and faster to access an In the linked list, it takes time to access
element in an array. an element.

Memory utilization is ineffective in Memory utilization is effective in the

the case of an array. case of an array.

Operations like insertion and deletion Operations like insertion and deletion
take longer time in an array. are faster in the linked list.

39. What is linear searching?

Answer:
Linear Search is defined as a sequential search algorithm that starts at one end
and goes through each element of a list until the desired element is found,
otherwise the search continues till the end of the data set. It is the easiest
searching algorithm. This method can be performed on a sorted or an unsorted
list (usually arrays).

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Linear Search Algorithm

Step 1: First, read the search element (Target element) in the array.

Step 2: In the second step compare the search element with the first element in
the array.

Step 3: If both are matched, display “Target element is found” and terminate the
Linear Search function.

Step 4: If both are not matched, compare the search element with the next
element in the array.

Step 5: In this step, repeat steps 3 and 4 until the search (Target) element is
compared with the last element of the array.

Step 6 – If the last element in the list does not match, the Linear Search Function
will be terminated, and the message “Element is not found” will be displayed.

40. What is bubble sort and how bubble sort works?

Answer:
Bubble Sort is the simplest sorting algorithm that works by repeatedly
swapping the adjacent elements if they are in the wrong order. This
algorithm is not suitable for large data sets as its average and worst-
case time complexity is quite high.

Time Complexity: O(N2)

Auxiliary Space: O(1)

We assume list is an array of n elements. We further assume that swap

function swaps the values of the given array elements.

begin BubbleSort(list)
for all elements of list
if list[i] > list[i+1]
swap(list[i], list[i+1])
end if
end for
return list
end BubbleSort

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41. What is selection sort?

Answer:
In selection sort, the smallest value among the unsorted elements of the array
is selected in every pass and inserted to its appropriate position into the array.
It is also the simplest algorithm. It is an in-place comparison sorting algorithm.
In this algorithm, the array is divided into two parts, first is sorted part, and
another one is the unsorted part. Initially, the sorted part of the array is empty,
and unsorted part is the given array. Sorted part is placed at the left, while the
unsorted part is placed at the right.

The average and worst-case complexity of selection sort is O(n2), where n is the
number of items. Due to this, it is not suitable for large data sets.

Selection sort is generally used when -

A small array is to be sorted
Swapping cost doesn't matter
It is compulsory to check all elements

Algorithm

SELECTION SORT(arr, n)
Step 1: Repeat Steps 2 and 3 for i = 0 to n-1
Step 2: CALL SMALLEST(arr, i, n, pos)
Step 3: SWAP arr[i] with arr[pos]
[END OF LOOP]
Step 4: EXIT
SMALLEST (arr, i, n, pos)
Step 1: [INITIALIZE] SET SMALL = arr[i]
Step 2: [INITIALIZE] SET pos = i
Step 3: Repeat for j = i+1 to n
if (SMALL > arr[j])
SET SMALL = arr[j]
SET pos = j
[END OF if]
[END OF LOOP]
Step 4: RETURN pos

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42. How insertion sort and selection sorts are different?

Answer:

Insertion Sort
In Insertion Sort, the values are inserted in a list/array wherein some of the
values are previous sorted.
It is a stable sorting algorithm.
The best-case time complexity is O(N) (when the list has been sorted in
ascending order).
A key value is defined, and the array is iterated from the beginning to the
end.
The current element during iteration is compared to the key value.
The number of comparison operations made during insertion sort is less
than the number of the element swapping that is done.
If the key element is smaller than the element with which it is being
compared, the previous elements are compared with it.
The elements greater than key are moved one position up to make space
for the element that is swapped.
The elements are known before hand, only their position is determined
during insertion sort.

Selection sort
In Selection Sort, at first, the minimum or the maximum number from the
list is obtained.
The list is sorted in ascending or descending order.
It is considered as an unstable sorting algorithm.
The time complexity in all cases is O(n^2).
It is less efficient in comparison to insertion sort.
The number of comparisons made during iterations is more than the
element swapping that is done.
The location of every element in the list is previously known.
This means the user only searches for the element that needs to be
inserted at the specific position.

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43. What are some key operations performed on the Deque

data structure?
Answer:
Following are the key operations available deque:
insertFront(): This adds an element to the front of the Deque.
insertLast(): This adds an element to the rear of the Deque.
deleteFront(): This deletes an element from the front of the Deque.
deleteLast():This deletes an element from the front of the Deque.
getFront(): This gets an element from the front of the Deque.
getRear(): This gets an element from the rear of the Deque.
isEmpty(): This checks whether Deque is empty or not.
isFull(): This checks whether Deque is full or not.

44. Compare different implementations of priority queue

Answer:

Operations peek insert delete

Linked List O(1) O(n) O(1)

Binary Heap O(1) O(log n) O(log n)

Binary Search Tree O(1) O(log n) O(log n)

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45. What is a priority queue? What are the applications for

priority queue?
Answer:
Priority Queue is an abstract data type that is similar to a queue in
that each element is assigned a priority value. The order in which
elements in a priority queue are served is determined by their
priority (i.e., the order in which they are removed). If the elements
have the same priority, they are served in the order they appear in
the queue.

Following are some real-time applications for priority queue:

Used in graph algorithms like Dijkstra, Prim’s Minimum
spanning tree etc.
Huffman code for data compression
Finding Kth Largest/Smallest element

Advanced Level

46. What is the difference between the Breadth First Search

(BFS) and Depth First Search (DFS)?
Answer:

Breadth First Search (BFS) Depth First Search (DFS)

It stands for “Breadth First Search” It stands for “Depth First Search”

BFS (Breadth First Search) finds the DFS (Depth First Search) finds
shortest path using the Queue data the shortest path using the
structure. Stack data structure.

We walk through all nodes on the DFS begins at the root node and
same level before passing to the proceeds as far as possible
next level in BFS. through the nodes until we
reach the node with no
unvisited nearby nodes.

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When compared to DFS, BFS is When compared to BFS, DFS is

slower. faster.

BFS performs better when the DFS performs better when the
target is close to the source. target is far from the source.

BFS necessitates more memory. DFS necessitates less memory.

Nodes that have been traversed When there are no more nodes
multiple times are removed from to visit, the visited nodes are
the queue. added to the stack and then
removed.

Backtracking is not an option in The DFS algorithm is a recursive

BFS. algorithm that employs the
concept of backtracking.

It is based on the FIFO principle It is based on the LIFO principle

(First In First Out). (Last In First Out).

47. What is a B-tree data structure? What are the applications

for B-trees?
Answer:
The B Tree is a type of m-way tree that is commonly used for disc access. A B-
Tree with order m can only have m-1 keys and m children. One of the primary
reasons for using a B tree is its ability to store a large number of keys in a single
node as well as large key values while keeping the tree's height relatively small.

Following are the key properties of a B-tree data structure:

All of the leaves are at the same height.
The term minimum degree 't' describes a B-Tree. The value of t is
determined by the size of the disc block.
Except for root, every node must have at least t-1 keys. The root must
contain at least one key.
All nodes (including root) can have no more than 2*t - 1 keys.

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The number of children of a node is equal to its key count plus one.
A node's keys are sorted in ascending order. The child of two keys k1 and
k2 contains all keys between k1 and k2.
In contrast to Binary Search Tree, B-Tree grows and shrinks from the root.

Following are real-time applications of a B-Tree data structure:

It is used to access data stored on discs in large databases.
Using a B tree, you can search for data in a data set in significantly less
time.
The indexing feature allows for multilevel indexing.
The B-tree approach is also used by the majority of servers.

48. Define Segment Tree data structure and its applications.

Answer:
A segment Tree is a binary tree that is used to store intervals or segments. The
Segment Tree is made up of nodes that represent intervals. Segment Tree is
used when there are multiple range queries on an array and changes to array
elements.

Following are key operations performed on the Segment tree data structure:

Building Tree: In this step, we create the structure and initialize the
segment tree variable.
Updating the Tree: In this step, we change the tree by updating the array
value at a point or over an interval.
Querying Tree: This operation can be used to run a range query on the
array.
Following are real-time applications for Segment Tree:

Used to efficiently list all pairs of intersecting rectangles from a list of

rectangles in the plane.
The segment tree has become popular for use in pattern recognition and
image processing.
Finding range sum/product, range max/min, prefix sum/product, etc
Computational geometry
Geographic information systems

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49. Define Trie data structure and its applications

Answer:
The word "Trie" is an abbreviation for "retrieval." Trie is a data structure that
stores a set of strings as a sorted tree. Each node has the same number of
pointers as the number of alphabet characters. It can look up a word in the
dictionary by using its prefix. Assuming that all strings are formed from the
letters 'a' to 'z' in the English alphabet, each trie node can have a maximum of
26 points.

Trie is also referred to as the digital tree or the prefix tree. The key to which a
node is connected is determined by its position in the Trie. Trie allows us to
insert and find strings in O(L) time, where L is the length of a single word. This
is clearly faster than BST. Because of how it is implemented, this is also faster
than Hashing. There is no need to compute a hash function. There is no need
to handle collisions (like we do in open addressing and separate chaining)
Another benefit of Trie is that we can easily print all words in alphabetical
order, which is not easy with hashing. Trie can also perform prefix search (or
auto-complete) efficiently.

The main disadvantage of tries is that they require a large amount of memory
to store the strings. We have an excessive number of node pointers for each
node
Following are some real-time applications for Trie data structure:

Auto-Complete and Search for Search Engines

Genome Analysis
Data Analytics
Browser History
Spell Checker

50. Define Red-Black Tree and its applications

Answer:
Red Black Trees are a type of self-balancing binary search tree. Rudolf Bayer
invented it in 1972 and dubbed it "symmetric binary B-trees."

A red-black tree is a Binary tree in which each node has a colour attribute,
either red or black. By comparing the node colours on any simple path from
the root to a leaf, red-black trees ensure that no path is more than twice as
long as any other, ensuring that the tree is generally balanced.

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Red-black trees are similar to binary trees in that they both store their data in
two's complementary binary formats. However, red-black trees have one
important advantage over binary trees: they are faster to access. Because red-
black trees are so fast to access, they are often used to store large amounts of
data.

Red-black trees can be used to store any type of data that can be represented
as a set of values.

Every Red-Black Tree Obeys the Following Rules:

Every node is either red or black.
The tree's root is always black.
There are no two red nodes that are adjacent.
There is the same number of black nodes on every path from a node to any
of its descendant's NULL nodes.
All of the leaf nodes are black.

Following are some real-time applications for the Red-Black Tree data
structure:
The majority of self-balancing BST library functions in C++ or Java use Red-
Black Trees.
It is used to implement Linux CPU Scheduling.
It is also used to reduce time complexity in the K-mean clustering
algorithm in machine learning.
MySQL also employs the Red-Black tree for table indexes in order to reduce
searching and insertion time.

51. Which data structures are used for implementing LRU cache?
Answer:
LRU cache or Least Recently Used cache allows quick identification of an
element that hasn’t been put to use for the longest time by organizing items in
order of use. In order to achieve this, two data structures are used:

Queue – This is implemented using a doubly-linked list. The maximum size of

the queue is determined by the cache size, i.e by the total number of available
frames. The least recently used pages will be near the front end of the queue
whereas the most recently used pages will be towards the rear end of the
queue.

Hashmap – Hashmap stores the page number as the key along with the
address of the corresponding queue node as the value.

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52. What is a heap data structure?

Answer:
Heap is a special tree-based non-linear data structure in which the tree is a
complete binary tree. A binary tree is said to be complete if all levels are
completely filled except possibly the last level and the last level has all
elements as left as possible. Heaps are of two types:

Max-Heap:
In a Max-Heap the data element present at the root node must be the greatest
among all the data elements present in the tree.
This property should be recursively true for all sub-trees of that binary tree.

Min-Heap:
In a Min-Heap the data element present at the root node must be the smallest
(or minimum) among all the data elements present in the tree.
This property should be recursively true for all sub-trees of that binary tree.

53. What are the differences between B tree and B+ tree?

Answer:

SN B Tree B+ Tree
1 Search keys cannot repeatedly be Redundant search keys can be
stored. present.

2 Data can be stored in leaf nodes as Data can only be stored on the leaf
well as internal nodes nodes.

3 Searching for some data is a slower Searching is comparatively faster as

process since data can be found on data can only be found on the
internal nodes as well as on the leaf leaf nodes.
nodes.

4 Deletion of internal nodes is so Deletion will never be a complexed

complicated and time-consuming. process since element will always be
deleted from the leaf nodes.

5 Leaf nodes cannot be linked together. Leaf nodes are linked together to
make the search operations more
efficient.

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54. List some applications of Tree-data structure?

Answer:
Applications of Tree- data structure:
The manipulation of Arithmetic expression,
Symbol Table construction,
Syntax analysis
Hierarchal data model

55. Define the graph data structure?

Answer:
A graph G can be defined as an ordered set G(V, E) where V(G) represents the
set of vertices and E(G) represents the set of edges which are used to connect
these vertices. A graph can be seen as a cyclic tree, where the vertices (Nodes)
maintain any complex relationship among them instead of having parent-
child relations.

56. Differentiate among cycle, path, and circuit?

Answer:
Path: A Path is the sequence of adjacent vertices connected by the edges
with no restrictions.

Cycle: A Cycle can be defined as the closed path where the initial vertex is
identical to the end vertex. Any vertex in the path cannot be visited twice

Circuit: A Circuit can be defined as the closed path where the intial vertex is
identical to the end vertex. Any vertex may be repeated.

57. Which data structures are used in BFS and DFS algorithm?
Answer:
In BFS algorithm, Queue data structure is used.

In DFS algorithm, Stack data structure is used.

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58. What are the advantages of a linked list over an array? In

which scenarios do we use Linked List and when Array?
Answer:
This is another frequently asked data structure interview questions!
Advantages of a linked list over an array are:
1. Insertion and Deletion
Insertion and deletion of nodes is an easier process, as we only update the
address present in the next pointer of a node. It’s expensive to do the same in
an array as the room has to be created for the new elements and existing
elements must be shifted.
2. Dynamic Data Structure
As a linked list is a dynamic data structure, there is no need to give an initial
size as it can grow and shrink at runtime by allocating and deallocating
memory. However, the size is limited in an array as the number of elements is
statically stored in the main memory.
3. No Wastage of Memory
As the size of a linked list can increase or decrease depending on the demands
of the program, and memory is allocated only when required, there is no
memory wasted. In the case of an array, there is memory wastage. For
instance, if we declare an array of size 10 and store only five elements in it, then
the space for five elements is wasted.
4. Implementation
Data structures like stack and queues are more easily implemented using a
linked list than an array.

Some scenarios where we use linked list over array are:

When we know the upper limit on the number of elements in advance
When there are a large number of add or remove operations
When there are no large number of random access to elements

59. Why do we need to do an algorithm analysis?

Answer:
A problem can be solved in more than one way using several solution
algorithms. Algorithm analysis provides an estimation of the required resources
of an algorithm to solve a specific computational problem. The amount of time
and space resources required to execute is also determined.
The time complexity of an algorithm quantifies the amount of time taken for an
algorithm to run as a function of the length of the input. The space complexity
quantifies the amount of space or memory taken by an algorithm, to run as a
function of the length of the input.

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60. What is the difference between a PUSH and a POP?

Answer:
In terms of data structure interview questions, this is one of the most
frequently asked question.
The acronyms stand for Pushing and Popping operations performed on a
stack. These are ways data is stored and retrieved.
PUSH is used to add an item to a stack, while POP is used to remove an
item.
PUSH takes two arguments, the name of the stack to add the data to and
the value of the entry to be added. POP only needs the name of the stack.
When the stack is filled and another PUSH command is issued, you get a
stack overflow error, which means that the stack can no longer
accommodate the last PUSH. In POP, a stack underflow error occurs when
you’re trying to POP an already empty stack.

61. Which sorting algorithm is considered the fastest? Why?

Answer:
A single sorting algorithm can’t be considered best, as each algorithm is
designed for a particular data structure and data set. However, the QuickSort
algorithm is generally considered the fastest because it has the best
performance for most inputs.

Its advantages over other sorting algorithms include the following:

Cache-efficient: It linearly scans and linearly partitions the input. This means
we can make the most of every cache load.
Can skip some swaps: As QuickSort is slightly sensitive to input that is in the
right order, it can skip some swaps.
Efficient even in worst-case input sets, as the order is generally random.
Easy adaption to already- or mostly-sorted inputs.
When speed takes priority over stability.

62. Name the ways to determine whether a linked list has a loop.
Answer:
Using hashing
Using the visited nodes method (with or without modifying the basic linked
list data structure)
Floyd’s cycle-finding algorithm

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63. List some applications of multilinked structures?

Answer:
Sparse matrix
Index generation

64. What is dynamic memory management?

Answer:
Dynamic memory management is a technique in which storage units are
allocated based on the requirements continuously. Using dynamic memory
allocations, individual data structures can be either stored separately or
combined to form entities called composites. These composites can be worked
on when required.

65. How is a variable stored in memory when using Data Structures?

Answer:
A variable is stored based on the amount of memory that is needed. First, the
required quantity of memory is assigned, and later, it is stored based on the data
structure being used. Using concepts such as dynamic allocation ensures high
efficiency and that the storage units can be supplied based on the requirements
in real time.

66. How does Huffman’s algorithm work?

Answer:
Huffman’s algorithm uses a table, containing the frequency of the occurrence of
every data entity on the list. This is used for creating extended binary trees,
which are known to have minimum weights for the path lengths. This is
considering each of the corresponding weights.

67. What are the time complexities of linear search and binary search?
Answer:
Binary search is more effective as it takes lesser comparisons to search for an
element in an array. The time complexity for linear search is O(n), while it is O(log
n) for binary search.

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68. Where are Multi-linked Data Structures used?

Answer:
Multi-linked data structures are used in many domains. Following are the two
most important use cases of multi-linked data structures:
Generation of sparse matrices
Index creation for data entities

69. What is the method used for inorder traversal in trees?

Answer:
Inorder traversal works in the following way:
The tree is traversed through the left subtree.
The root node is visited after the left visit.
Then, the right subtree is traversed.

70. What is the working of post-order traversal in trees?

Answer:
Postorder traversal works in the following way:
First, the left subtree is traversed through.
The right subtree is traversed next.
The root node is visited after the right subtree visit.

71. How can elements be inserted in the circular queue?

Answer:
There are two cases in which items can be placed in a circular queue. They are as
follows:
When front != 0 and rear = max -1. This makes it possible as the queue will not
be full, and new elements can be inserted here.
When rear != max -1. This ensures that the rear is incremented to the
maximum allocation size, and values can be inserted easily to the rear end of
the queue.

72. What is jagged array?

Answer:
It is an array whose elements themselves are arrays and may be of different
dimensions and sizes.

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73. How do you find the height of a node in a tree?

Answer:
The height of the node equals the number of edges in the longest path to the
leaf from the node, where the depth of a leaf node is 0.

74. What are recursive algorithms? State the important rules

which every recursive algorithm must follow.
Answer:
Recursive algorithm is a way of tackling a difficult problem by breaking it down
into smaller and smaller subproblems until the problem is small enough to be
solved quickly. It usually involves a function that calls itself (property of recursive
functions).
The three laws which must be followed by all recursive algorithms are as follows:
There should be a base case.
It is necessary for a recursive algorithm to call itself.
The state of a recursive algorithm must be changed in order for it to return to
the base case.

75. Explain the Dijkstra's Algorithm to find the shortest path between a
given node in a graph to any other node in the graph.
Answer:

Dijkstra's algorithm is a method for determining the shortest pathways between

nodes in a graph, which might be used to depict road networks. Edsger W.
Dijkstra, a computer scientist, conceived it in 1956 and published it three years
later. There are numerous variations of the algorithm. The original Dijkstra
algorithm discovered the shortest path between two nodes, but a more frequent
form fixes a single node as the "source" node and finds the shortest pathways
from the source to all other nodes in the network, resulting in a shortest-path
tree. Let us take a look at Dijkstra's Algorithm to find the shortest path between
a given node in a graph to any other node in the graph:

Let us call the node where we are starting the process as the initial node. Let the
distance from the initial node to Y be the distance of node Y. Dijkstra's algorithm
will begin with unlimited distances and attempt to improve them incrementally.

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Step 1: Mark all nodes that have not been visited yet. The unvisited set is a
collection of all the nodes that have not been visited yet.

Step 2: Assign a tentative distance value to each node: set it to zero for our first
node and infinity for all others. The length of the shortest path discovered so far
between the node v and the initial node is the tentative distance of a node v.
Because no other vertex other than the source (which is a path of length zero) is
known at the start, all other tentative distances are set to infinity. Set the current
node to the beginning node.

Step 3: Consider all of the current node's unvisited neighbours and determine
their approximate distances through the current node. Compare the newly
calculated tentative distance to the current assigned value and choose the one
that is less. If the present node A has a distance of 5 and the edge linking it to a
neighbour B has a length of 3, the distance to B through A will be 5 +3 = 8.
Change B to 8 if it was previously marked with a distance greater than 8. If this is
not the case, the current value will be retained.

Step 4: Mark the current node as visited and remove it from the unvisited set
once we have considered all of the current node's unvisited neighbours. A node
that has been visited will never be checked again.
Stop if the destination node has been marked visited (when planning a route
between two specific nodes) or if the smallest tentative distance between the
nodes in the unvisited set is infinity (when planning a complete traversal; occurs
when there is no connection between the initial node and the remaining
unvisited nodes). The algorithm is now complete.

Step 5: Otherwise, return to step 3 and select the unvisited node indicated with
the shortest tentative distance as the new current node.
It is not required to wait until the target node is "visited" as described above
while constructing a route: the algorithm can end once the destination node has
the least tentative distance among all "unvisited" nodes (and thus could be
selected as the next "current"). For arbitrary directed graphs with unbounded
non-negative weights, Dijkstra's algorithm is asymptotically the fastest known
single-source shortest path algorithm with time complexity of O(|E| + |V|log(|V|)),
where |V| is the number of nodes and|E| is the number of edges in the graph.

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76. Explain the BFS algorithm

Answer:
BFS (Breadth First Search) is a graph traversal algorithm. It starts traversing the
graph from the root node and explores all the neighboring nodes. It selects the
nearest node and visits all the unexplored nodes. The algorithm follows the same
procedure for each of the closest nodes until it reaches the goal state.

Algorithm

Step1: Set status=1 (ready state)

Step2: Queue the starting node A and set its status=2, i.e. (waiting state)
Step3: Repeat steps 4 and 5 until the queue is empty.
Step4: Dequeue a node N and process it and set its status=3, i.e. (processed state)
Step5: Queue all the neighbors of N that are in the ready state (status=1) and set
their status =2 (waiting state)
[Stop Loop]
Step6: Exit

77. What are Greedy algorithms? Give some example of it?

Answer:
A greedy algorithm is an algorithmic strategy which is made for the best optimal
choice at each sub stage with the goal of this, eventually leading to a globally
optimum solution. This means that the algorithm chooses the best solution at
the moment without regard for consequences.
In other words, an algorithm that always takes the best immediate, or local,
solution while finding an answer.
Greedy algorithms find the overall, ideal solution for some idealistic problems,
but may discover less-than-ideal solutions for some instances of other problems.
Below is a list of algorithms that finds their solution with the use of the Greedy
algorithm.
Travelling Salesman Problem
Prim's Minimal Spanning Tree Algorithm
Kruskal's Minimal Spanning Tree Algorithm
Dijkstra's Minimal Spanning Tree Algorithm
Graph - Map Coloring
Graph - Vertex Cover
Knapsack Problem
Job Scheduling Problem

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78. Write an algorithm to insert a node in the Binary search tree?

Answer:
Insert node operation is a smooth operation. You need to compare it with the
root node and traverse left (if smaller) or right (if greater) according to the value
of the node to be inserted.

Algorithm:

Make the root node as the current node

If the node to be inserted < root
If it has left child, then traverse left
If it does not have left child, insert node here
If the node to be inserted > root
If it has the right child, traverse right
If it does not have the right child, insert node here.

79. What do you understand by a searching algorithm? List a few

types of searching algorithms.
Answer:
Searching Algorithms are used to look for an element or get it from a data
structure (usually a list of elements). These algorithms are divided into two
categories based on the type of search operation:

Sequential Search: This method traverses the list of elements consecutively,

checking each element and reporting if the element to be searched is found.
Linear Search is an example of a Sequential Search Algorithm.
Interval Search: These algorithms were created specifically for searching
sorted data structures. Because they continually target the center of the
search structure and divide the search space in half, these types of search
algorithms are far more efficient than Sequential Search algorithms. Binary
Search is an example of an Interval Search Algorithm.

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80. Write down an algorithm for adding a node to a linked list

sorted in ascending order(maintaining the sorting property).
Answer:
An algorithm for adding a node to a link list sorted in ascending order
(maintaining the sorting property) is given below:

Step 1: Check if the linked list has no value (or is empty). If yes, then set the
new node as the head and return it.
Step 2: Check if the value of the node to be inserted is smaller than the value
of the head node. If yes, place it at the beginning and make it the head node.
Step 3: Find the suitable node after which the input node should be added in
a loop. To discover the required node, begin at the head and work your way
forward until you reach a node whose value exceeds the input node. The
preceding node is the correct node.
Step 4: After the correct node is found in step 3, insert the node.

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