Classification and 4 Tabulation of Data INTRODUCTION MEANING AND OBJECTIVES OF CLASSIFICATION TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION FORMATION OF A DISCRETE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION FORMATION OF A CONTINUOUS FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABULATION OF DATA PARTS OF A TABLE GENERAL RULES OF TABULATION TYPES OF TABLES MISCELLANEOUS ILLUSTRATIONS MACHINE TABULATION eooeoeoeeoeoeoeoe®2 STATISTICAL METHo INTRODUCTION Jn the Jast few chapters the process of data collection was ‘a is usually contained in schedules and Picea es. Buy collected dat that ts not 1 lysis if their salient pol ar Step in the analysis is to cla SteP ¢'published statistics Hf Puta tabulate the new arrangement. In case of s rovPlassification and tabulation ray give Ce ae eateautag Significance of the material arranged that no further dijalyeis atte mbnither. cases, these processes, though may diaterially Gssiee i asis, are not sufficient presentation of the facts. They Yona gary important whether they complete the analysis or ae Pinte questionnaire may have been very carefully drawn — sr swers nay be both complete and accurate, but until these ead fi brought together into the class to which they belong and erwin a‘formation displayed in a tabular form, no one will be a great d ea Baca the Ee of the replies. eal wiser though. the phrase “classification and tabulation” has dassification 1s, in effect, only the first step in tabulation, for pas items having common characteristics must be brought together béfore thd data can be displayed in tabular form. MEANING AND OBJECTIVES OF CLASSIFICATION ting of data the first step towards further lassification. Classification is the grouping of Facts in one class differ from those of basis of classification and then on ation. This process can be repeated bases of classification. Classification hat of sorting letters in a post-office. in an easily assimilable form. The answers will r ints are to be brought out. As a ue omy » the rs After collection and edi processing the same is ¢ related facts into classes. classification. Sorting facts on one another basis is called cross-classific as many times as there are possible of data is a function very similar to tl It is well known that letters collected in a post-office are sorted into different lots on a geographical basis, ie. in accordance with their destinations such as Mumbai, Calcutta, Kanpur, Jaipur, etc. They are then put into separate bags, each containing letters with a common characteristic, viz., having the same destination. Classification of statistical data is comparable to the sorting operation. To take another example, when students seek admission in a college they submit applications to the office. The application forms contain particulars about their performance in the previous examinations, their date of birth, sex, nationality, etc. If one is interested in finding 0! second and third class ut how many first, students have joined the college, one may look into each and every form and note whether it relates to a first class student, second class student, etc. He may find that out of 1,000 students who took admission 50 first class, 800 second class and 150 third class. The process with the help of which this information in a summary form is obtained is called the classification of data. Objects of Classification The principal objectives of classifying the data are:TION AND TABULATION of DATA. 93 condense the ma: ‘SS of dat SI + and dissimilarities can ree such a manner that similarities thus be arranged in 2° jer® Ae apprehended. Millions of figures Me facilitate comparison, “SSes having common features. pinpoint the most Significant feat Uy Prominence to the Tes of the data at a glance. it : PINE out the unnecessary eo information gathered while OF CLASSIFICATION , the data can be classified on the basis of following four Geographical, ie., area-wise, e, g.. Cities, districts, etc. ological, ie., on the basi: is of time. g to some attributes, . in terms of magnitudes, ical Classification i nices between the various items, like tries, States, cities, Tegions, zones, areas, etc. For instance, the tional comparison of rice yield for 2004-05. ‘WISE COMPARISON OF YIED OF RICE (METRIC TONNES/HECTARES) - Name of State Production of Rice F (Metric tonnes /hectares) Egypt 9.80 India 2.90 Japan 6.42 Myamar 2.43 Korea 6.73 Thailand 2:63, USA 7.83 rated 5.53 ‘lassifications are usually listed in alphabetical order for pou are ey also be listed by a i uN orman Hg ‘ kit the States by population. Normally, tabion teirat roar) is followed and in summary tables the approach is followed. Economic Survey; Government of India, 2006-07.oa es UCU STATIN, rn Chronologic: When data are observed over a period of t ime the ¢ pe known as chronological classification ve Of ela, For example, flea figures of population (or production, sales, ete.) follows regeslon 5 a th POPULATION OF INDIA FROM 1951 10 2991 . Year Population Ye (in crores) tpl Population oe se a In crores) 1951 36.11 1981 ee 1961 43.92 1991 ae 1971 54.82 2001 ot 87 Time series are usually listed { \ in chronologies with the earliest period. When. the aes aster normally 5 Tecent events, a reverse time order may be yeu peas!® falls on mat Qualitative Classification In qualitative classification d, In : lata are classified attribute or quality such as Sex, colour of Hai niet it a Some The point to note in this type Witte te r i of classificati rem ete study cannot be measured: on fateh attribute under are living in urban area an one attribute is studied t id how many in rural area, Thu attribute and the other ‘wo classes are formed, one s Possessing th not possessing — thi ee classification is known al cation. “For as as simple classification, For ge Population under study may be divided into two categories as fallow: e Population Urban Rural In a similar manner, we may classify population on the basis of sex, ie. into males and females, or literacy, ie., into literate and illiterate. and so on. The type of classification where only two classes are formed is also called two-fold or dichotomous classification. If instead of forming only two classes we further divide the data on the basis of some attribute or attributes so as to form several classes, the classification is known as manifold classification. For example, we may first divide the population into males and females on the basis of the attribute ‘sex’ ; each of a classes may be further subdivided into ‘literate’ and ‘illiterate’ on = oo. of the attribute ‘literacy’. Further classification can be made oe Eee of some other attribute, say, employment. An example o} classification is given here:ATION AND TABULATION OF Data Population Males Females Literates Witerates a Literates Iliterates ’ Be) ERR, sunemo, Ein P. Unemp. Emp. Unemp. Note. Emp. indicates Employed and Unemp. indicates Unemployed. antitative Classification titative classification refers ome characteristics that can . sales, profits, productio: college may be classified accordi © the classification of data according to be measured, such as height, weight. mn, etc. For example, the students of a ing to weight as follows: Weight (in tb) No. of Students ‘90-100 "50 100-110 200 110-120 260 120-130 360 130-140 90 140-150 40 Total 1,000 ~ Such a distribution is known as empirical frequency distribution or simple frequency distribution. In this type of classification, there are two elements, namely () the variable, ie., the weight in the above example, and (ii) the frequency, ie, the number of students in each class. There were 50 students having weight ranging from 90 to 100 Ib., 200 students having weight ranging from 100 to 110 lb., and so on. Thus we can find out the ways in which the frequencies are distributed. A frequency distribution refers to data classified on the basis of some that can be measured such as prices, wages, age, number of ets. prndaced or consumed. The term ‘variable’ refers to the tic that varies in amount or magnitude in a_ frequency . A. variable may be either continuous or discrete. A variable, also called continuous random variable, is capable festing every conceivable fractional value within the range of , such as the height or weight of persons or the weight of a In a continuous variable, thus, data are obtained by numerical ts rather than counting. For example, when a student grows, from 90 cm. to 150 cm., his height passes through all values these limits, On the other hand, a discrete variable is thatwhich can vary only by finite “jumps” and cannot manifest conceivable fractional value, For instance, the number of rooms ‘V&y house can only take certain values such as 1, 2, 3, etc, et Similar} a number of machines in an establishment are discrete variables. Ger, he speaking, continuous data are obtained through measurements “ally discontinuous data are derived py counting. Series which ca” described by a continuous variable are called continuous. series represented by a discrete variable are called discrete series. The fons*t€s are two examples of discrete and continuous frequency distributions? ™™"8 can DISCRETE CONTINUOUS No. of Children No. of Families Weight (lb) No. of Persons 9 10 10 1 40 110-120 15 2 80 120-130 40 s 100 130-140 45 4 250 140-150 20 5 150 150-160 4 6 50 ‘Total 680 Total 134 | (a) Discrete Frequency (b) Continuous Frequency Distribution Distribution Although the theoretical distinction between continuous and_ discrete variations is clear and precise, in practical statistical work it is only an approximation. The reason is that even the most precise instruments of measurement can be used only to a finite number of places. Thus, ery theoretically continuous series can never be expected to flow. junuously with one measurement touching another without any break in actual observations. _ FORMATION OF A DISCRETE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION _ The process of preparing this type of distribution is very simple. We have just to count the number of times a particular value is repeated hich is called the frequency of that class. In order to facilitate inting prepare a column of “tallies”. In another column, place all le values of variable from the lowest to the highest. Then put a (vertical line) opposite the particular value to which it relates. To itate counting, blocks of five bars are prepared and some space t in between each block. We finally count the number of — bars” get frequency. process shall be clear from the following examples:on AND TABULATION OF DATA ” cat! survey of 35 families in a village, the number of children per family F In tne following data obtained: Jal " on J "i 0 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 0 2 5 ir 4 5 12 6 3 2 » 6 5 3 3 7 8 9 7 9 4 5 4 3 sent the data in the form of a discrete frequency distribution. ee ution FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF THE NUMBER OF CHILDREN* ee Tallies No.of Frequency Children 0) " 2 i ' 1 2 un 4 3 mI 6 4 HH 5 5 ™ 5 6 MW 3 ri i 4 8 il 2 9 I 2 10 - 0 "1 - ° 12 1 1 Total 35 a am itis clear from the table that the number of children varied from 0 to 12. There were 2 ‘ailes with no child, 5 families with 4 children each and only one family with 12 lustration 2. Count the number of letters in each word of the para given below (ignoring ‘onma, full-stop, etc.) and prepare a discrete frequency distribution. “Today, to a very striking degree, our culture has become a statistical culture. Even a who may never have heard of an index number, is attached in an intimate fashion Be gyrations of those index numbers which describe the cost of living.” A frequency distribution or frequency table is simply a table in which the data frouped into classes and the number of cases which fall in each class are tearded. The numbers in each class are referred to as ‘frequencies’, hence the ae ‘frequency’, When the number of items are expressed by their proportion in ics a: the table is usually referred to as a ‘relative frequency distribution’, or Ply a ‘percentage distribution, —Morris Hamburg= STATISTICA iL MET ETHODS, Solution. NUMBER OF LETTERS IN EACH WORD No. of Tallies Frequency Letters 1 ul 3 2 TH AHI 9 3 mI 6 4 tt 2 6 tH II 7 6 mH 5 7 m1 8 MW : 9 | 1 10 = "s n | 1 Total 44 pen This method of classifying helps in condensing the data, only where values are largely repeated, otherwise hardly any condensation will be done. FORMATION OF CONTINUOUS FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION lar in practice. The following This type of classification is most popul. 2 frequency distribution technical terms are important when .a continuous is formed or data are classified according to class-intervals : 1. Class Limits The class limits are the lowest and the highest values that can be included in the class. For example, take the class 20-40, The lowest value of the class is 20 and the highest 40. The two boundaries of class are known as the lower limit and the upper limit of the class. The lower limit of a class is the value below which there can be no item in the class. The upper limit of a class is the value above which no item can belong to that class. Of the class 70-89, 70 is the lower limit and 89 upper limit, ie., in this class there can be no value which is less than 70 or more than 89. Similarly, if we take the class 90-109, there can be no value in that class which is less than 90 or more than 109. The way in which class limits are stated depends upon the nature of the data. 2. Class Intervals The difference between the Upper and Lower Limit of a class is known as class interval of that class. For example, in the class 100-200, the class interval is 100 (ie, 200 minus 100). An important decision while constructing a frequency distribution is about the width of the class interval, ie., whether it should be 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, etc. The decision would depend upon a number of factors such as the range in the data, ie., the difference between the smallest and largest item, the details required and number of classes to be