Opera ng systems

Week 1

What is an Opera ng System?

Hello, everyone. Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will cover the
following topics:

1. Defini on of an Opera ng System (OS)

2. Types of Opera ng Systems

3. Popular Opera ng Systems

What is an Opera ng System (OS)?

An Opera ng System (OS) is a fundamental piece of so ware that comes pre-installed on a

computer. It is responsible for managing the hardware and so ware resources of the computer. This
includes:

 Hardware Management: The OS manages various hardware components such as the

processor, RAM, storage devices, monitor, keyboard, mouse, and printer.

 Resource Alloca on: It allocates hardware resources to different programs that run on the
computer.

 Intermediary Role: The OS acts as an intermediary between the user and the computer
hardware, ensuring that the hardware is used efficiently and correctly.

 Con nuous Opera on: The OS runs con nuously as long as the computer is powered on.

Types of Opera ng Systems

1. Mainframe Opera ng Systems:

o Used in mainframe computers for bulk data processing and heavy computa onal
tasks.

o Examples: IBM z/OS, Unisys OS 2200.

2. Personal Computer (PC) Opera ng Systems:

o Designed for individual use on personal computers.

o Examples: Microso Windows, macOS, various distribu ons of Linux (e.g., Ubuntu,
Fedora).

3. Handheld Device Opera ng Systems:

o Used in mobile phones and tablets.

o Examples: Android (by Google), iOS (by Apple).

4. Embedded Device Opera ng Systems:

 o Found in embedded systems like microwave ovens, dishwashers, and automo ve
systems.

o Examples: Embedded Linux, VxWorks, RTOS (Real-Time Opera ng Systems).

Popular Opera ng Systems

1. Microso Windows:

o Widely used in PCs and laptops around the world.

2. Linux:

o Various distribu ons such as Ubuntu, Fedora, Debian, and openSUSE.

3. macOS:

o Developed by Apple, used in Mac computers.

4. Android:

o Developed by Google, used in a vast range of mobile phones and tablets.

5. iOS:

o Developed by Apple, used in iPhones and iPads.

Summary

In this video, we defined what an opera ng system is, explored the different types of opera ng
systems based on compu ng environments, and reviewed some of the most popular opera ng
systems in the market today. Understanding these basics will help you appreciate how different
opera ng systems cater to various needs and devices.

Thank you for watching!

Computer System Architecture

Hello, everyone. Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we'll delve into the
topic of Computer System Architecture. Our focus will be on understanding the key components of a
computer system and how they interact with each other to create a func onal compu ng
environment.

Key Components of a Computer System

1. Hardware:

o Processors (CPUs): Responsible for execu ng programs and applica ons.

o Main Memory (RAM): Holds programs and data currently in use.

o Secondary Storage: Includes devices like hard drives and SSDs, used for long-term
data storage.

o I/O Devices: Includes peripherals such as monitors, keyboards, mice, and printers.
They handle input and output between the user and the computer.

2. Opera ng System:

o The OS is a crucial so ware component that manages hardware resources and

provides services for applica on programs.

o It allocates hardware resources to various applica ons, ensuring efficient and proper
execu on.

3. Applica on Programs:

o These are so ware applica ons designed to perform specific tasks for the user.
Examples include:

 Email Applica ons: For sending and receiving emails.

 Web Browsers: For browsing the internet.

 Video Games: For entertainment.

 Word Processors: For crea ng and edi ng documents.

 Spreadsheets: For data tabula on and calcula ons.

 Graphic So ware: For image and video edi ng.

 Media Players: For playing audio and video files.

 Database Management Systems: For managing and processing large

volumes of data.
 4. Users:

o Users interact with the computer system through applica on programs. They could
be human beings or other machines and computers.

Interplay Between Components

 Layered Architecture:

o Hardware: Forms the founda on of the system.

o Opera ng System: Sits above the hardware and manages resource alloca on,
ensuring applica ons run smoothly.

o Applica on Programs: Run on top of the opera ng system, using the hardware
resources managed by the OS.

o Users: Interact with applica on programs to accomplish tasks and consume the
output generated.

Summary

In this video, we explored the core components of a computer system, including hardware, opera ng
systems, applica on programs, and users. We examined how these components interact to provide a
func onal compu ng environment. Understanding this architecture helps us appreciate the
complexi es involved in compu ng systems and how they work together to serve user needs.
Func ons of OS: User View

Hello, everyone. Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will explore the
Func ons of the Opera ng System from a User's Perspec ve. We will discuss how users perceive
and interact with the opera ng system (OS) and how these percep ons vary across different types of
compu ng environments.

User Perspec ve on OS Func ons

When users interact with an OS, their focus is typically on three main aspects:

1. Convenience:

o Ease of Use: How user-friendly is the OS? How straigh orward is it to run
applica ons and perform tasks?

o Applica on Management: How easily can users launch, manage, and close
applica ons?

2. Usability:

o Task Performance: How effec vely does the OS support users in comple ng their
tasks? Is it useful for the intended purposes?

3. Performance:

o System Speed: Is the system responsive and quick? Do applica ons run smoothly
and provide output within an acceptable meframe?

What Users Typically Don't Focus On

 Resource U liza on:

o Users generally do not concern themselves with how resources are managed or
whether certain hardware components are overu lized or underu lized. This aspect
is o en more relevant for system administrators or those managing the OS at a
deeper level.
Types of Compu ng Systems and Their OS Requirements

1. Mainframe Computers:

o Purpose: Used for bulk data processing and heavy computa onal tasks.

o OS Func ons: Must manage mul ple users efficiently and ensure fair resource
alloca on among them.

2. Mini Computers:

o Purpose: More powerful than worksta ons but less so than mainframes.

o OS Func ons: Similar to mainframes but generally supports fewer users and less
intensive tasks.

3. Worksta ons:

o Purpose: General-purpose desktop computers used by individuals.

o OS Func ons: Focuses on single-user needs and provides robust support for
individual tasks.

4. Personal Computers (PCs):

o Purpose: Personal use by individuals.

o OS Func ons: Designed to cater to the preferences and needs of a single user.

5. Handheld Devices (Mobile Phones, Tablets):

o Purpose: Personal use, op mized for portable devices.

o OS Func ons: Focuses on op mizing memory usage, ba ery life, and providing a
good user experience with touch interfaces and mul media.

6. Embedded Systems:

o Purpose: Specialized devices like microwave ovens, dishwashers, and automo ve

systems.

o OS Func ons: Minimal user interface with a focus on performing specific tasks
efficiently.

Summary

In this video, we explored how the func ons of an opera ng system are perceived by users,
highligh ng the differences in expecta ons based on the type of compu ng environment. We
discussed how user convenience, usability, and performance are key aspects from a user's
perspec ve and how these expecta ons vary for different types of systems, from mainframes to
handheld devices and embedded systems.
Func ons of OS: System View

Hello everyone, welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we'll delve into the
Func ons of the OS from the System's Perspec ve. Our goal is to understand how the opera ng
system interacts with various hardware components and manages resources from a systems-level
viewpoint.

Key Func ons of the OS from the System's Perspec ve

1. Resource Management:

o Hardware Components: The OS interacts with various hardware elements including

input devices (keyboard, mouse), output devices (monitor, printer), and storage
devices (disk drives). Each type of device has a dis nct role:

 Input Devices: Keyboard and mouse provide data to the system.

 Output Devices: Monitor and printer display or print the output generated
by the system.

 Storage Devices: Disk drives store data persistently.

2. Bidirec onal and Unidirec onal Communica on:

o Bidirec onal Communica on: Involves back-and-forth data transfer, such as

between applica ons and the OS, and between the disk drives and the OS.

o Unidirec onal Communica on: Involves one-way data transfer, such as:

 Keyboard/Mouse to OS: Data input to the system.

 OS to Monitor/Printer: Output data from the system.

3. Resource Alloca on and U liza on:

o Resource Management: The OS manages and allocates hardware resources to

different applica ons. This involves:

 Balancing U liza on: Ensuring no resource is overu lized or underu lized.

 Handling Conflic ng Requests: Managing simultaneous requests from

applica ons to prevent resource conflicts.

 Fair Alloca on: Ensuring fair distribu on of resources to avoid indefinite

wai ng mes for any applica on.

4. System Integrity and Security:

o Access Control: The OS ensures that user programs and applica ons are executed
properly without interfering with each other. This includes:

 Preven ng Harmful Ac ons: Avoiding situa ons where one program

corrupts another’s memory or causes crashes.

 Maintaining System Stability: Ensuring programs do not inadvertently or

maliciously disrupt the opera on of other programs.
Summary

In this video, we explored how the OS performs its func ons from the system's perspec ve:

 Managing hardware resources and ensuring op mal u liza on.

 Handling communica on between different hardware components and applica ons.

 Ensuring fair and secure execu on of programs to maintain system integrity.

Components of OS

Hello, everyone. Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will explore the
components of the opera ng system in detail. We’ll cover the key components, their func ons, and
how they interact within the system.

Components of the Opera ng System

1. Kernel

o Overview: The kernel is the core component of the opera ng system. It manages
system resources and provides essen al services for all other components.

o Func ons:

 Process Management: Handles the crea on, scheduling, and termina on of

processes. A process is an ac ve instance of a program. The kernel ensures
efficient use of the CPU and manages process states and transi ons.

 Memory Management: Manages the system’s memory, including the

alloca on and dealloca on of RAM. It ensures that processes have the
memory they need and handles memory protec on and sharing.

 Disk Management: Manages data storage on disk drives. It handles file

systems, manages disk space alloca on, and ensures data persistence even
when the system is powered off.

 Device Management: Manages and controls hardware devices. The kernel

handles I/O opera ons, coordinates data transfer between devices and
processes, and manages device drivers.

2. Device Drivers

o Overview: Device drivers are specialized so ware that allows the opera ng system
to communicate with hardware devices.

o Func ons:

 Control Specific Hardware: Each device driver is tailored to a specific

hardware device (e.g., printers, keyboards, monitors). It translates OS
commands into device-specific opera ons.

 Installa on and Updates: Drivers may come pre-installed or need to be

installed separately. They may also require updates to support new hardware
or fix bugs.
3. U li es

o Overview: U li es are programs that enhance system func onality, manage

resources, and ensure system security.

o Examples:

 An virus So ware: Scans for and protects against malicious so ware.

 File Management Tools: Assist with file opera ons such as crea on,
dele on, and organiza on (e.g., file explorers, command-line tools).

 Compression Tools: Reduce file sizes for storage efficiency (e.g., WinRAR,
WinZip).

 Disk Management Tools: Manage disk space, perform disk cleanup, and
op mize disk usage (e.g., disk defragmenters, par on managers).

4. System Libraries

o Overview: System libraries provide the necessary func ons and services for
applica ons to interact with the kernel and other system components.

o Examples:

 I/O Libraries: Facilitate input and output opera ons.

 Database Management Libraries: Assist in database opera ons and

management.

 Math Libraries: Provide mathema cal func ons and computa ons.

 Graphics Libraries: Handle graphical opera ons such as image rendering and
video playback.

 Security Libraries: Provide func ons related to security and encryp on.

5. User Interface

o Overview: The user interface allows users to interact with the opera ng system and
perform tasks.

o Types:

 Graphical User Interface (GUI): Provides a visual interface with windows,

icons, and menus (e.g., Windows, macOS).

 Command-Line Interface (CLI): Allows users to interact with the system

through text-based commands (e.g., Unix shell, Windows Command
Prompt).
Summary

In this video, we’ve explored the different components of an opera ng system:

 Kernel: Manages processes, memory, disks, and devices.

 Device Drivers: Enable communica on between the OS and hardware devices.

 U li es: Enhance func onality and security.

 System Libraries: Provide essen al func ons for applica on development.

 User Interface: Facilitates user interac on with the opera ng system.

Thank you for watching!

Working of a modern computer system

Hello, everyone. Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we’ll explore the
workings of a modern computer system, focusing on its components and how they interact to
perform tasks.

Components of a Modern Computer System

1. CPU (Central Processing Unit)

o Overview: The CPU is the brain of the computer, responsible for execu ng
instruc ons and performing calcula ons.

o Func on: It processes instruc ons from programs, performs computa ons, and
manages opera ons in the system.

2. Main Memory (RAM)

o Overview: Main memory, or Random Access Memory (RAM), stores data and
instruc ons that the CPU needs while performing tasks.

o Func on: It provides the CPU with quick access to data and instruc ons, as it is much
faster than secondary storage.

3. Cache Memory

o Overview: Cache memory is a smaller, faster type of vola le memory located on the
CPU chip itself.

o Func on: It stores frequently accessed data and instruc ons to speed up processing
by reducing the me needed to access data from main memory.

4. I/O Devices

o Overview: Input/Output (I/O) devices include hardware like keyboards, mice,

monitors, and printers that allow users to interact with the computer.

o Func on: These devices handle input from users and output results from the
computer.
Key Mechanisms in Modern Computers

1. Interrupts

o Overview: An interrupt is a signal sent to the CPU to indicate that an event needs
immediate a en on.

o Func on: Interrupts alert the CPU to important events like the comple on of an I/O
opera on. This allows the CPU to stop its current task and address the event,
improving system responsiveness.

2. Direct Memory Access (DMA)

o Overview: DMA is a method of transferring data between I/O devices and main
memory without con nuous CPU involvement.

o Func on: DMA improves efficiency by allowing data transfer in bulk, reducing the
need for frequent CPU interrupts. The CPU sets up the DMA process and is only
no fied when the transfer is complete.

How It All Fits Together

1. Execu on Cycle

o Overview: The CPU executes instruc ons fetched from main memory. These
instruc ons may involve data manipula on and storage.

o Process: The CPU fetches instruc ons and data from RAM, processes them, and
stores results back into RAM.

2. I/O Opera ons

o Overview: During I/O opera ons, data moves between I/O devices and the CPU.

o Process: The CPU handles I/O requests and data flows bidirec onally between
devices and memory. Interrupts signal the CPU to handle I/O comple on or errors.

3. DMA in Ac on

o Overview: For large data transfers, DMA minimizes CPU workload.

o Process: The CPU ini ates a DMA transfer, which then proceeds independently. The
CPU is interrupted only once the en re data transfer is complete.

Summary

In this video, we explored:

 The components of a modern computer system, including the CPU, main memory, cache
memory, and I/O devices.

 Interrupts and DMA as mechanisms for efficient data handling and CPU management.

 How these components interact to execute instruc ons, handle I/O opera ons, and improve
overall system performance.

Thank you for watching!

OS Opera ons: Device Controllers & Device Drivers

Hello, everyone! Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will discuss OS
opera ons from the perspec ve of device controllers and device drivers. By the end of this video,
you'll understand the role of these components in managing devices connected to a computer
system.

Overview

In a typical computer system, there are several processors. While some systems may have a single
processor (uni-processor), most modern computers are mul processor systems. Alongside
processors, other hardware components called device controllers are also present. These controllers
and processors communicate through the system bus, a communica on channel that connects
different parts of the computer, including the memory, processors, and device controllers.

Both processors and device controllers need access to the main memory. This leads to compe on
for memory access, which we refer to as "compe on for memory cycles."

What are Device Controllers?

Device controllers are hardware components responsible for managing specific devices a ached to a
computer system. Each controller manages one or more devices of a certain type. For example, we
can have device controllers for printers, monitors, keyboards, and so on.

Device controllers serve as bridges between hardware devices and the opera ng system (or
applica on programs). Since there are many varia ons in hardware devices, it's impossible for an
opera ng system to account for every type. That's why device controllers exist to handle device-
specific communica on.

Device Drivers

Device controllers handle hardware, but we also need so ware support to interact with these
devices effec vely. This is where device drivers come into play. A device driver is a piece of so ware
that allows the opera ng system and applica ons to communicate with hardware devices.

When you buy a new piece of hardware like a printer, you don’t need to modify the opera ng
system. Instead, you just install the appropriate device driver, which acts as an intermediary
between the hardware and the OS. The device driver allows the OS to access the func onali es of
the new device without needing to be updated.

Interac on Between Components

Let's consider a few examples of device controllers:

 Disk Controller: Manages disks that store data.

 USB Controller: Manages USB devices like keyboards, mice, and printers.

 Graphics Adapter: Manages the display on your monitor.

These device controllers are connected to the system bus, which links them with the CPU and main
memory. Both the CPU and the device controllers use this shared pool of main memory, o en
accessing it simultaneously.
Pu ng it All Together

In the overall system architecture, hardware devices (monitors, printers, keyboards, etc.) connect to
the computer system either wirelessly or through ports/sockets. The opera ng system runs on the
computer, and between the OS and the hardware, device controllers handle communica on with
the respec ve devices.

The flow of data typically follows this path:

1. Data from an input device goes to the device controller (specifically, the controller’s local
buffer).

2. From the controller, data is transferred to the main memory.

3. Device drivers interpret the data, enabling the opera ng system to interact with the
hardware.

The combina on of device controllers (hardware) and device drivers (so ware) enables the smooth
opera on and communica on between the hardware devices and the opera ng system.

Conclusion

In this video, we discussed the role of device controllers and device drivers. Device controllers are
hardware components responsible for managing specific devices, while device drivers are so ware
components that enable the opera ng system to interact with these devices. Together, they ensure
that the hardware and so ware of the system can work in harmony. Thank you for watching!
OS Opera ons: Interrupt Handling

Hello everyone, and welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will focus on OS
opera ons, par cularly on the topic of interrupt handling. By the end of this session, you'll
understand what interrupts are, why they are generated, and how the opera ng system handles
them.

What is an Interrupt?

An interrupt is essen ally a signal to the processor indica ng that an event has occurred, requiring
the processor’s a en on. It could be triggered by various sources such as input/output (I/O) devices
or internal system events.

Why are Interrupts Generated?

Interrupts are generated when there’s a need for the CPU to stop its current task to address a
par cular event. For instance, if a process ini ates an I/O request, the CPU pauses that process while
the I/O device completes its task. Once the I/O opera on is done, an interrupt informs the CPU that
it can resume the process.

Interrupt Handling Process

Let’s walk through how an interrupt is handled:

1. Concurrent Execu on of Devices and Processor: I/O devices and processors can execute
concurrently. For example, one process may be using the CPU while another process is
performing an I/O opera on.

2. Comple on of I/O Opera ons: When an I/O opera on completes, the corresponding device
controller sends an interrupt to inform the CPU that the task is finished.

3. Pausing the CPU's Current Task: When an interrupt occurs, the CPU pauses whatever it was
doing. It stops the execu on of the current program and prepares to handle the interrupt.

4. Interrupt Vector Table (IVT): Every interrupt is associated with a unique number that
iden fies its type. This number helps the CPU locate the corresponding Interrupt Service
Rou ne (ISR) using the Interrupt Vector Table. The IVT contains the addresses of all ISRs in
the system.

5. Execu ng the ISR: A er iden fying the ISR, the CPU transfers control to it. The ISR is the
piece of code that handles the specific interrupt.

6. Saving the CPU State: Before execu ng the ISR, the CPU saves its current state, including the
contents of registers and the program counter, to a special region in memory called the
system stack. This ensures that a er the interrupt is handled, the CPU can resume the
interrupted program from where it le off.

7. Resuming Execu on: Once the ISR has completed, the CPU retrieves the saved state from
the system stack and resumes the execu on of the interrupted program.

Workflow Example
Imagine the CPU is execu ng a program. Suddenly, an interrupt occurs because an external event has
taken place (e.g., an I/O opera on has completed). The CPU stops execu ng the current program and
saves its state. It then consults the IVT, locates the appropriate ISR, and executes it. Once the ISR is
finished, the CPU returns to the interrupted program and con nues its execu on.

Overhead of Interrupt Handling

Interrupt handling introduces some overhead because the CPU must pause its current task, locate
the ISR, and later resume the previous task. To minimize delays, it is crucial for interrupt handling to
be as fast as possible, especially in systems where delays could impact performance.

Conclusion

In this video, we learned about interrupts, why they are generated, and how they are handled by the
opera ng system. We discussed the process of interrupt handling, including the use of the Interrupt
Vector Table and Interrupt Service Rou nes. The ability to handle interrupts quickly and efficiently is
vital to ensure smooth system performance. Thank you for watching!
Dual Mode of Opera on

Hello everyone, welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. The topic of today's video is the dual
mode of opera on. We'll explore the need for dual-mode opera on, its role in the safe execu on of
programs, and how it's implemented in modern opera ng systems.

Why Do We Need Dual Mode of Opera on?

Whenever a user applica on runs, it may request certain services from the kernel (the core part of
the OS). These services could involve ac ons like input/output (I/O) opera ons or accessing
hardware devices. Certain opera ons, like accessing hardware directly or modifying cri cal system
se ngs, are termed privileged instruc ons. If these privileged instruc ons are executed in an
uncontrolled way, they could damage the system or interfere with other programs. Therefore, we
need a way to ensure controlled access to these resources. This is where the dual mode of opera on
comes in.

What is Dual Mode of Opera on?

The dual mode of opera on provides two dis nct modes:

1. User Mode: This is where user applica ons run. In this mode, programs have limited access
to system resources. Privileged instruc ons cannot be executed in user mode to prevent
poten al harm to the system.

2. Kernel Mode (also called supervisor, system, or privileged mode): This is where the OS kernel
operates. Here, the opera ng system has full access to all hardware and system resources,
including execu ng privileged instruc ons. When a user program requests a service, the
system switches to this mode to carry out the necessary privileged tasks.

How Does the Dual Mode Work?

When a user process requests a service from the kernel, such as accessing hardware or performing
I/O, the system switches from user mode to kernel mode. This switch ensures that the user process
can access only the required system resources in a controlled manner.

If a user process a empts to execute a privileged instruc on while in user mode, an interrupt is
generated, and the program may be terminated. This prevents unauthorized access to cri cal system
resources.

Hardware Support for Dual Mode

To implement dual mode, modern systems use a mode bit provided by the hardware:

 Mode Bit = 1: Indicates user mode, where user applica ons run with restricted access.

 Mode Bit = 0: Indicates kernel mode, where the opera ng system has full access to the
system resources.

How is Dual Mode Implemented?

1. User Process Execu on: Ini ally, the user process runs in user mode with the mode bit set to
1. The user process operates in user space, a segment of memory reserved for user
programs.
 2. Request for Kernel Service: When the user process requests a service that requires
privileged instruc ons, an interrupt is generated. The mode bit is set to 0, indica ng a switch
to kernel mode.

3. Kernel Mode Execu on: The system enters kernel space, where the kernel operates. The
Interrupt Vector Table (IVT) is checked to locate the appropriate Interrupt Service Rou ne
(ISR). The ISR handles the request, execu ng the necessary privileged instruc ons.

4. Returning to User Mode: A er the ISR finishes, the system switches back to user mode by
se ng the mode bit to 1. Control returns to the user process, allowing it to con nue
execu on in user space.

Summary

The dual mode of opera on helps ensure that user applica ons run safely without disrup ng other
processes or the system. It enforces a separa on between user-level opera ons and kernel-level
services, providing a secure execu on environment.
OS Services: Process management, Memory...

Hello, everyone! Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. The topic of today’s video is
Opera ng System Services. We’ll explore the key services provided by an OS, breaking them down
into four main categories:

1. Process Management

2. Memory Management

3. Storage Management

4. Protec on and Security

Let's dive into each service in more detail.

1. Process Management

The opera ng system provides an environment where processes (programs in execu on) can run.
Processes require access to resources like input/output (I/O) devices and disk files. The OS must
manage these resources efficiently.

 Process Scheduling: Mul ple processes can be in memory simultaneously. The OS decides
the order in which processes are executed by the CPU. If one process (P1) is paused (e.g.,
due to an interrupt), another process (P2) is scheduled to avoid CPU idling, op mizing
resource use.

 Suspension and Resump on: When processes are interrupted (e.g., due to I/O requests),
they are suspended, and a er the interrupt is handled, they resume.

 Process Synchroniza on: When mul ple processes share resources, the OS coordinates
access. For example, if ten processes are reading a file simultaneously, it’s fine. But if one
wants to write to the file, the others must be stopped to prevent conflicts.

 Inter-Process Communica on (IPC): Some processes cooperate to achieve common

objec ves. IPC mechanisms allow processes to exchange informa on and work together
efficiently.

2. Memory Management

For any process to be executed, it must reside in the main memory (RAM). The OS plays a crucial role
in managing memory resources.

 Alloca on and Dealloca on: The OS allocates memory when a process starts and
deallocates it when the process finishes. This frees up memory for other processes.

 Memory Tracking: The OS tracks which memory segments are used by which processes,
ensuring efficient alloca on and preven ng conflicts.

 Mul ple Processes in Memory: Having more than one process in memory allows efficient
CPU usage. For example, if process P1 is wai ng for an I/O opera on, another process can
u lize the CPU to avoid idling.

3. Storage Management

Storage management involves handling files, mass storage devices, and input/output systems.
  File Management: The OS allows users to create, delete, and manage files and directories. It
handles file opera ons like copying, edi ng, and organizing into directories.

 Mass Storage Management: Data in memory is lost when the computer is powered off, so
persistent storage like disk drives is needed. The OS manages disk space, allocates storage,
and handles disk scheduling, ensuring efficient read/write opera ons for mul ple processes.

 I/O System Management: The OS coordinates requests from different programs for
input/output devices, including managing device drivers and controllers.

4. Protec on and Security

The OS ensures that processes access resources legi mately and prevents unauthorized or incorrect
access.

 Protec on Mechanism: It restricts processes to accessing only the resources they are
authorized to use. For example, if a file is set to "read-only" for a process, it cannot be
edited, ensuring data integrity.

 Security: The OS safeguards against internal and external threats. For instance, if malicious
so ware a empts to enter the system (e.g., from a USB drive), the OS raises an alert,
blocking poten al harm. Security mechanisms like an virus so ware or intrusion detec on
systems protect against such threats.

Summary

In this video, we explored the essen al services provided by an opera ng system, including process
management, memory management, storage management, and protec on/security. Each of these
services ensures that the system runs efficiently and securely.
Single Processor Systems

Hello, everyone! Welcome to the Opera ng Systems course. The topic of today's video is Single
Processor Systems. We will explore what single processor systems are and how they operate.

Overview of Single Processor Systems

In a single processor system, there is only one CPU (central processing unit) or processor in the
en re system.

 Mul ple Processes in Memory: Although there is only one processor, mul ple processes can
be loaded into the main memory simultaneously. However, at any given me, only one
process can be executed since there is only one CPU.

 System Throughput: The throughput (the amount of work the system can handle) is lower in
single processor systems because only one process is being executed at a me. This limits
the ability to run mul ple processes or programs simultaneously, affec ng mul tasking
capabili es.

 System Reliability: The reliability of single processor systems is also low. If the single
processor fails, the en re system becomes unusable, and the system may crash en rely. To
restore func onality, the processor would need to be repaired or replaced.

Opera on of Single Processor Systems

The processor interacts with various input/output (I/O) devices and requires access to the main
memory to execute the instruc ons of different programs and process associated data.

 Applica on Execu on: The system can manage mul ple applica ons in memory, but only
one applica on can be executed at any point. If one applica on issues an I/O request (e.g.,
for reading or wri ng to a disk), its execu on will be paused, and another applica on from
the memory can be scheduled for execu on by the CPU.

Summary

In this video, we learned about the characteris cs of single processor systems and how they
operate. Single processor systems have limita ons in throughput and reliability, as only one process
can be executed at a me, and the system is dependent on the func onality of the single CPU.
Mul programming Systems

Opera ng Systems: Mul programming Systems

Introduc on

Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this lecture, we will explore the concept of
Mul programming Systems. Specifically, we’ll cover:

 What mul programming systems are

 Why we need mul programming environments

 How mul programming systems func on

1. Why Do We Need Mul programming Systems?

To understand the need for mul programming, let’s first consider the limita ons of single-program
environments.

Scenario: Single Program in Main Memory

 When only one program is loaded into memory and execu ng on the CPU, it will eventually
need to perform an input/output (I/O) opera on (e.g., reading a file, wri ng data).

 During this I/O opera on, the CPU is idle because it cannot con nue processing un l the I/O
task completes.

 Idle CPU means wasted resources, as the processor is not being used effec vely during the
I/O opera on.

Underu liza on of Resources

 In single-program environments, when the CPU is busy, I/O devices are idle, and when I/O
devices are in use, the CPU is o en idle.

 This results in low resource u liza on, with both the CPU and I/O devices spending a
significant por on of me being inac ve.

2. What Is Mul programming?

Mul programming is the solu on to the resource underu liza on problem men oned above.

Defini on:

 Mul programming systems allow mul ple programs or jobs to be loaded into the memory
simultaneously.

 This system enables the CPU to execute a program while another is wai ng for I/O
opera ons, ensuring that the CPU and other system resources are efficiently u lized.
Key Concept:

 While one program (let’s say P1) is wai ng for an I/O opera on to complete, another
program (P2) that is already loaded into memory can take over the CPU and con nue
processing.

3. How Do Mul programming Systems Work?

Job Pool:

 Jobs (programs or processes) are submi ed to the system and stored in the job pool, which
resides in secondary storage.

 The job scheduler selects a subset of jobs from the job pool and loads them into the main
memory. Due to memory limita ons, not all jobs from the job pool can be loaded into
memory at once.

Main Memory:

 Once jobs are in memory, the CPU scheduler selects one job to execute on the CPU.

 When one job (e.g., P1) performs I/O opera ons, another job (e.g., P2) can be processed by
the CPU.

Example:

1. Job P1 is execu ng on the CPU.

2. P1 requires an I/O opera on, so it interacts with an I/O device.

3. While P1 is wai ng for I/O, Job P2 is executed on the CPU.

4. Once P2 requires an I/O opera on or completes its execu on, P1 can resume its CPU
processing.

4. Benefits of Mul programming

Efficient Resource U liza on:

 By overlapping the CPU’s tasks with I/O opera ons, both CPU and I/O devices are ac vely
used.

 Mul programming ensures that no system resources (CPU or I/O devices) remain idle as long
as there are jobs to execute.

Higher Throughput:

 Mul ple jobs can be processed simultaneously, resul ng in a higher number of jobs being
completed in a given me frame.

5. Schema c View of Mul programming

Memory Layout Example:

 Imagine the main memory contains the opera ng system and four jobs: P1, P2, P3, and P4.

 Job Pool (on secondary storage) holds more jobs that are wai ng to be loaded into memory.

Example of Execu on:

 Job P1 is executed on the CPU while it performs some task.

 When P1 needs to perform an I/O opera on (e.g., accessing the disk), the CPU switches to
Job P2.

 While P2 is using the CPU, P1 completes its I/O opera on.

 Eventually, when P2 is done or requires I/O, Job P3 and Job P4 can be scheduled for
execu on.

Conclusion

In this video, we discussed the concept of Mul programming Systems, focusing on how they
operate and improve resource u liza on. By having mul ple jobs in memory and using scheduling
mechanisms, we can keep the system resources ac vely engaged, leading to be er performance and
higher system throughput.

Thank you for watching!

Example: Mul programming in Ac on

Let’s consider an example with actual processes and I/O opera ons:

1. Processes:

o Process A: Requires both CPU and disk read opera ons.

o Process B: Requires CPU and then a network request.

o Process C: Performs CPU-bound calcula ons only.

2. Execu on Steps:

o Step 1: Process A starts on the CPU.

o Step 2: Process A requests a disk read (I/O), so it pauses.

o Step 3: While Process A is wai ng for the disk, Process B starts using the CPU.

o Step 4: Process B makes a network request, so it pauses.

o Step 5: Process C takes over the CPU, since it doesn't need any I/O.

Through mul programming, the CPU stays busy while different processes handle their respec ve I/O
needs in parallel, maximizing system efficiency.
Mul tasking Systems

Opera ng Systems: Mul tasking Systems

Introduc on

Welcome to the Opera ng Systems course. In this video, we will explore the concept of Mul tasking
Systems. We will:

 Understand what mul tasking systems are

 Learn why mul tasking systems are needed

 Discuss how mul tasking systems operate

We will also compare mul tasking systems with mul programming systems to be er understand
their differences.

1. What Are Mul tasking Systems?

Mul tasking systems allow a single processor to execute mul ple processes seemingly at the same
me. Here's how it works:

 Mul ple processes or tasks are loaded into the main memory simultaneously.

 The processor switches between processes a er execu ng each process for a short dura on,
giving the illusion of parallel execu on.

Key Concept:

In mul tasking systems, the processor executes each process for a short, predefined period (known
as a me slice or quantum). This me-sharing mechanism ensures that all processes make progress
without any one process monopolizing the CPU.
2. Why Do We Need Mul tasking Systems?

Efficient Use of Processor Time:

 Single Program Execu on: If the system executes only one program at a me, the processor
may sit idle during I/O opera ons or when wai ng for user input.

 Mul tasking: By execu ng mul ple programs, the system ensures that the processor is
con nuously working on one process while others wait for their turn.

User Interac on:

 Mul tasking is interac ve, allowing users to switch between tasks easily. Users can interact
with different applica ons (e.g., edi ng documents, browsing the web, or running an virus
so ware) as if they are all running simultaneously.

Low Response Time:

 Mul tasking systems aim to provide quick response mes. When a user provides input to a
program, the system ensures that the program responds in a short amount of me.

3. How Do Mul tasking Systems Operate?

Process Execu on:

 Let’s say we have four processes loaded into memory: P1, P2, P3, and P4.

 The processor will:

1. Execute P1 for a few milliseconds.

2. Switch to P2 and execute it for the same me slice.

3. Then move on to P3, and finally to P4.

 Once P4 completes its me slice, the processor cycles back to P1 and con nues its execu on.

Example:

1. P1: A document editor.

2. P2: A web browser.

3. P3: An an virus program.

4. P4: An image editor.

The processor allocates 3 milliseconds to each of these processes before switching. This cycle
con nues un l all tasks are completed.
4. Mul tasking vs. Mul programming Systems

Though both systems deal with mul ple processes, there are notable differences:

Feature Mul programming Systems Mul tasking Systems

Process Processes are loaded into memory but Processes are loaded and interact with
Execu on may not be interac ve. the user.

Time No fixed me slice; processes wait for I/O Each process gets a fixed me slice on
Alloca on or other events. the CPU.

User Minimal interac on with the user; not High interac vity, allowing users to
Interac on designed for interac vity. switch between tasks easily.

Response Can be slower; less focus on real- me Quick response mes, designed for
Time responses. interac ve environments.

5. Example of Mul tasking in Ac on

Scenario:

Imagine a user is working on a system with four ac ve applica ons:

1. Document Editor: Wri ng a report.

2. Web Browser: Researching informa on online.

3. An virus So ware: Scanning the system in the background.

4. Image Editor: Edi ng an image.

While using this system, the user feels as though all tasks are happening simultaneously. The
opera ng system allocates short me slices to each task, crea ng the illusion that everything is
running together.

Execu on:

 The processor first spends a few milliseconds on the Document Editor.

 It then switches to the Web Browser for the next few milliseconds.

 A erward, it moves to the An virus So ware, and then to the Image Editor.

 Once all tasks have been executed for their respec ve me slices, the cycle repeats.

This seamless switching ensures that all applica ons appear responsive to the user.

Conclusion

In this video, we explored the concept of Mul tasking Systems and how they operate. We learned
that mul tasking systems:

 Allow mul ple processes to run interac vely, giving the illusion of simultaneous execu on.

 Are highly efficient in terms of resource u liza on and provide low response mes, making
them ideal for interac ve environments.

Finally, we compared mul tasking systems to mul programming systems to highlight their
differences.
Mul processor Systems

Opera ng Systems: Mul processor Systems

Introduc on

Welcome to the Opera ng Systems course. In this video, we will discuss Mul processor Systems and
cover the following key topics:

 What mul processor systems are

 The benefits of using mul processor systems

 The architecture of mul processor systems

We'll compare mul processor systems with single-processor systems and examine how modern
devices use this technology.

1. What Are Mul processor Systems?

A mul processor system consists of mul ple CPUs (processors) that work together. These processors
can be two or more in number, and they share access to:

 Main memory

 Peripheral devices like the mouse, keyboard, and monitor

Most modern systems, such as desktop computers, worksta ons, mobile phones, and tablets, are
mul processor systems.

Single Processor vs. Mul processor:

 Single Processor Systems: Only one CPU is present, meaning only one process can be
executed at a me.

 Mul processor Systems: Mul ple CPUs are present, allowing mul ple processes to be
executed simultaneously, increasing system performance and efficiency.

2. Benefits of Mul processor Systems

a. Higher Throughput:

 In a mul processor system, each processor executes its own task. If a system has n
processors, then n tasks can be executed simultaneously. This results in higher throughput
(amount of work done per unit of me) compared to single-processor systems.

b. Economic Efficiency:

 Mul processor systems are more economical than having mul ple single-processor systems.
 o In a mul processor system, all processors share main memory and peripheral
devices (e.g., keyboard, mouse, monitor), reducing the need for duplicate hardware.

o By contrast, using mul ple single-processor systems would require each system to
have its own set of peripherals and memory, increasing costs.

c. Higher Reliability:

 Fault Tolerance: If one processor fails, the system can con nue to func on using the
remaining processors. This prevents the system from hal ng due to a single failure.

 Graceful Degrada on: If a processor fails, its tasks can be redistributed among the other
processors, ensuring the system con nues to operate, albeit with reduced performance.

3. Load Balancing in Mul processor Systems

Load balancing ensures that work is evenly distributed among all processors. Without proper load
balancing:

 Some processors may become overloaded with work, while others remain idle.

For instance, in a system with 10 processors, if 8 processors are heavily loaded and the remaining 2
processors are idle, the system’s resources are not being efficiently used. Proper load balancing aims
to ensure that all processors handle a similar amount of work, op mizing the system's performance.

4. Architecture of Mul processor Systems

a. Shared Main Memory:

 The main memory is shared among all processors in the system. Each processor can access
this memory to perform tasks.

b. Separate Registers and Cache Memory:

 Each processor has its own set of registers and cache memory for independent processing.
These components are essen al for the efficient func oning of individual processors within
the system.

Example System:

 Consider a system with four processors: CPU 0, CPU 1, CPU 2, and CPU 3.

o Each of these CPUs shares the main memory but maintains its own registers and
cache memory to store data temporarily and speed up processing.

5. Fault Tolerance and Graceful Degrada on

a. Graceful Degrada on:

 This refers to the system's ability to maintain func onality even when some components fail.
For example, in a system with 10 processors, if one processor fails, the remaining 9
 processors will redistribute the tasks from the failed processor among themselves. While this
may lead to a slower system, the system will s ll con nue to func on.

b. Fault Tolerance:

 Fault tolerance ensures that the system can con nue opera ng normally even if one or more
processors fail. This high level of reliability is one of the major advantages of mul processor
systems.

6. Conclusion

In this video, we explored the concept and architecture of mul processor systems. We learned that:

 Mul processor systems contain mul ple CPUs that share memory and peripheral devices,
allowing for higher throughput and economic efficiency.

 They provide greater reliability due to fault tolerance and graceful degrada on.

 Proper load balancing is essen al for op mal system performance.

Mul core Systems

Opera ng Systems: Mul core Systems

Introduc on

Welcome to the Opera ng Systems course! In this video, we will be exploring mul core systems.
We'll cover:

 What mul core systems are

 The benefits of using mul core systems

 The architecture of mul core systems

Mul core systems are an extension of mul processor systems, but they have dis nct advantages
that we will explore in detail.

1. What Are Mul core Systems?

A mul core system refers to a processor that has mul ple compu ng cores integrated into a single
processor chip.

Difference between Mul core and Mul processor:

 Mul processor Systems: Have mul ple processor chips, each with a single core.

 Mul core Systems: Have mul ple cores on a single processor chip. Each core can
independently execute tasks, just like a processor in a mul processor system.

Key Insight:

 All mul core systems are technically mul processor systems, as they involve mul ple cores.
However, not all mul processor systems are mul core in nature since some have only a
single core per processor chip.

2. Benefits of Mul core Systems

a. Faster Communica on:

 On-chip communica on (within a single processor chip) is significantly faster than

communica on between separate processor chips in a mul processor system.

o This faster communica on reduces latency, resul ng in more efficient task

execu on.

b. Reduced Power Consump on:

  Mul core systems consume less power compared to equivalent mul processor systems with
the same number of cores spread across different processor chips. This energy efficiency
makes mul core systems a preferred choice in modern compu ng devices.

3. Architecture of Mul core Systems

Let’s now look at how mul core systems are structured:

Shared Main Memory:

 Mul core systems have a shared main memory accessible by all cores.

Mul ple Cores on a Single Processor Chip:

 In mul core systems, mul ple cores (processing units) reside on a single chip. For example:

o Processor 0 has two cores: Core 0 and Core 1.

o Processor 1 has two cores: Core 2 and Core 3.

Registers and Cache Memory:

 Each core has its own set of registers and cache memory for independent task execu on,
even though they share access to the same main memory.

Example System:

 A system might have two dual-core processors:

o Processor 0: Core 0 and Core 1.

o Processor 1: Core 2 and Core 3.

o All these cores share access to the same main memory, but each has its own
registers and cache memory.

4. Conclusion

In this video, we covered:

 The structure and func oning of mul core systems, a varia on of mul processor systems.

 The advantages, including faster communica on and lower power consump on, that make
mul core systems efficient for modern-day compu ng.

 The architecture of mul core systems, emphasizing how mul ple cores on a single chip
interact with shared resources.
Distributed Systems & Clustered Systems

Opera ng Systems: Distributed Systems and Clustered Systems

Introduc on

Welcome to the Opera ng Systems course! In this video, we will explore:

 Distributed Systems: What they are, how they work, and their different types.

 Clustered Systems: What they are, their characteris cs, and how they differ from distributed
systems.

1. What Are Distributed Systems?

A distributed system is a collec on of independent nodes (systems) that work together. These nodes
can be:

 PCs, worksta ons, mobile phones, tablets, etc.

 Each node is standalone and capable of func oning on its own.

 Nodes are connected via a communica on network (LAN or WAN).

Key Characteris cs:

 Heterogeneous nodes: The systems in a distributed system don’t have to be the same in
terms of type, model, or capabili es.

 Geographical separa on: Nodes can be distributed across a single building, different
campuses, ci es, or even countries.

o LAN (Local Area Network): Used for systems within a small geographical range (e.g.,
a building or campus).

o WAN (Wide Area Network): Used for systems spread across larger geographical
areas (e.g., ci es or countries).

Note:

 No shared memory: Each node has its own memory, and they work together to perform
tasks coopera vely.

2. Types of Distributed Systems

a. Client-Server Systems:

 Clients (e.g., laptops, desktops) send requests to a server.

 The server processes requests and sends results back to the clients.
  Centralized structure: The server is the key en ty in the system, serving mul ple clients.

b. Peer-to-Peer Systems:

 No dedicated server or client.

 All nodes (peers) have equal status, meaning any node can act as both a server and a client
at different mes.

 Decentralized structure: Peers communicate directly with each other.

3. What Are Clustered Systems?

Clustered systems are a type of mul processor system. However, unlike tradi onal mul processor
systems, clustered systems consist of two or more independent systems or nodes that are managed
centrally.

Key Characteris cs:

 Central management: The nodes in a clustered system are centrally administered, ensuring
smooth opera ons.

 High availability: Redundant hardware ensures that failure of one node doesn't stop the
system. There may be some performance degrada on, but the system con nues to func on.

Advantages:

 Reliability: Redundant components (e.g., mul ple processors) enhance system reliability.

 Availability: Even with component failures, the system stays opera onal.

4. Distributed Systems vs. Clustered Systems

Geographical Separa on:

 Distributed Systems: Nodes can be spread across ci es or even countries, making

communica on latency higher.

 Clustered Systems: Nodes are typically located within the same campus or building,
resul ng in lower communica on latency.

Centralized vs. Decentralized Management:

 Clustered Systems: Centrally managed, ensuring consistent control.

 Distributed Systems: May not have centralized control; individual nodes are independent.

Usability of Nodes:

 Distributed Systems: Each node is a standalone system that can func on independently.

 Clustered Systems: Nodes are not standalone and depend on being part of the cluster to
func on.
5. Example of Clustered Systems:

High-Performance Compu ng (HPC) Clusters:

 These clusters consist of mul ple nodes working together to perform heavy computa onal
tasks.

 They allow mul ple jobs to be executed simultaneously, providing high computa onal
power.

6. Architecture of Clustered Systems

 Clustered systems have mul ple nodes (e.g., Computer 1, Computer 2, Computer 3) that
access a common storage area.

 Unlike distributed systems, these nodes are not standalone and are centrally managed to
form the cluster.

Conclusion

In this video, we covered:

 Distributed systems: How they operate, their types (client-server and peer-to-peer), and key
features.

 Clustered systems: How they func on, their central management, and why they offer higher
availability and reliability compared to distributed systems.

 The differences between distributed and clustered systems, especially regarding

geographical separa on, communica on latency, and node usability.
Examples of Clustered Systems:

1. Google Search Engine Cluster:

o Google operates large clusters of computers to efficiently handle billions of search

queries daily. These clusters consist of numerous servers that work together to
process and deliver search results at high speed.

2. High-Performance Compu ng (HPC) Clusters:

o Used in scien fic research, weather forecas ng, and data simula ons. A well-known
example is NASA's Pleiades supercomputer, which performs complex space
simula ons and modeling.

3. Database Clusters:

o Oracle RAC (Real Applica on Clusters): Allows mul ple servers to run Oracle
Database instances, offering high availability and scalability for cri cal business
applica ons.

4. Load Balancing Web Clusters:

o Amazon Web Services (AWS) offers Elas c Load Balancing, which distributes traffic
across mul ple servers in a cluster to ensure high availability and efficient processing
for web applica ons.

Examples of Distributed Systems:

1. Blockchain Networks:

o Bitcoin and Ethereum are distributed systems where mul ple independent nodes
across the globe validate and store transac ons, ensuring decentralized control and
security.

2. Apache Hadoop:

o A distributed data storage and processing system used for big data analy cs. Hadoop
splits large datasets across mul ple nodes, allowing parallel data processing on a
cluster of computers.

3. The Internet:

o The internet itself is a massive distributed system, with independent servers and
clients interac ng over a global network.

4. Google File System (GFS) and Bigtable:

o Google uses distributed file systems and databases for massive data storage and
management, where data is spread across thousands of servers globally.

5. Content Delivery Networks (CDNs):

o Akamai and Cloudflare use distributed systems to deliver web content to users
worldwide. Content is cached and distributed across mul ple servers in various
loca ons to reduce latency and ensure fast access.
 6. Skype and WhatsApp:

o Peer-to-peer communica on pla orms that allow users to make calls and send
messages using distributed networks of computers.

Each of these systems leverages the unique strengths of either clustered or distributed architectures
to op mize performance, availability, and scalability depending on the needs of the applica on.
Week 2

Command Line Interface

In this course on opera ng systems, we're focusing on the command line interface (CLI) in this
par cular video. A user interface acts as the intermediary between the user and the opera ng
system, allowing users to interact with the system through commands.

There are two types of interfaces commonly found in modern opera ng systems:

1. Command Line Interface (CLI): This allows users to enter text-based commands to perform
tasks.

2. Graphical User Interface (GUI): More visually oriented, where users interact using windows,
icons, and pointers.

Command Line Interface (CLI) Details:

The CLI is essen ally a command interpreter, which takes commands from the user and executes
them. The command interpreter can either be:

 Part of the kernel or

 A separate program from the core kernel.

Users interact with the CLI by entering standard commands, such as:

 Crea ng files

 Dele ng files

 Copying files

 Renaming files

 Moving files

 Crea ng directories

 Launching or termina ng processes

Execu ng Commands:

When a command is entered in the CLI, it triggers a specific piece of code that executes the task.
There are two approaches:

1. Embedded Code: The command interpreter includes the code to handle the command
directly.

2. External System Programs: The command interpreter loads the code from external system
programs, making it easier to add new commands without modifying the interpreter.
Shells in Linux:

Linux opera ng systems provide mul ple shells (command interpreters), such as:

 Bourne Shell (SH)

 C Shell (CSH)

 Korn Shell (KSH)

 Bourne Again Shell (BASH)

 Z Shell (ZSH)

Users have the flexibility to switch between different shells as needed.

Examples of CLI:

 Windows: The Command Prompt (e.g., using the DIR command to list files and directories).

 Linux/Unix: Shell terminals (e.g., using the LS command to display contents).

Graphical User Interface

In this video on Graphical User Interface (GUI) as part of the opera ng systems course, we will
explore what a GUI is, its components, and how it compares to other user interfaces, par cularly the
Command Line Interface (CLI) discussed in the previous video.

What is a Graphical User Interface (GUI)?

A GUI is a mouse-based window and menu system that allows users to interact with a computer
system visually. Unlike the CLI, which requires users to enter text-based commands, the GUI allows
users to perform tasks using icons, windows, and menus. The main input device is typically a mouse,
but modern GUIs also support touchscreens and gestures.

Key Features of a GUI:

 Desktop Environment: The visual layout that provides icons, windows, and taskbars to
interact with the system.

 Mouse Input: The mouse is used to perform different ac ons like single-click, double-click,
right-click, or hover over elements to interact with them.

 Icons: Graphical representa ons of files, folders, programs, and system elements. Users are
familiar with various icons such as folders, PDF files, web browsers, etc.

 Tool Tips: Small text pop-ups that appear when hovering over an icon, providing addi onal
informa on or guidance.

Advantages of GUI:

1. User-Friendly: The GUI is visually intui ve, allowing users to recognize elements by their
icons rather than relying on complex commands.

2. No Need for Command Memoriza on: Unlike the CLI, users don't need to remember text
commands, which reduces cogni ve load.

3. Familiarity: Since the GUI relies on images, even new users can quickly get accustomed to it
and learn what each icon corresponds to.

Touchscreen Systems:

Modern GUIs support touchscreen interac ons, par cularly in mobile devices and tablets. Users can
perform tasks using:

 Tapping (single or double)

 Swiping

 Pinching in or out for zooming

 Using a stylus for more precise interac on

Touchscreen systems are popular on tablets, smartphones, and even some laptops, such as those
running Android or iOS.

Examples of Opera ng Systems with GUIs:

 Windows OS: Provides a desktop environment with windows and icons for user interac on.

 Ubuntu and Fedora: Popular Linux-based opera ng systems with GUIs.

 MacOS: Apple's desktop environment.

 Android and iOS: Mobile opera ng systems with touch-based GUI interfaces.
Choice of User Interface

In this video on the Choice of User Interface, we explore how users typically choose between the
Graphical User Interface (GUI) and the Command Line Interface (CLI), and the factors influencing
their decisions.

Key Factors in Choosing a User Interface:

1. Personal Preference: The decision largely depends on the comfort level of the user. Some
may prefer the ease and visual appeal of a GUI, while others may opt for the efficiency and
speed of a CLI.

2. Type of User:

o Novice Users: Those who are new to computer systems or less experienced generally
prefer GUIs. GUIs are much more user-friendly, intui ve, and don’t require the user
to memorize complex commands. GUIs offer visual aids like icons and provide
feedback through error messages or sugges ons to help guide users through tasks.

o Power Users or System Administrators: Experienced users, such as system

administrators, or those comfortable with computers tend to favor the CLI. Though
it requires memorizing commands, the CLI offers faster access to system func ons
and a higher level of control over tasks.

Advantages of GUIs:

 User-Friendly: GUIs are easier for users who don't need to learn commands. They rely on
visual aids, such as icons and menus, that help users recognize and navigate through the
system.

 Intui ve Naviga on: Users can perform tasks like copying, renaming files, and launching
programs using the mouse without entering commands.

 Guidance and Feedback: GUI systems provide immediate feedback and error messages,
helping users correct mistakes, such as trying to create a file that already exists.

 Mul tasking: GUIs support mul tasking, allowing users to switch between tasks (like edi ng
a document, browsing the web, and listening to music) with ease.

Why Power Users Prefer CLI:

 Speed and Efficiency: While naviga ng through files in a GUI may take mul ple clicks, in a
CLI, the same task can be done with a single command.

 Automa on: In CLI environments, batch execu on of commands is possible using scrip ng
files. These scripts can execute a series of commands in sequence without user interven on.
This makes it possible to automate repe ve tasks, which is difficult in GUIs.

 Complex Tasks: CLI allows for complex command chaining, where the output of one
command can be used as input for another. This is par cularly useful for power users
handling complicated processes.
 Scrip ng: Repe ve tasks can be automated using scripts, allowing for the execu on of
mul ple commands efficiently. This level of customiza on is one of the major advantages of
the CLI.
Role of System Calls

In this video on the Role of System Calls in an opera ng system, we explore how system calls
func on and the essen al role they play in enabling applica on programs to interact with the
opera ng system.

Key Concepts Covered:

1. What are System Calls?

o A system call is a piece of code that allows an applica on program to request

services from the opera ng system. Examples of such services include accessing
memory, performing input-output opera ons, or managing files (e.g., reading,
wri ng, or upda ng a file).

o These services are executed by the opera ng system when invoked by the
applica on program. The system calls act as a bridge between the user-level
applica on and the opera ng system.

o System calls are typically wri en in high-level programming languages like C or C++
and are essen al for even simple program opera ons, such as displaying a message
on the console or taking input from the user.

2. How Do System Calls Work?

o When a system call is invoked by an applica on program, the opera ng system takes
over and performs the requested service. The OS executes the corresponding
system call code, providing the necessary service.

o System calls operate in the system (privileged) mode, ensuring that only the OS has
control over cri cal resources like memory, hardware, and file management. This is
why system calls cannot be executed in user mode. Any a empt to do so would
result in a trap to the opera ng system.

o System calls can be thought of as privileged instruc ons since they involve sensi ve
opera ons that require OS interven on for security and stability.

3. Example: Crea ng a File

o Let’s consider a program that creates a file. The program might prompt the user for a
file name and type. Once the user inputs this informa on, the following happens:

1. The system checks if a file with the same name already exists.

2. If it doesn’t exist, the system creates a new file and prompts the user to
enter content for it.

3. A er the content is entered, the file is saved and closed.

4. If the file already exists, an error message is displayed.

o Each of these steps—promp ng for input, checking if a file exists, crea ng a new file,
accep ng content, displaying messages—requires a series of system calls to be
 executed by the opera ng system. These calls manage user input, file crea on, error
handling, and more.

4. System Calls in Dual Mode Opera ons

o The dual mode of opera on ensures that system calls are executed in a safe and
controlled environment. The two modes are:

 User Mode: The applica on runs in this mode, but it cannot execute system
calls directly.

 System (Privileged) Mode: The opera ng system runs in this mode and
handles the execu on of system calls.
Applica on Programming Interface (API)

In this video on Applica on Programming Interface (API) in the context of opera ng systems, we
explore the rela onship between system calls and APIs, how system calls are accessed, and the
benefits of using APIs to simplify interac on with the opera ng system.

Key Concepts Covered:

1. What is an API (Applica on Programming Interface)?

o An API is a set of func ons that allows applica on programmers to access system
calls without directly interac ng with them. Rather than using system calls,
programmers u lize API func ons that abstract away the underlying complexity of
the system calls.

o Each API func on typically has three components:

1. Func on Name: The name of the func on, which is used to invoke it.

2. Parameters: A set of input parameters passed to the func on.

3. Return Values: The result(s) returned by the func on a er execu on.

2. How Do APIs Access System Calls?

o The API func ons reside in a code library provided by the opera ng system. These
func ons act as a middle layer between the user programs and the system calls.

o When an API func on is invoked, it internally calls the corresponding system call(s)
based on the opera on that needs to be performed.

3. Common APIs and System Examples:

o Win32 API: Used on Windows-based systems.

o POSIX API: Found on UNIX, Linux, and macOS systems.

o Java API: Associated with the Java Virtual Machine (JVM).

4. Benefits of Using APIs Over Direct System Calls:

o Portability: Programs wri en with API calls can run on any system that supports the
same API, making the program portable across different environments. System calls,
however, are ed closely to the hardware, making portability difficult.

o Convenience: APIs provide higher-level, user-friendly func ons compared to system

calls, making it easier to write and maintain code.

o Reduced Cogni ve Load: Programmers only need to know what the API does, not
how it works. This abstrac on simplifies development and reduces the complexity of
understanding system-level details.

5. How System Calls are Intercepted and Executed via API:

o System Call Interface: This interface sits between the user program and the kernel.
When a user program invokes an API func on, the corresponding system call is
 intercepted by the system call interface, which switches from user mode to kernel
mode for execu on.

o The kernel maintains a table of all available system calls, each iden fied by a unique
number. The system call interface uses this number to look up the appropriate
service rou ne (the code that implements the system call) and execute it.

o Once the system call is executed, control is returned to the user program, but the
switch from kernel mode back to user mode happens at the system call interface.

6. Interrupt Handling during System Call Execu on:

o System calls trigger an interrupt, causing the user program to pause while the
system handles the system call. The kernel executes the requested system call, and
once the opera on is complete, the interrupt is resolved, and control is passed back
to the user program.

Conclusion:

In this video, we explored the role of APIs in simplifying the process of invoking system calls. APIs
abstract away the complexity of directly interac ng with the opera ng system, providing benefits
such as portability, ease of use, and reduced cogni ve load. We also discussed how system calls are
intercepted and handled via the system call interface, and the process by which they are executed in
kernel mode before control is returned to the user program.
Types of System Calls

Types of System Calls in Opera ng Systems

Hello everyone, welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will explore the types
of system calls. We'll look at how system calls are categorized and discuss the most common types
without diving into specifics of any one opera ng system. By the end of this video, you'll have a
general idea of the system calls and their func ons.

1. Process Management System Calls

As you know, a program in execu on is called a process. In a computer system, mul ple processes
run simultaneously, and system calls help manage them. Here's a breakdown:

 Crea ng a Process: For example, when you double-click an applica on icon, it launches a
process. Internally, this triggers a series of system calls.

 Termina ng a Process: There are two types:

o Normal termina on happens when the process completes its execu on and exits.

o Abrupt termina on occurs when something goes wrong, and the process must be
aborted unexpectedly.

 Loading and Execu ng Another Process: One process may need to load and execute
another.

 Managing Process A ributes: Every process has a ributes like priority (how important it is
to execute) and maximum execu on me (how long it should run). System calls can fetch or
modify these a ributes.

2. File Management System Calls

Files are essen al parts of any opera ng system, and various system calls are used to handle them:

 Crea ng a File: You can create new files on the system.

 Opening and Closing Files: You may wish to open exis ng files and close them when done.

 Reading and Wri ng: Read data from or write data to a file.

 Dele ng or Moving Files: You can delete files or move them between directories.

 Managing File A ributes: Files have a ributes like name, size, crea on me, and more.
System calls allow you to retrieve and modify these a ributes.

3. Device Management System Calls

Devices refer to hardware components such as disk drives or input/output devices. The following are
common system calls used for device management:

 Reques ng a Device: A process may request access to a device. Mul ple processes might
request the same device at the same me, so the system manages the order.
  Releasing a Device: A er using a device, the process should release it.

 Reading from or Wri ng to Devices: For instance, reading data from a disk or wri ng to it.

 Logical A achment/Detachment: System calls may logically a ach or detach devices from
the system.

 Managing Device A ributes: Devices have a ributes that can be fetched or updated, such as
capacity or status.

4. Informa on Maintenance System Calls

These system calls manage and maintain informa on about the opera ng system:

 Fetching System Informa on: This could include the current system date and me, system
version, or logged-in users.

 Se ng System Informa on: You can modify system-level data, like upda ng the system date
or me.

 Managing A ributes of System En es: These could be a ributes of files, processes, or

devices.

5. Communica on System Calls

Processes o en need to communicate with each other to complete tasks. Communica on system
calls facilitate this:

 Se ng Up Communica on Channels: A connec on or memory region is established for

processes to share informa on.

 Dele ng Communica on Channels: Once communica on is complete, the channels can be

removed.

 Sending and Receiving Data: One process can send data to another, and vice versa.

6. Protec on System Calls

Protec on refers to controlling access to the system’s resources:

 Managing Permissions: Every resource, whether a file, process, or device, has associated
permissions. System calls can retrieve or update these permission levels.

 Se ng Access Controls: Protec on mechanisms ensure that only authorized users or

processes can access certain system resources.

Conclusion

In this video, we covered the different types of system calls typically found in an opera ng system.
We discussed how system calls manage processes, files, devices, informa on, communica on, and
protec on. These system calls perform various func ons that make it easier for users to interact with
the system and manage its resources effec vely.
General Commands

General Linux Commands Overview

Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will be exploring general Linux
commands, covering basic tasks like clearing a terminal, working with directories, and escala ng user
privileges. This video is part of a series where we will delve deeper into Linux commands.

1. Clearing the Terminal

 Command: clear

 Usage: Clears the terminal screen.

 Example:

bash

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clear

This command does not take any parameters.

2. Displaying the Calendar

 Command: cal

 Usage: Displays the calendar of the current month.

 Example:

bash

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cal

3. Displaying Date and Time

 Command: date

 Usage: Displays the current date and me on the system.

 Example:

bash

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date

4. Displaying Current Directory Path

 Command: pwd (Print Working Directory)

 Usage: Shows the full path of the current working directory.

  Example:

bash

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pwd

5. Crea ng a Directory

 Command: mkdir

 Usage: Creates a new directory.

 Syntax:

bash

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mkdir <directory_name>

 Example:

bash

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mkdir temp

This creates a directory named "temp" in the current working directory.

6. Removing a Directory

 Command: rmdir

 Usage: Removes an empty directory.

 Syntax:

bash

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rmdir <empty_directory_name>

 Example:

bash

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rmdir temp

Only works if the directory is empty.

7. Changing Directory

 Command: cd

 Usage: Changes the current working directory.

  Syntax:

bash

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cd <directory_path>

 Example:

bash

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cd /home/user/OS

This moves you to the directory /home/user/OS.

8. Displaying Text on Terminal

 Command: echo

 Usage: Prints the provided text on the terminal.

 Example:

bash

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echo "Good morning"

9. Displaying Current Logged-in User

 Command: who

 Usage: Displays the current logged-in user and other related informa on.

 Example:

bash

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who

10. Checking Disk Usage

 Command: du (Disk Usage)

 Usage: Displays disk usage for files and directories.

 Example:

bash

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du

11. Checking File System Disk Usage

  Command: df

 Usage: Shows disk space usage for the en re file system.

 Example:

bash

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df

12. Running Commands as Superuser

 Command: sudo

 Usage: Allows execu ng commands with escalated privileges (Superuser).

 Syntax:

bash

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sudo <command>

 Example: Installing an applica on in Ubuntu:

bash

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sudo apt install <applica on_name>

In this video, we covered general-purpose Linux commands such as file management, naviga ng
directories, and running commands with administra ve privileges. These commands form the basic
building blocks for opera ng a Linux system effec vely. Thank you!
File related Commands

File-Related Commands in Linux

In this video, we will explore various file-related commands in the Linux opera ng system and how to
use them effec vely for file management.

1. Using the VI Editor

 Command: vi filename

 This command opens the VI editor to create or edit files. If the file doesn’t exist, a new file
will be created. To input text, press i (insert).

 Saving and Exi ng:

o Save and exit: Esc + :wq

o Exit without saving: Esc + :q!

2. Vim Editor

 Command: vim filename

 Similar to the VI editor, but with addi onal features for more advanced text edi ng.

3. Crea ng or Upda ng Files with Touch

 Command: touch filename

 If the file doesn’t exist, it will create a new file. If the file exists, it updates the file's date and
mestamp without opening it.

4. Copying Files with CP

 Command: cp source_file des na on_file

 Copies the contents of source_file to des na on_file. This works for both files and
directories.

Example:
cp myfile newfile
This command will create a copy of myfile named newfile.

5. Renaming Files with MV

 Command: mv old_name new_name

 Renames or moves a file from old_name to new_name.

Example:
mv text1 text2
This renames text1 to text2.

6. Removing Files and Directories with RM

 Command: rm filename
  Deletes the specified file.

 Dele ng Directories:

o Empty directory: rmdir directory_name

o Non-empty directory: rm -r directory_name (recursively deletes the directory and its

contents).

7. Displaying File Contents with CAT

 Command: cat filename

 Displays the content of a file on the terminal.

 Mul ple Files:

cat file1 file2
This will display the contents of file1 and file2 one a er the other.

8. Comparing Files with DIFF

 Command: diff file1 file2

 Compares two files line by line and shows the differences.

 Using VIM for diff:

vimdiff file1 file2

9. Coun ng Lines, Words, and Bytes with WC

 Command: wc filename

 Counts and displays the number of lines, words, and bytes in a file.

 Op ons:

o Line count: wc -l

o Word count: wc -w

o Character count: wc -m

10. Sor ng File Contents

 Command: sort filename

 Displays the file contents in alphabe cal order on the terminal. Note that this does not
change the file itself.

Example:
Given a file with the lines:

 "My name is Barsha Mitra."

 "I live in Hyderabad."

The command sort mfile will output the lines in alphabe cal order:

 "I live in Hyderabad."

 "My name is Barsha Mitra."
File Permissions related Commands

File Permissions-Related Commands in Linux

Introduc on

Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will focus on file permissions-related
commands in the Linux opera ng system. We’ll explore:

 The different types of permissions available in Linux

 Types of users recognized by Linux

 How to change and view permissions for files and directories

Types of Permissions

Linux supports three main types of permissions:

1. Read Permission (r):

o Allows reading the contents of a file.

o Does not allow modifica on.

o Associated value: 4

2. Write Permission (w):

o Allows modifica on or upda ng of the contents.

o Associated value: 2

3. Execute Permission (x):

o Allows the execu on of files (usually for programs or scripts).

o Associated value: 1

Types of Users in Linux

Linux dis nguishes between three user types:

1. User (u):

o The owner of the file or directory.

2. Group (g):

o A group of users associated with a file or directory.

3. Others (o):

o All other users who are neither the owner nor part of the group.
Summary:

 u: User

 g: Group

 o: Others

Modifying Permissions with chmod

You can use the chmod command to modify file or directory permissions. Here's how to do it:

Example 1: Se ng Permissions for a File

You have an executable file named a.out, and you want:

 User (u) to have read, write, and execute permissions

 Group (g) to have read and execute permissions

 Others (o) to have only execute permission

To achieve this, use the following command:

bash

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chmod 751 a.out

Breakdown:

 7: For the user (4 + 2 + 1 = 7) — Read, Write, Execute.

 5: For the group (4 + 1 = 5) — Read, Execute.

 1: For others (1 = 1) — Execute.

This flexibility allows you to set different permissions for each user type without affec ng others.

Example 2: Giving All Permissions

If you want to give all users (user, group, and others) full permissions (read, write, execute), you can
use the command:

bash

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chmod 777 filename

Viewing Permissions with ls

To view the permissions of files and directories, use the ls command with the -l op on:

bash

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ls -l
This will display detailed informa on, including permissions, in the following format:

diff

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-rwxr-xr--

Breakdown:

1. User permissions: The first cluster of three le ers shows the user's permissions (e.g., rwx).

2. Group permissions: The second cluster shows the group’s permissions (e.g., r-x).

3. Others' permissions: The third cluster shows others' permissions (e.g., r--).

If you see a d at the start of the line, it indicates that the entry is a directory.

Example Output:

sql

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-rwxr-xr-- 1 user group 4096 Sep 20 10:15 example.txt

drwxr-xr-x 2 user group 4096 Sep 20 10:15 directory_name

In this example:

 rwxr-xr--: The file example.txt has read, write, and execute permissions for the user; read and
execute for the group; and only read permission for others.

 drwxr-xr-x: The directory has read, write, and execute permissions for the user, and read and
execute permissions for both group and others.

Conclusion

In this video, we covered:

 The three types of permissions (read, write, execute) and their values.

 The three types of users (user, group, others).

 How to use the chmod command to change file and directory permissions.

 How to view file and directory permissions using ls -l.

Process Management Commands

Here’s an improved version of your transcript with added examples, keeping the original structure
intact:

Process Management Commands

Hello, everyone. Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. The topic of this par cular video is
Process Management Commands. In this video, we are going to learn about different Linux
commands for process management, and we will also learn how to use these commands to execute
various tasks.

PS Command

The first process management command we will learn about is the PS command. PS stands for
Process Status. The PS command helps us display a snapshot of the current processes running on the
system—those processes that are ac vely execu ng.

As you all know, there are different op ons available for various Linux commands, and the PS
command is no excep on. For example, what happens if we use the op on -el along with the PS
command? Let's take a look at the output of the command ps -el.

bash

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ps -el

If you execute this command, you will get output on your console in an Ubuntu terminal like this:

yaml

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F S UID PID PPID PRI NI TIME CMD

0S 1001 3243 1234 20 0 00:00:00 bash

0R 1001 3244 3243 20 0 00:00:01 top

Let's break down the different components or columns of this output:

 F Column: Displays flags associated with execu ng processes.

 S Column: Indicates the status of each process (e.g., R for running, S for sleeping).

 UID Column: Stands for User ID, showing the user account under which the process is
execu ng.

 PID Column: PID stands for Process ID, which is a unique iden fier assigned to each process.
For example, the bash process has a PID of 3243.
  PPID Column: PPID stands for Parent Process ID, iden fying the process that created the
current process. For instance, if bash was started from a terminal, its PPID would be the
terminal's PID.

 PRI Column: Represents the priority of the process.

 NI Column: NI indicates the nice value, which affects the scheduling of the process.

 TIME Column: Shows the total CPU me consumed by the process.

 CMD Column: Represents the command that ini ated the process.

Thus, the output of ps -el provides a wealth of informa on about the currently ac ve processes on
the system.

Top Command

The next command we will explore is the TOP command. The TOP command does not require any
arguments. If you simply type top and hit Enter, you will see:

bash

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top

The TOP command displays a dynamic snapshot of currently execu ng processes in the system.
Please note the difference between TOP and the PS command: while the PS command provides a
sta c snapshot of processes at a single point in me, the TOP command offers a con nuously
upda ng view of all ac ve processes.

Here’s a sample output of the TOP command:

yaml

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top - 12:34:56 up 10 days, 2:15, 1 user, load average: 0.15, 0.10, 0.08

Tasks: 105 total, 1 running, 104 sleeping, 0 stopped, 0 zombie

%Cpu(s): 1.5 us, 0.3 sy, 0.0 ni, 98.1 id, 0.1 wa, 0.0 hi, 0.0 si, 0.0 st

MiB Mem : 7850.1 total, 3245.7 free, 2375.3 used, 2228.1 buff/cache

MiB Swap: 2048.0 total, 2048.0 free, 0.0 used. 5116.0 avail Mem

PID USER PR NI VIRT RES SHR S %CPU %MEM TIME+ COMMAND

3243 user 20 0 123456 67890 12345 S 1.0 0.5 0:00.01 bash

3244 user 20 0 54321 2345 567 S 0.5 0.1 0:00.01 top

In this output, you can see several columns:

 PID Column: Process iden fier.

  USER Column: The user account that created the process.

 PR Column: Priority of the process.

 NI Column: Nice value affec ng scheduling.

 %CPU Column: Percentage of CPU being used by the process.

 %MEM Column: Percentage of memory being u lized by the process.

 TIME+ Column: The total me the process has been execu ng.

 COMMAND Column: The command that ini ated the process.

Pstree Command

Next, let's explore how to display a hierarchy of processes. The PSTREE command will show you the
processes in a hierarchical fashion. The output of the PSTREE command looks like this:

bash

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pstree

csharp

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init ├─bash ├─top

└─sshd ├─sshd ├─bash ├─pstree

Here, you can visualize the parent-child rela onships between processes. The root of the tree
represents the first process executed on your system, typically the init process.

Kill Command

Now, let's discuss how to terminate processes. Processes get terminated once their execu on is
complete, but we can also terminate processes before they finish using the KILL command. The
syntax for using the KILL command is as follows:

bash

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kill [PID]

For example, if you want to terminate a process with PID 3244, you would run:

bash

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kill 3244

Execu ng this command will terminate the specified process. This ac on is similar to pressing the key
combina on Ctrl + C.

Conclusion
In this video, we went through several Linux commands used for process management, such as
displaying the status of processes, visualizing a process tree, and termina ng processes abruptly. We
also discussed how to use these commands effec vely. Thank you for watching!
Search Commands

Here’s an improved version of your transcript, incorpora ng addi onal examples and explana ons
while maintaining the original structure:

Search Commands

[MUSIC] Hello everyone, welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. The topic of this par cular
video is Search Commands. In this video, we are going to learn about different Linux commands that
can be used for searching various en es and how to use these commands effec vely.

Grep Command

First, let’s explore how to search for a specific pa ern in a file using the GREP command. GREP is a
Linux command that allows us to search for specific pieces of text or pa erns within a file. A pa ern
can be a single word or a mul -word string.

For example, let's say I have a file named myfile.txt, and I want to find the occurrences of the word
"on" (in lowercase le ers). To do this, I would type the following command in my terminal:

bash

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grep on myfile.txt

Suppose myfile.txt has the following content:

vbnet

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The sun is shining on the horizon.

She put the provision on the table.

The game is on!

He is looking forward to it.

The output of the command grep on myfile.txt will display the lines from the file that contain the
word "on". The console output will look like this, with the occurrences highlighted in red:

csharp

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The sun is shining on the horizon.

She put the provision on the table.

The game is on!

This shows that GREP effec vely searches for any specified pa ern within the content of a file.
Ls Command

Next, let’s see how to search for specific files or directories in our file system using the LS command.
The LS command lists all the files and directories in the current working directory. You can use it to
perform basic file or directory searches.

For example, if you simply type ls or ls -l, you will see a list of all files and directories in the current
working directory:

bash

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ls

However, if you want to search for files or directories in another path, you can provide the full path.
For example:

bash

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ls /path/to/directory

Addi onally, you can search for files that start with a specific pa ern. For instance, if you're looking
for files that begin with the le er "m", you can use:

bash

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ls m*

This command will list all files and directories star ng with "m". Conversely, if you want to find files
that end with a par cular character, like "x", you can use:

bash

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ls *x

Using the LS command in these ways helps you quickly locate files and directories based on specific
naming pa erns.

Find Command

Now, let’s take a look at the FIND command, which helps you search for files and directories in a
hierarchical file system structure. The FIND command displays all files and directories across the
en re system, not just limited to the current working directory.

For example, to search for all files in your home directory, you can use:

bash

Copy code

find ~/ -type f
Here, -type f restricts the search to files only. If you want to search for directories, you can use -type
d:

bash

Copy code

find ~/ -type d

You can also search for files or directories with a specific name pa ern. For instance, to find a file
named report.txt in your home directory, you would use:

bash

Copy code

find ~/ -name report.txt

If you want to search for files that contain a specific pa ern in their name, you can use wildcards. For
example:

bash

Copy code

find ~/ -name "*.txt"

This command will return all files in your home directory with a .txt extension.

Conclusion

In summary, in this video, we explored various search commands, including searching for textual
pa erns in files using the GREP command, lis ng files and directories with the LS command, and
finding files or directories in a hierarchical structure with the FIND command. We also learned how
to use these commands effec vely to perform different tasks.
Monolithic Kernel

Here’s an improved version of your transcript on monolithic kernels, with added examples and
clarifica ons while maintaining the original structure:

Monolithic Kernel

[MUSIC] Hello, everyone. Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. The topic of this par cular
video is the Monolithic Kernel. In this and some subsequent videos, we will explore different kernel
structures, which refer to the architectures used to design kernels. The first architecture we will
discuss is the Monolithic Kernel.

Overview of Monolithic Kernel

In this video, we will cover the architecture of the monolithic kernel, its func onal details—
specifically how it operates—and we will iden fy the various advantages and disadvantages
associated with a monolithic kernel.

A monolithic kernel does not have a well-defined structure. To understand this, let’s break down the
term monolithic. "Mono" means single, and "lith" refers to stone; hence, monolithic signifies one
single piece of stone or a consolidated structure. Essen ally, in a monolithic kernel, there is no
segrega on or sub-parts—the en re kernel is one single structure without any divisions or
dis nc ons. This indicates a clear absence of modulariza on.

Func onal Details

In a monolithic kernel, the en re opera ng system operates within the kernel space. Kernel space
refers to the memory loca ons where the kernel func ons. In this context, the opera ng system and
the kernel can be viewed as the same en ty, where all services are kernel services interac ng with
each other in the kernel space.

For example, if a kernel service needs to communicate with another kernel service, this can be done
easily since both services reside in the same space. There is no need for context switching between
different opera ng modes, which simplifies communica on.

Structure

As illustrated in the figure below, the monolithic kernel architecture dis nguishes between user
mode and kernel mode of opera on. In user mode, different applica ons run, while in kernel mode,
the en re opera ng system func ons, focusing on the services provided by the kernel.
Every func onality of the opera ng system, including device drivers, dispatchers, schedulers for CPU
scheduling, inter-process communica on primi ves, memory management, file systems, virtual file
systems, and the system call interface, is bundled within the kernel. This ght integra on allows for
seamless opera on but comes with its own set of challenges.

Advantages of Monolithic Kernel

1. Performance: A monolithic kernel is known for its high performance. Since all services run in
kernel space, there is minimal overhead during system call execu on. For instance, when one
kernel service interacts with another, it does not require switching between user space and
kernel space, making the process efficient.

2. Fast Inter-Process Communica on: Communica on between kernel services is swi because
it happens within the same memory space, elimina ng the need for transi ons that could
slow down the system.

Disadvantages of Monolithic Kernel

1. Large Size: Monolithic kernels are typically large since they bundle all func onali es of the
opera ng system within the kernel itself. This increased size can lead to more memory usage
and poten al performance issues.

2. Vulnerability to Errors: The monolithic structure is highly suscep ble to errors. If a bug or
malicious code affects one kernel service, it can compromise the en re kernel, leading to
system crashes. For example, if a device driver malfunc ons, it could cause the en re
opera ng system to become unstable.

3. Difficult to Extend: Adding new services to a monolithic kernel requires modifying the kernel
itself. This means that every me a new service is added, the kernel must be recompiled,
which can be a cumbersome process. For instance, integra ng new hardware support o en
necessitates extensive changes to the kernel.
Conclusion

In this video, we examined the architecture of a monolithic kernel, discussing its func onal details as
well as its advantages and disadvantages. While monolithic kernels can deliver high performance,
their size and suscep bility to errors present significant challenges. Thank you for watching!
Layered Kernel

Here’s an improved version of your transcript on layered kernels, incorpora ng examples and
clarifica ons while preserving the original structure:

Layered Kernel

[MUSIC] Hello, everyone. Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. The topic of this video is the
Layered Kernel. In this video, we will discuss the structure of a layered kernel, its func onal details—
specifically how a layered kernel operates—and we will iden fy the various advantages and
disadvantages of this architecture.

Overview of Layered Kernel

A layered kernel architecture divides the kernel into several layers or levels. You can think of each
layer as a set of opera ons, which are essen ally kernel services. These layers are organized
hierarchically, where each layer is built on top of the lower layers.

For instance, if we consider a layered architecture, the bo om-most layer (Layer 0) is the hardware
itself. The next layer (Layer 1) interacts directly with this hardware, while subsequent layers build on
this structure. At the top, we have the ul mate layer, Layer N, which serves as the user interface that
users interact with to communicate with the kernel.

Layer Hierarchy

1. Layer 0: Hardware

2. Layer 1: Kernel services that directly interact with hardware

3. Layer 2: Intermediate services

4. Layer N: User interface

In this architecture, a layer can u lize the func ons of the layers below it. For example, Layer 5 can
use the opera ons of Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1, but cannot directly access Layer 6 or any layer above it.
This constraint maintains the hierarchical integrity of the layers.

Diagramma c Representa on
Advantages of Layered Kernel

1. Modularity: A layered kernel is more modular than a monolithic kernel. The hierarchical
organiza on allows for a clear separa on of func onali es among the different layers. Each
layer performs specific services and uses designated data structures, making the kernel
easier to manage.

2. Simplified Debugging and Tes ng: Tes ng a layered kernel is straigh orward. Each layer can
be debugged and tested independently. For example, when Layer 1 is created, it is tested
before moving on to Layer 2. If a bug is found in Layer 5, it is easy to isolate it because Layers
1 through 4 have already been verified as error-free.

3. Error Isola on: In a layered architecture, if an error occurs, it can typically be traced back to
the layer being tested. This isola on simplifies the debugging process and reduces the me
needed to iden fy issues.

4. Abstrac on: Each layer can u lize the services of the lower layers without needing to
understand their implementa on details. This abstrac on allows developers to focus on the
services provided by each layer rather than the underlying complexi es.

Disadvantages of Layered Kernel

1. Defining Layers: It can be challenging to define the layers correctly. Since a layer can only use
func onali es from lower layers, careful planning is required to ensure that no layer needs
to access services from a higher layer. For example, if Layer 3 needs func onality that should
logically belong to Layer 2, it can complicate the architecture.

2. Detailed Planning Required: Designing a layered kernel requires me culous planning. A

small mistake in the design could lead to significant problems, necessita ng a complete
redesign.

3. Performance Issues: Layered kernels may suffer from performance overhead. When invoking
a system call in Layer 7, the call may need to pass through several layers (Layers 6, 5, and 4)
 before reaching the hardware. Each layer adds parameters and returns values, crea ng
addi onal overhead. This cascading effect means that layered kernels may be slower
compared to monolithic kernels, which can execute services directly without mul ple layers
of abstrac on.

Conclusion

In this video, we discussed the structure of a layered kernel, exploring its func onal details,
advantages, and disadvantages. While layered kernels offer modularity and ease of tes ng, they
come with challenges related to layer defini on and performance. Thank you for watching!
Microkernel

Here’s an improved version of your transcript on microkernels, with added examples and
clarifica ons while maintaining the original structure:

Microkernel

Hello, everyone. Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. The topic of this video is the
Microkernel. In this video, we will understand and discuss the structure of a microkernel, how it
operates, and finally, we will iden fy the advantages and disadvantages of this architecture.

Overview of Microkernel Architecture

The microkernel architecture is par cularly interes ng because it segregates the func onali es
offered by the opera ng system. Only the core, essen al func onali es of the opera ng system are
included in the kernel itself. This core kernel runs in kernel space, where it performs the minimum
necessary func ons required to interact with the underlying hardware.

Core Func ons of the Microkernel

The func onali es or services provided by the microkernel typically include:

 Memory Management: Handling memory alloca on and dealloca on.

 CPU Scheduling: Managing how processes are assigned to the CPU.

 Interprocess Communica on (IPC): Facilita ng communica on between processes.

In contrast to a monolithic kernel, which contains all opera ng system services, a microkernel
focuses on these fundamental tasks.

Structure of the Microkernel

As illustrated in the architecture diagram, the microkernel operates as follows:

 In kernel space, the microkernel performs its core func ons.

 In user space, addi onal services run separately from the kernel. These services may include:

o Applica on-level interprocess communica on (IPC)

o File servers

o Device drivers

For example, when a client program needs to access a file server, it cannot directly communicate
with the file server. Instead, it must send a request to the microkernel. Although this process adds
communica on overhead, it ensures that non-essen al services are kept separate from the core
kernel.
Diagramma c Representa on

Advantages of Microkernel

1. Smaller Kernel Size: The term "micro" reflects the small size of the kernel in this
architecture. Since only core func onali es are included, a microkernel is significantly
smaller than a monolithic kernel.

2. Extensibility: Opera ng systems designed using microkernel architecture are easily

extendable. When adding new services, developers can place them in user space without
modifying the core kernel. This means there's no need to recompile the kernel each me a
new service is introduced, simplifying updates.

3. Improved Security and Reliability: Microkernels offer enhanced security and reliability. For
instance, if a service running in user space crashes, it does not affect the kernel. This
separa on creates a more stable system, as the kernel remains unaffected by bugs or
malicious ac vity occurring in user space.

Disadvantages of Microkernel

1. Slower Performance: One notable drawback of the microkernel architecture is that it tends
to be slower than a monolithic kernel. The reason for this is the communica on overhead
involved when services in user space need to interact with the kernel. Each request from
user space must go through the kernel, which can slow down system call invoca ons and
overall execu on mes.

2. Increased Communica on Overhead: The need for user-space services to communicate with
the microkernel adds latency. For example, if a service in user space needs to perform a task
that involves mul ple kernel calls, the cumula ve overhead can lead to no ceable delays in
performance.

Conclusion
In this video, we discussed the structure of a microkernel architecture, including its core
func onali es and how it operates. We also analyzed the various advantages, such as smaller size
and increased security, as well as the disadvantages, primarily the slower performance compared to
monolithic kernels. Thank you for watching!
Loadable Kernel Modules

Here’s an improved version of your transcript on Loadable Kernel Modules, structured with clear
sec ons and addi onal examples for clarity:

Loadable Kernel Modules

[MUSIC]

Hello everyone, and welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will explore
loadable kernel modules (LKMs). We'll understand their structure, how they func on, and the
advantages they offer.

What Are Loadable Kernel Modules?

Loadable kernel modules are a mechanism that allows the kernel to be extended dynamically. In this
architecture, we segregate the essen al components of the opera ng system from the non-essen al
ones.

 Core Kernel: This is the core set of func onali es bundled together in the kernel.

 Non-Essen al Services: These addi onal services are not completely absent but are linked to
the kernel in the form of modules.

Dynamic Linking

The linking of these modules to the kernel can occur either:

 At Boot Time: When the system starts.

 At Run me: When the service is actually needed by the kernel.

This dynamic linking allows for flexibility, enabling services to be added or removed without
restar ng the en re opera ng system.

Structure of Loadable Kernel Modules

In this structure, each module is responsible for a well-defined set of tasks. Modules communicate
through a well-defined interface, which allows for organized interac on with one another.

Kernel Structure

 Core Kernel: Contains essen al services.

 Modules: Addi onal services such as:

o CPU Scheduling

o File Systems

o System Calls

o Inter-Process Communica on (IPC)

o Input/Output Opera ons

 o Device Drivers

These addi onal services can be linked into the core kernel as needed, promo ng a modular design.

Advantages of Loadable Kernel Modules

1. Easy to Extend

The modular structure makes it easy to add new services. You can introduce addi onal services
without modifying or recompiling the core kernel. This allows for greater flexibility and faster
updates.

2. No Need to Recompile

Since new services are added as separate modules, there’s no need to recompile the core kernel with
each change. This reduces down me and simplifies maintenance.

Comparison with Other Kernel Architectures

Loadable Kernel Modules vs. Layered Kernel Architecture

Loadable kernel modules are o en preferred over layered kernel architectures for several reasons:

 No Hierarchy: In a layered architecture, there is a strict hierarchy where one layer can only
use the func onali es of lower-level layers. In contrast, loadable kernel modules allow any
module to invoke services from any other module, fostering greater flexibility and
interac on.

Loadable Kernel Modules vs. Microkernel Architecture

Loadable kernel modules also have advantages over microkernel architecture:

 Reduced Overhead: Microkernel architecture typically requires inter-process communica on

(IPC) for service invoca on, which involves passing messages between processes. Loadable
kernel modules do not have this overhead since they can directly invoke services without
message passing.

Conclusion

In this video, we discussed the structure of loadable kernel modules and their advantages. We also
compared this architecture with the layered kernel architecture and the microkernel architecture.
Loadable kernel modules provide a flexible and efficient way to extend kernel func onality without
compromising performance.
Hybrid Kernel

Here’s an improved version of your transcript on Hybrid Kernels, structured for clarity and enhanced
understanding:

Hybrid Kernel

Hello everyone, and welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will discuss
hybrid kernels. We will first explore the mo va on behind adop ng a hybrid kernel and then
examine the advantages it offers.

Mo va on for Hybrid Kernels

Throughout this module, we have studied various kernel structures and the specific advantages each
one provides. However, each kernel structure has its limita ons. Wouldn't it be beneficial to combine
the advantages of several of these structures?

Combining Kernel Designs

Let's consider the idea of merging different kernel designs. For example, if we combine the
monolithic structure with loadable kernel modules, we can achieve the following benefits:

 Monolithic Kernel: Known for its speed, as it has minimal overhead during system calls and
kernel service invoca ons.

 Loadable Kernel Modules: These provide extensibility, making it easy to add new kernel
services.

By merging these two, we can create a kernel that is both fast and modular, allowing for
performance efficiency with the flexibility of extending services.

Combining Mul ple Structures

Now, let’s expand this idea further. Imagine if we integrate a monolithic kernel, a microkernel, and
loadable kernel modules:

 The monolithic aspect ensures fast performance.

 The microkernel aspect allows for some services to be separated from the core kernel,
though not to the same extent as in a pure microkernel architecture.

 The loadable kernel modules provide the ability to dynamically link addi onal services as
needed.

This combina on enables a kernel that merges the best features of each approach, enhancing the
overall architecture's performance.

Advantages of Hybrid Kernels

A hybrid kernel takes advantage of the strengths of various kernel design approaches, allowing
different parts of the kernel to be op mized based on specific requirements. These requirements can
include:
  Performance: By using a monolithic structure where speed is essen al.

 Security: By employing the modulariza on features of microkernels.

 Usability: By extending the kernel’s func onality with loadable modules.

This flexibility means that we can tailor the kernel to meet the specific needs of our applica ons or
systems.

Conclusion

In this video, we discussed the mo va on for having a hybrid kernel and the benefits it offers. We
also explored various use cases where a hybrid kernel can be par cularly useful. Thank you for
watching!
Basic Input-Output System (BIOS)

Here’s an improved version of your transcript on Basic Input/Output System (BIOS), structured for
clarity and enhanced understanding:

Basic Input/Output System (BIOS)

[MUSIC]

Hello everyone, and welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will explore the
Basic Input/Output System, commonly known as BIOS. We will discuss what BIOS is and the various
func ons it performs.

What is BIOS?

The BIOS is a crucial program that executes when we power on our computer system. The moment
you press the power bu on on your desktop or laptop, BIOS is the first program that runs.

Storage of BIOS

But where does BIOS run from? BIOS is stored on a chip located on the computer's motherboard,
typically an EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) chip. This is important to note
because it is not stored in RAM (Random Access Memory). Remember that RAM cannot retain its
content once the power is switched off, while BIOS is stored in a more persistent memory, specifically
in ROM (Read-Only Memory).

BIOS is also referred to as firmware because it is pre-installed on your system. When you purchase a
computer—be it a desktop or a laptop—the BIOS comes pre-installed by the manufacturer. Users do
not install BIOS themselves a er acquiring the computer. Alterna vely, BIOS can also be stored on
flash memory.

The Boot Process

CPU Startup

When you switch on your computer, the CPU (Central Processing Unit) starts up. However, it requires
certain instruc ons to execute, and at this moment, the main memory (RAM) is in an unini alized
state—it is blank. Thus, the CPU cannot fetch instruc ons from RAM.

Role of BIOS During Boo ng

To address this, the CPU looks to the BIOS chip on the motherboard, execu ng the BIOS program.
The BIOS performs several cri cal tasks during the boot process:

1. Hardware Ini aliza on: This includes ini alizing various hardware components, such as:

o Processors

o Main memory (RAM)

o Storage devices

o Peripheral devices
 o Device controllers

o The motherboard itself

2. Opera ng System Loading: A er ini alizing the hardware, the BIOS is responsible for loading
the opera ng system into the main memory.

Overall, we can say that BIOS manages the data flow between the opera ng system and hardware
devices. It is important to remember that whenever we power on our computer, control is passed to
the BIOS program, which performs the necessary stages of boo ng.

Accessing the BIOS

Although BIOS comes pre-installed, it can be accessed through the BIOS setup u lity. During boot
me, when the system is powering on, a specific key must be pressed to enter the BIOS setup u lity.
Common keys include:

 F2

 F10

 F12

The exact key varies depending on the system. If you keep pressing the designated key, you will enter
the BIOS setup.

Func ons of the BIOS Setup U lity

The BIOS setup u lity offers several func onali es, including:

 Changing Hardware Se ngs: Adjust se ngs for various hardware components.

 Managing Memory Se ngs: Configure memory-related se ngs.

 Changing Boot Order: Modify the sequence in which the system boots up and specify the
boot device. For example, if you want to install an opera ng system from a bootable USB
drive, you can set it as the primary boot device.

 Rese ng BIOS Passwords: Change or reset the BIOS password, if one is set.

 Other Configura on Tasks: Change se ngs such as date and me.

The appearance of the BIOS setup u lity may differ from system to system. Below is an example of
how a BIOS setup u lity might look:

Key Takeaway

While the exact layout may vary, the core func onali es remain consistent across systems.

Conclusion

In this video, we explored what BIOS is and the different func ons it performs. Thank you for
watching!
Power-On-Self-Test (POST)

Here's an improved version of your transcript on Power-On Self-Test (POST), organized for clarity and
enhanced understanding:

Power-On Self-Test (POST)

Hello everyone, and welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will explore the
Power-On Self-Test, commonly known as POST. We will discuss what POST is and the func onali es
it achieves within the boo ng process.

What is POST?

The Power-On Self-Test (POST) is a diagnos c test that runs automa cally when we power on our
computer system. POST is performed by the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System), which is the first
program that runs when the computer is powered on, even before the opera ng system begins
execu on.

Func onality of POST

During POST, the BIOS conducts a series of checks to ensure that the various hardware components
of the computer are properly connected and func oning correctly. These hardware components
include:

 Random Access Memory (RAM)

 Processors (CPU)

 Motherboard

 Peripheral devices (e.g., input/output devices)

 Device controllers

 Storage devices (e.g., disk drives)

This hardware tes ng occurs before the opera ng system is loaded into the main memory. It is
crucial to verify that all associated hardware components are opera onal, as any malfunc on would
prevent the computer from func oning correctly for the user.

Speed of POST

POST is an extremely fast process. On modern systems, users typically do not no ce when POST is
being performed. Once the hardware checks are completed successfully, the BIOS proceeds with the
remaining stages of the boo ng process.

Handling Errors During POST

If the BIOS detects any hardware malfunc ons during POST, it cannot con nue with the boo ng
process. Instead, the boo ng sequence is halted, and an error message is issued to inform the user
that certain hardware components are not func oning correctly.
Visual and Audio Indicators

One interes ng aspect of POST is that it is performed even before the graphics card is ini alized. The
graphics card is responsible for rendering images and content on the screen. If the graphics card is
not ready, the BIOS cannot display an error message visually. In such cases, POST uses an audible
method to convey errors:

 Error Indica on: Errors are indicated by a specific pa ern or sequence of beeps. Each
pa ern corresponds to a par cular hardware issue.

 Successful POST: If everything func ons correctly, POST issues a single long beep, indica ng
that all components are working fine. Any other beep pa ern signifies a different error
condi on.

You may have no ced this behavior when boo ng your desktop or laptop.

Conclusion

In this video, we explored what POST is, its role in the boot process, and how it ensures that
hardware components are func oning correctly before the opera ng system is loaded. Thank you for
watching!
Stages of System Boo ng

Here’s an improved version of your transcript on the Stages of System Boo ng, organized for clarity
and be er engagement:

Stages of System Boo ng

Hello, everyone. Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will explore the
stages of boo ng that occur when we power on our computer system. We will discuss the details
related to each of these stages.

Role of BIOS in Boo ng

The boo ng process is ini ated by the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System). Here’s how the process
unfolds:

Stage 1: Power-On Self-Test (POST)

1. Execu on of POST: As soon as the BIOS starts execu ng, it performs the Power-On Self-Test
(POST), which is a hardware diagnos c test designed to ensure that all the hardware
components of the system are func oning correctly.

2. Hardware Ini aliza on: A er confirming that all hardware components are opera onal
through POST, the BIOS proceeds to ini alize the various hardware components.

Stage 2: Searching for the Bootloader

3. Cycling Through Storage Devices: Once hardware ini aliza on is complete, the BIOS cycles
through the storage devices to search for the bootloader program.

4. Boot Block: The bootloader is typically found in a designated area known as the boot block,
which is usually located at the beginning of a disk drive. The boot block may span several
sectors or consist of just a single sector.

5. Boot Disk and Boot Par on: The disk containing the boot block is referred to as the boot
disk, and the par on that contains the boot disk is called the boot par on. You may
encounter terms like boot sector, boot par on, or boot disks, all of which relate to the
boo ng process.

6. Reason for Specific Loca ons: The reason we focus on the first sector(s) of a disk for the
bootloader is that having a standard loca on simplifies the BIOS’s task of loca ng the
bootloader across different systems.
Stage 3: Loading the Bootloader

7. First-Level Bootloader: The bootloader loaded into RAM is o en referred to as the first-level
bootloader. It contains the necessary instruc ons for the subsequent stages of boo ng.

8. Mul -Stage Boo ng: Modern opera ng systems o en u lize mul -stage boo ng, where the
boo ng sequence is divided among several bootloader programs. The first-level bootloader
will locate and load the second-level bootloader from the disk into RAM.

9. Execu on of the Second-Level Bootloader: The second-level bootloader is responsible for

traversing the en re file system to find the opera ng system kernel. Once located, the
kernel is loaded into main memory (RAM) and begins execu on.

Stage 4: System Readiness

10. Star ng System-Level Services: A er the kernel is loaded, it starts various system-level
services, making the system ready for use by the user.

Introduc on to GRUB

Let’s talk about an important bootloader known as GRUB, which stands for Grand Unified
Bootloader. GRUB is a bootloader package commonly found in Linux opera ng systems.

Func onality of GRUB

 Mul -Boot Capability: GRUB allows users to choose from mul ple opera ng systems
installed on their computer. For example, if you have both Windows and Ubuntu installed,
GRUB will present you with an op on to select which OS to boot into when the computer is
powered on.
  Kernel Configura on Op ons: GRUB also enables you to select specific kernel
configura ons. The interface may show several op ons, including different kernel versions or
recovery modes.

 Default Selec on: If you do not make a choice within a certain meframe, GRUB will select a
default op on and proceed with the boo ng process.

GRUB Interface

Here’s an example of what the GRUB interface might look like. Even if only one opera ng system, like
Ubuntu, is installed, you may see various flavors or configura ons available to choose from.

Conclusion

In this video, we learned about the different stages of boo ng, the details of each stage, and the
func onali es of the GRUB bootloader package. Thank you for watching
What is a Process?

In this video, we cover the concept of a process in opera ng systems. Here's a summary of the key
points:

1. What is a process?

o A process is essen ally a program in execu on. It consists of a program residing in

main memory, where instruc ons are fetched by the CPU, executed, and data is
manipulated.

o A program, by itself, is passive, stored on disk, while a process is an ac ve en ty that

gets executed when loaded into memory.

2. Processes in different systems:

o In batch systems, processes are called jobs, while in mul tasking systems, they are
termed tasks or user programs.

o Programs like "jobs," "tasks," and "processes" are used synonymously in literature.

3. Mul ple processes from one program:

o It is possible to create mul ple processes from a single program. For example, if you
run the same executable (e.g., a.out) on mul ple terminals, each execu on is treated
as a separate process by the opera ng system.

4. Parts of a process:

o Text Sec on: Contains the program code or source file.

o Program Counter and Registers: Represent the current ac vity or state of the
process. The program counter holds the next instruc on's address, while registers
(like accumulators, index registers) vary by computer architecture.

o Stack Sec on: Stores temporary informa on, such as func on parameters, return
addresses, and local variables during func on calls.

o Data Sec on: Holds globally declared variables.

o Heap Sec on: Dynamically allocated memory during execu on.

5. Growth of stack and heap:

o The stack grows downwards, while the heap grows upwards, as shown in memory
diagrams.

In summary, a process is the execu on of a program that has various components, including text,
data, stack, and heap sec ons, which manage different aspects of its opera on.
States of a Process

This video explains the various states a process goes through during its life cycle and the transi ons
between these states. Here's a breakdown of the key points:

1. Process States:

 New State: The process is being created and s ll resides in secondary memory. It is not yet
loaded into the main memory.

 Ready State: A er being loaded into the main memory, the process is ready for execu on
but has not yet been allocated the CPU. The process waits in the ready queue.

 Running State: The process transi ons to this state when it is allocated the CPU. Here, the
instruc ons of the process are executed one by one.

 Wai ng State: The process enters this state when it needs to wait for an event to occur, such
as an input/output (I/O) opera on. During this me, the process is taken off the ready queue
and put into the wai ng queue for the corresponding device or event.

 Terminated State: The process reaches this state once it has completed execu on. All
resources allocated to the process are reclaimed by the opera ng system.

2. State Transi ons:

 New → Ready: When the process is loaded into the main memory, it moves from the new
state to the ready state.

 Ready → Running: When a process is allocated the CPU, it transi ons from the ready state to
the running state.

 Running → Ready: If the processor is taken away (e.g., due to an interrupt or the me
quantum ending in a mul tasking system), the process moves back to the ready state.

 Running → Wai ng: If the process needs to perform an I/O opera on or wait for an event, it
moves to the wai ng state.

 Wai ng → Ready: A er the I/O opera on or event completes, the process transi ons back
to the ready state and waits for the CPU alloca on.

 Running → Terminated: Once the process finishes execu ng its final instruc on, it
transi ons to the terminated state.

3. Important Notes:

 A process never transi ons directly from the wai ng state to the running state. It must first
move to the ready state before it can run again.

 A process cannot transi on from the ready state to the wai ng state directly; it can only
enter the wai ng state from the running state (due to triggers like I/O requests).
Conclusion:

The video discussed the key process states and how a process transi ons between these states
during its life cycle. Each state is defined by what the process is doing (or wai ng to do), and the
opera ng system manages these transi ons efficiently to ensure that processes are executed and
resources are properly managed.
Process Control Block (PCB)

This video discusses the Process Control Block (PCB) and explains how an opera ng system iden fies
and represents a process. Here's a summary of the key points:

1. Process Iden fica on:

 Every process in a system is iden fied by a unique number known as the Process Iden fier
(PID).

 The PID is a system-wide unique integer value that increases monotonically for every new
process.

 You can view the PIDs of ac ve processes on a Linux system by using the command ps -el.
The output will display various process details, including the PID values in the fourth column.

2. Process Control Block (PCB):

 The PCB is a data structure that holds all relevant informa on about a process. It is
some mes referred to as the Task Control Block, since the terms "process" and "task" are
used interchangeably.

 Every process has a corresponding PCB, and there's a one-to-one rela onship between a
process and its PCB.

3. Informa on Stored in the PCB:

The PCB stores several crucial pieces of informa on about a process:

 Process State: Indicates the current state of the process (e.g., new, ready, running, wai ng).

 Program Counter: Holds the address of the next instruc on to be executed by the process.

 CPU Registers: Contains the contents of various CPU registers. The type and number of
registers depend on the computer architecture, but common ones include the accumulator,
index register, and general-purpose registers.

 CPU Scheduling Informa on:

o Process Priority: Determines the order in which processes are allocated the CPU.

o Pointers to Scheduling Queues: Helps manage processes in scheduling queues (e.g.,

ready queue).

o Other Scheduling Parameters: Addi onal details related to process scheduling.

 Memory Management Informa on:

o The range of memory addresses allocated to the process.

o Informa on related to memory management schemes such as page tables (for

paging systems) or segment tables (for segmenta on-based systems).

 Accoun ng Informa on:

o CPU U liza on: Percentage of CPU used by the process.

 o Execu on Time: Amount of me the process has been execu ng.

o Time Limits: Maximum me the user is willing to wait for the process's output.

o User Account Numbers: User accounts associated with the process.

o Process Number: The unique iden fier of the process.

 I/O Status Informa on:

o Lists the I/O devices allocated to the process.

o Lists files that are currently open and being used by the process.

4. Summary:

 The PCB is a cri cal structure in an opera ng system, represen ng various aspects of a
process, including its state, context, scheduling informa on, memory management data, and
I/O status.

 The PCB ensures that the system can efficiently manage processes and their resources.

Conclusion:

In this video, we learned how a process is uniquely iden fied by its PID, how it is represented using
the Process Control Block (PCB), and the different types of informa on stored within the PCB. This
structure helps the opera ng system manage processes efficiently, from memory management to
CPU scheduling and resource alloca on.
Process Context Switch

This video explains the concept of process context switching and the steps involved when the CPU
switches from execu ng one process to another. Here's a breakdown of the key points:

1. What is Context Switching?

 Context switching occurs when the CPU pauses the execu on of one process (called the old
process) and begins execu ng another (called the new process).

 Even though the term "new process" is used, it doesn't always mean the process is running
for the first me. It could be a previously halted process.

 The state of the old process is saved, and the state of the new process is loaded, allowing for
a seamless transi on between processes.

2. Why is Context Switching Necessary?

 Context switching allows the old process to be resumed later from the exact point where it
was halted.

 This ensures the old process doesn't restart but resumes its execu on, preven ng the loss of
progress.

 The system must store the old process's state so it can be resumed later.

3. Process Control Block (PCB) Role in Context Switching:

 The PCB stores the context (or state) of the process, which includes:

o CPU Registers: Temporary data being manipulated by the process.

o Program Counter: The address of the next instruc on to be executed, which is

crucial for resuming the process.

o Process State: Whether it is ready, running, wai ng, or in another state.

o Memory Management Informa on: The memory allocated to the process, such as
page or segment tables.

 During a context switch, the CPU registers, program counter, and other necessary state
informa on are saved for the old process in its PCB, and the new process’s state is loaded
from its PCB.

4. Context Switch Time:

 Context switch me is the period during which the CPU is switching from one process to
another. During this me, the CPU is not execu ng any useful tasks, making it an overhead.

 The context switch me is dependent on the hardware, and minimizing it is crucial to

maintaining good system performance, especially in mul tasking environments.

 High context switch mes can degrade performance, as mul tasking becomes less efficient
and the system struggles to create the illusion of performing mul ple tasks simultaneously.

5. Steps in Context Switching:

  Assume two processes, P1 and P2, are running, and the opera ng system is managing their
execu on.

 At some point, P1 is execu ng, but it receives an interrupt (e.g., a mer interrupt or system
call), so the CPU halts P1’s execu on.

 The state of P1 is saved in its PCB (PCB1), allowing the process to be resumed later from the
same point.

 The CPU then loads the state of P2 from its PCB (PCB2) and starts execu ng P2.

 Later, if P2 also receives an interrupt or system call, its state will be saved in PCB2, and the
CPU can switch back to P1, reloading its state from PCB1 to resume its execu on.

6. Summary:

 In this video, we learned that context switching involves saving the state of one process and
loading the state of another.

 This process is crucial for mul tasking, allowing mul ple processes to share CPU me
efficiently.

 We also explored the steps involved in a context switch and the role of the Process Control
Block (PCB) in storing and managing the state of processes.

This understanding of context switching helps explain how modern opera ng systems manage
mul tasking and ensure smooth transi ons between different processes without data loss or errors.
First process of Computer System

This video discusses the first process in a computer system, focusing primarily on the Linux
opera ng system. Below is a breakdown of the key points covered:

1. Introduc on to the First Process in Linux:

 In the Linux opera ng system, the first process created when the system boots is called the
init process.

 The init process has a PID value of 1 and is created by the kernel during boot me. The term
"init" stands for ini aliza on.

 The init process con nues to execute as long as the system is powered on and only
terminates when the system is shut down.

2. How the Init Process is Created:

 A er the Linux kernel is loaded into the main memory during boot, the kernel starts various
services, including the init process.

 The init process is the first user-space process, meaning it's the first process that runs in user
mode (as opposed to kernel mode).

3. Finding the Init Process:

 To check for the init process on a Linux system, you can use the command ps -1.

 This command will output the PID of 1 for the init process, and in the command column,
you’ll see the file from which the process was created, such as /sbin/init.

 The path may vary slightly depending on the version of Linux being used.

4. Role of the Init Process:

 The init process is responsible for preparing the system to be used by users. Specifically, it:

o Creates other processes, assigning them PIDs star ng from 2, 3, 4, and so on.

o Mounts the file system, making the system ready for use.

o Acts as the ancestor of all processes, meaning it sits at the top of the process tree
and all other processes are descendants of the init process.

5. System D and Kernel Interac on:

 One of the key services the Linux kernel starts during boot is the system D service manager.

 System D is a so ware suite responsible for managing system and service-related tasks.

 The system transi ons from kernel mode to user mode, and in user mode, the init process
executes.

6. Process Switching Between User and Kernel Mode:

  While user processes run in user mode, any system call made by a user process causes the
system to switch to kernel mode to execute the system call.

7. Summary:

 In the Linux system, the init process is the first process created, with PID 1.

 It is responsible for crea ng other processes, moun ng file systems, and preparing the
system for user interac ons.

 Init is the ancestor of all other processes, playing a crucial role in the Linux environment.

 Other opera ng systems, such as Windows and Mac OS, have their own designated first
processes.

The init process is essen al in se ng up and managing the user environment in Linux systems, ac ng
as the founda onal process for all subsequent user and system processes.
Process Crea on

Here’s a refined version of your script on Process Crea on in Linux Opera ng Systems for improved
clarity and structure:

[MUSIC] Welcome to the Opera ng Systems Course

In this video, we will be discussing Process Crea on in Linux.

Overview

By the end of this video, you will:

 Understand how to create processes in a Linux system.

 Learn how to use the fork func on.

 Know how to access Process IDs (PIDs) using different func ons.

Process Crea on in Linux

In Linux, we create new processes using the fork() system call.

 When a process issues the fork() call, it creates a copy of itself.

 The process issuing the fork() is called the parent process.

 The new process created is called the child process.

Parent and Child Processes

 The address space of the child is iden cal to that of the parent.

 The child process inherits:

o Program code.

o Variables and data structures from the parent.

However, parent and child do not share data. Both processes have their own copies of the variables.
For example:

 If the parent has a variable x, the child will also have x.

 Changes made to the parent's x will not affect the child's x, and vice versa.

The Fork Func on

A er the child process is created, both parent and child con nue execu ng from the line a er the
fork() call. Here's how fork() behaves:

 Return Values:

o In the child process, fork() returns 0.

o In the parent process, fork() returns the PID of the child.

Loca on of Fork Defini on

The fork() func on is defined in the unistd.h header file. Ensure you include this in your program.

 Func on signature:

Copy code

pid_t fork(void);

Understanding PIDs

The fork() func on returns a value of type pid_t, which represents process iden fiers (PIDs) in Linux.

 pid_t is a data type defined in sys/types.h, used uniformly across all POSIX-compliant
systems.

 Internally, it is an integer value, but as per the POSIX standard, pid_t is the official data type
for PIDs.

Example of Fork Usage

Here’s a simple program demonstra ng the crea on of a process:

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#include <unistd.h>

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

fork(); // Create a new process

prin ("Hello\n");

return 0;

 When compiled and executed, this program will print "Hello" twice: once by the parent and
once by the child process.

 Since both processes print "Hello" immediately a er the fork(), there’s no indica on of which
process printed which line.

Process Flow

Let’s visualize what happens a er the fork() call:

 Assume process P1 has a PID of 1101.

 When P1 issues the fork() call, a child process (C) is created with PID 1102.
  Both P1 and C con nue execu ng independently from the next instruc on a er the fork().

Accessing Process IDs

Linux provides func ons to access the PIDs of processes:

1. getpid(): Retrieves the PID of the current process.

o Defined in unistd.h.

o Signature:

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pid_t getpid(void);

2. getppid(): Retrieves the Parent Process ID (PPID).

o Every process has a parent, and this func on returns the PID of the parent process.

o Defined in unistd.h.

o Signature:

Copy code

pid_t getppid(void);

Conclusion

In this video, we covered:

 How to create processes using the fork() func on in Linux.

 The details of the fork() func on, including its return values and how it works.

 Accessing process IDs using getpid() and getppid().

What to do a er process crea on?

Here's an improved and more structured version of your script on What to Do A er Process Crea on
in Linux:

[MUSIC] Welcome to the Opera ng Systems Course

Topic: What to Do A er Process Crea on

In this video, we will:

 Discuss what happens a er a process is created in Linux.

 Learn how to make the parent and child processes perform different tasks.

 Explore how to ensure that the parent process waits for the child process using the wait()
func on.

 Understand how the exec family of func ons can allow processes to execute different tasks.

Process Crea on Recap

We’ve already seen how a parent process can create a child process using the fork() func on. As a
reminder:

 The child process is an exact replica of the parent process’s address space.

 A er fork(), both the parent and child processes execute concurrently or in parallel,
depending on the system’s resources.

Without interven on, both processes typically perform the same task. But what if we want them to
perform different tasks or have the parent wait for the child to finish? Let’s explore how to handle
these scenarios.

Making the Parent Wait for the Child

A common requirement is for the parent process to wait for the child process to finish before
con nuing. This can be achieved using the wait() func on.

The wait() Func on

 The wait() func on causes the parent process to pause un l the child process finishes.

 It accepts an argument of type int *status (an integer pointer) and returns the PID of the
terminated child process.

The wait() func on is defined in the sys/wait.h header file.

Here’s how it works:

1. When a parent process calls wait(), it transi ons from the running state to the wai ng state.

2. Once the child process terminates, it calls the exit() func on (either explicitly or via a return
statement).
 3. The exit status of the child is passed to the parent via the status argument in wait().

 If the child terminates normally, status will store a value of 0.

 If the child experiences an abnormal termina on, status will store a non-zero value.

On success, wait() returns the PID of the terminated child, allowing the parent to iden fy which child
process has completed (in cases where mul ple child processes exist).

Example: Using wait()

Here’s a simple program demonstra ng the use of fork() and wait():

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#include <sys/wait.h>

#include <unistd.h>

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

pid_t p = fork();

if (p == 0) { // Child process

prin ("Hello\n");

} else { // Parent process

wait(NULL); // Parent waits for the child

prin ("Bye\n");

return 0;

Explana on:

 Child Process: Prints "Hello" and terminates.

 Parent Process: Calls wait(), ensuring that it waits for the child to finish before prin ng "Bye".

Without wait(), the order of output (Hello/Bye) would be unpredictable. Using wait(), the output is
always:

Copy code

Hello

Bye
Making Parent and Child Perform Different Tasks

So far, we’ve seen how both processes could perform the same task. But what if we want the parent
and child to execute different tasks? This can be done in two ways:

1. Using if-else logic a er the fork() call.

2. Using the exec family of func ons to load a new process image.

Let’s explore the second method.

The exec Family of Func ons

The exec family allows us to replace the current process image with a new one. This is useful when
we want the child process to run a completely different program.

How exec Works:

 When a process calls exec(), its current image (the program and its associated data) is erased
and replaced by a new image.

 The new image corresponds to a binary file specified by the exec func on.

 exec() func ons do not return if successful; they return -1 only if an error occurs.

Example: execlp() Func on

Here’s an example of the execlp() func on, one of the variants of exec:

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#include <unistd.h>

int main() {

pid_t p = fork();

if (p == 0) { // Child process

execlp("/bin/ls", "ls", NULL); // Replaces child process with "ls" command

} else { // Parent process

wait(NULL); // Parent waits for the child to complete

prin ("Child completed\n");

return 0;

}
How execlp() Works:

 The child process executes the ls command, replacing its current image with the ls binary.

 The parent waits for the child to finish before prin ng "Child completed".

Child Process (p == 0):

 When p == 0, this means we're inside the child process.

 The execlp() func on is called in the child process. It replaces the child's current process
image with the ls command, effec vely running the ls program instead of the original code.

o execlp("/bin/ls", "ls", NULL);: This runs the ls command located at /bin/ls. The NULL
at the end marks the end of the argument list.

o Once execlp() is called, the child process is replaced by the ls command. The ls
command lists the contents of the current directory.

execlp() Signature:

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int execlp(const char *file, const char *arg, ..., NULL);

 file: The path to the binary (in this case, /bin/ls).

 arg1, arg2, ..., argN: The arguments to pass to the new program.

 The argument list is null-terminated.

Conclusion

In this video, we learned:

 How to use the wait() func on to make the parent process wait for the child.

 How the exec family of func ons can be used to load a new process image, allowing the
parent and child processes to perform different tasks.

By leveraging if-else logic or exec() calls, we can efficiently manage and coordinate process execu on
in a Linux environment.
Pu ng it all together

Here's a structured summary of the video transcript on opera ng systems, focusing on process
management and the use of fork, exec, and wait system calls:

Overview of the Video

 Topic: The video discusses how to effec vely use fork, exec, and wait func ons in
programming.

 Purpose: To demonstrate different execu on paths and the interac on between parent and
child processes using these func ons.

Key Concepts

1. Process Crea on:

o fork(): Used to create a new process. The newly created process is called the child
process.

o The return value of fork() helps to differen ate between the parent and child
processes:

 Child process: Receives 0.

 Parent process: Receives the child's process ID (PID).

2. Execu ng New Programs:

o execlp(): Used by the child process to replace its current image with a new program.

o Example: The command execlp("/bin/ls", "ls", "-l", NULL); executes the ls command
with the -l op on, replacing the child process's image.

3. Process Synchroniza on:

o wait(): The parent process can wait for the child process to finish execu on. This
ensures that the parent only con nues a er the child has completed.

Example Program Breakdown

First Example

1. Program Structure:

o Several header files are included (e.g., <unistd.h> for process control).

o A new process is created using fork().

2. Child Process:

o Calls execlp() to execute ls -l. The current image of the child is replaced with the ls
command.

o A print statement a er execlp() is not executed because execlp() does not return if
successful.
 3. Parent Process:

o Waits for the child to complete using wait().

o Prints "by" a er the child process has finished execu ng.

4. Output:

o The output first displays the result of ls -l (lis ng files in the current directory).

o The statement "by" is printed a erward, confirming that the parent waited for the
child.

Second Example (Sample1.c)

1. Program Structure:

o Similar to the first example but includes addi onal func onality.

o The child process prints its own PID and the parent's PID before execu ng a different
executable (sample2.out).

2. Child Process:

o Uses getpid() to print its own PID.

o Uses getppid() to print the parent's PID.

o Executes sample2.out using execlp().

3. Parent Process:

o Waits for the child to finish and then prints its own PID.

4. Sample2.c Func onality:

o Calls execlp() to execute cat to display the contents of a file named "My file".

5. Output:

o The output sequence includes:

 The child process's PID and the parent's PID printed by the child.

 The output of the cat command from sample2.out.

 The parent's PID printed by the parent a er the child has completed.

Conclusion

 The video concludes by reitera ng the importance of understanding and effec vely using
process-related func ons (fork, exec, wait) in programming.

 It emphasizes the interac ve nature of parent and child processes and how they manage
execu on flow and synchroniza on.

Closing Statement

 Thank you for watching, and the video aims to enhance understanding of process
management in opera ng systems.
Here are the detailed examples from the video, including the code snippets for both sample1.c and
sample2.c, along with explana ons of their func onality:

Example Program 1: Using fork, exec, and wait

Code for sample1.c

Copy code

#include <stdio.h>

#include <unistd.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <sys/wait.h>

int main() {

pid_t p = fork(); // Create a new process

if (p == 0) { // Child process

execlp("/bin/ls", "ls", "-l", NULL); // Replace child process with "ls -l"

prin ("Hello\n"); // This will not execute

} else { // Parent process

wait(NULL); // Parent waits for the child to complete

prin ("by\n"); // This will print a er child completes

return 0;

Explana on:

 Header Files: The program includes necessary headers for process control (<unistd.h>), types
(<sys/types.h>), and wait func ons (<sys/wait.h>).

 Process Crea on: fork() creates a new child process.

 Child Process:

o Calls execlp("/bin/ls", "ls", "-l", NULL); to execute the ls -l command, replacing the
child process's image.

o The statement prin ("Hello\n"); will not execute because execlp() does not return on
success.
  Parent Process:

o Waits for the child process to complete using wait(NULL);.

o A er the child finishes, it prints "by\n".

Output:

 The output will show the list of files in the current directory in long format (from ls -l),
followed by "by" printed by the parent process.

Example Program 2: Using a Child to Execute Another Program

Code for sample1.c

Copy code

#include <stdio.h>

#include <unistd.h>

#include <sys/types.h>

#include <sys/wait.h>

int main() {

pid_t p = fork(); // Create a new process

if (p == 0) { // Child process

prin ("Child PID = %d\n", getpid()); // Print child PID

prin ("Parent PID of child = %d\n", getppid()); // Print parent PID

execlp("./sample2.out", "sample2.out", NULL); // Replace child process with sample2.out

} else { // Parent process

wait(NULL); // Wait for the child to complete

prin ("Parent PID = %d\n", getpid()); // Print parent PID

prin ("by\n"); // Print a er child completes

return 0;

}
Explana on:

 Child Process:

o Prints its own PID and its parent's PID using getpid() and getppid().

o Executes sample2.out using execlp(), replacing its image with that of sample2.out.

 Parent Process:

o Waits for the child to finish using wait(NULL);.

o A er the child completes, it prints its own PID and "by\n".

Code for sample2.c

Copy code

#include <stdio.h>

#include <unistd.h>

int main() {

execlp("/bin/cat", "cat", "My_file.txt", NULL); // Replace with cat command to display contents of
My_file.txt

return 0;

Explana on:

 sample2.c: This program uses execlp() to execute the cat command to display the contents of
a file named My_file.txt.

Output:

1. From sample1.c, you will see:

o The child process prints its own PID and the parent's PID.

o The output of sample2.out, which is the content of My_file.txt.

o Finally, the parent process prints its PID and "by".

Summary

These examples illustrate how to create child processes, replace their images with new programs,
and synchronize parent and child execu on using fork, exec, and wait. The first example focuses on
execu ng a system command, while the second shows a chain of execu on between two custom
programs.
Process Termina on

Here’s an improved version of your transcript on Process Termina on that incorporates clear
structure, key points, and examples where necessary:

Video Transcript: Process Termina on

Hello, everyone. Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will explore the
concept of process termina on, discussing various aspects associated with it, including the types of
processes related to termina on.

What is Process Termina on?

Every process, upon finishing the execu on of its final statement, undergoes termina on. This
process can invoke the exit func on call directly or indirectly through a return statement. When a
process terminates, it returns an exit status to its corresponding parent process. This communica on
occurs only if the parent process has called wait for the specific child process and passed the
necessary arguments to the wait func on.

 If the child process terminates normally, it returns an exit value of zero to the parent.

 If an abnormal termina on occurs, a non-zero exit value is returned.

Upon termina on, the process releases all resources allocated to it, which are then reclaimed by the
opera ng system.

Termina on Using the Kill Command

A parent process may wish to terminate a child process for various reasons:

 The parent itself may need to terminate, and the environment doesn't allow the existence of
a child process once the parent has terminated.

 The task assigned to the child may no longer be necessary, making it redundant.

In some opera ng systems, when a parent process terminates, all its child processes also terminate.
This phenomenon is known as cascading termina on, where the termina on of a parent process
leads to the termina on of all its descendant processes.

Example of Cascading Termina on: Consider the following scenario:

 A parent process P creates a child process C1.

 P creates another child process C2.

 C1 creates a child process C3.

If P terminates, it causes the termina on of C1, C2, and C3. This is cascading termina on. However, in
Linux environments (like Ubuntu), child processes can con nue execu ng even if the parent process
has terminated.

Types of Processes Related to Termina on

 1. Zombie Process:

o A process becomes a zombie when it has terminated, but its entry remains in the
process table because the parent process has not invoked wait.

o Example: Suppose we have a parent process P and a child process C. If C terminates

and P does not call wait, C becomes a zombie process. Its exit status is preserved in
the process table un l P calls wait.

To check for zombie processes, we can use:

Copy code

ps -el | grep Z

or

Copy code

ps -el | grep defunct

The output will show entries where the le er Z or the term defunct appears, indica ng zombie
processes.

2. Orphan Process:

o An orphan process occurs when a child process C con nues execu ng a er its
parent process P has terminated.

o When C terminates, it becomes a zombie process, but since P is no longer available

to collect its exit status, the init process (the first process created in the system)
adopts C as its new parent.

o The init process will call wait to collect the exit status of the zombie process and
remove its entry from the process table.

Summary

In this video, we covered:

 The mechanisms of process termina on and the significance of exit statuses.

 The concept of cascading termina on.

 The characteris cs of zombie and orphan processes and their management by the init
process.
Benefits of IPC

Here’s an improved and structured version of the transcript for clarity:

Video Topic: Benefits of Inter Process Communica on (IPC)

Hello everyone, welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. The topic of this video is the benefits
of Inter Process Communica on (IPC).

By the end of this video, we will have covered:

1. What Inter Process Communica on (IPC) is.

2. The different mechanisms through which IPC is achieved.

3. The benefits offered by IPC.

What is Inter Process Communica on (IPC)?

In any computer system, we have mul ple concurrent processes execu ng simultaneously. These
processes can be categorized into two types:

1. Independent Process:

o An independent process is one that does not affect other processes and is not
affected by others.

o Since these processes don’t communicate with each other, they do not require IPC.

2. Coopera ng Process:

o A coopera ng process, on the other hand, can affect and be affected by other
processes.

o These processes need to communicate with each other, and this is where IPC
becomes essen al.

For coopera ng processes, communica on involves informa on exchange between them, and this
is facilitated by IPC mechanisms.

IPC Mechanisms

The different types of IPC mechanisms include:

1. Shared Memory

2. Message Passing

3. Pipes

We will cover each of these mechanisms in detail in subsequent videos.

Benefits of IPC

Now, let’s look at the various benefits that Inter Process Communica on offers:

1. Coopera ve Execu on of Processes:

o IPC allows for mul ple processes to work on different subtasks of a larger task.

o These subtasks can be assigned to specific processes, enabling coopera on through

IPC mechanisms.

2. Resource Sharing:

o IPC facilitates the sharing of resources like files or databases.

o For example, mul ple processes can access a shared file simultaneously, and the
informa on from that file can be shared among them.

3. Computa on Speed-up:

o By breaking down a task into several subtasks, each performed by a separate

process, these processes can execute in parallel.

o This results in a speed-up in the overall execu on me and increases the throughput
of the system.

4. Required for Distributed Applica ons:

o Distributed applica ons are those that run across mul ple systems or nodes, each
execu ng different processes.

o IPC is mandatory for communica on between these processes in a distributed

environment.

5. Informa on Sharing:

o When mul ple processes are working coopera vely, the informa on one process
gains may need to be shared with others.

o For instance, a process that receives input from a user may need to share that
informa on with other processes that are working together on the same task. IPC
facilitates this informa on exchange.

Summary

In this video, we have discussed:

1. What Inter Process Communica on (IPC) is.

2. The various mechanisms through which IPC can be achieved.

3. The benefits that IPC offers, such as coopera ve execu on, resource sharing, computa on
speed-up, distributed applica on support, and informa on sharing.
Shared Memory

Here’s an improved and more structured version of the transcript:

Video Topic: Shared Memory in Inter-Process Communica on (IPC)

Hello, everyone! Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. The topic of this video is Shared
Memory, which is an inter-process communica on (IPC) mechanism.

By the end of this video, we will:

1. Understand the concept of shared memory as an IPC mechanism.

2. Discuss how different processes communicate via shared memory.

3. Analyze the advantages and disadvantages of shared memory.

What is Shared Memory?

Shared memory is an IPC mechanism where processes that wish to communicate establish a shared
memory region. This region becomes accessible to all the processes that need to exchange
informa on.

Here’s how it works:

 One process creates the shared memory region.

 The other processes that need to communicate a ach this shared memory region to their
own address space.

 The opera ng system, under normal circumstances, does not allow one process to access
another process’s address space. However, with shared memory, this restric on is relaxed
for the designated shared memory region.

Once the processes are a ached to the shared memory, they can read from or write to it, facilita ng
communica on between them. It's important to note that only the shared memory segment is
accessible to the processes, not the en re address space of the process that created it.

How Informa on Exchange Happens

Informa on exchange through shared memory occurs through read and write opera ons:

 One process writes data into the shared memory segment.

 The other processes can then read this data from the shared memory segment.

However, synchroniza on is cri cal. Without synchroniza on, mul ple processes might a empt to
write to the shared memory at the same me, poten ally leading to data corrup on.

Here’s a simple example:

  Process P1 creates the shared memory segment.

 Processes P2, P3, and P4 a ach the shared memory segment to their address spaces.

 Any data wri en by one process is then accessible to the other processes.

The en re process of crea ng and a aching shared memory is handled using predefined API
func on calls. Once the communica on is complete, the creator process deletes the shared memory
segment.

Advantages of Shared Memory

1. Fast Communica on:

o Shared memory enables very fast communica on since system calls are only needed
to set up the shared memory region.

o Once the region is established, reading and wri ng data from the shared memory
are as fast as normal memory access opera ons.

2. Ideal for Bulk Data Transfer:

o Shared memory is highly suitable for transferring large amounts of data between
processes. This makes it an efficient solu on when handling bulk data.

Disadvantages of Shared Memory

1. Need for Synchroniza on:

o Synchroniza on is required to ensure that mul ple processes do not write to the
shared memory segment at the same me. Otherwise, this can lead to data
corrup on or inconsistent data.

o Similarly, processes should not read from the shared memory while another process
is s ll wri ng to it, as they might end up reading par al data.

2. Not Suitable for Distributed Systems:

o Shared memory is not suitable for distributed systems or applica ons. It is difficult to
emulate shared memory when processes are distributed across different systems or
networks.

Summary

In this video, we covered:

1. The concept of shared memory as an IPC mechanism.

2. How processes communicate using shared memory.

3. The advantages and disadvantages of shared memory.

Message Passing

Here’s a refined and well-structured version of the transcript on message passing:

Video Topic: Message Passing in Inter-Process Communica on (IPC)

Hello, everyone! Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. The topic of this video is Message
Passing, which is an inter-process communica on (IPC) mechanism.

In this video, we will cover the following:

1. Understanding the concept of message passing as an IPC mechanism.

2. How mul ple processes can communicate with one another using message passing.

3. The advantages and disadvantages of message passing.

What is Message Passing?

Message passing is an IPC mechanism where processes communicate by exchanging messages. The
two fundamental opera ons in message passing systems are:

1. Send: One process sends a message to another process.

2. Receive: Another process receives the message from the sender.

To enable message passing, a communica on link is required between the processes. Once this link
is established, processes can transmit messages to each other through it.

Message passing systems support different message sizes:

 Some systems allow fixed-size messages.

 Other systems may support variable-sized messages.

Types of Message Passing

Message passing can be of two types:

1. Direct Message Passing:

o In direct message passing, the sender and receiver must explicitly know each other's
iden ty.

o For instance, if Process P1 wants to send a message to Process P2, it executes a send
opera on, which includes P2 and the message itself as arguments. Here, P1 explicitly
names P2 as the recipient.

o Similarly, if P1 wants to receive a message from P2, it performs a receive opera on,
specifying P2 and the message.
In this type, processes are directly aware of each other's existence, making direct iden fica on
necessary.

2. Indirect Message Passing:

o In indirect message passing, the sender and receiver do not need to know each
other’s iden ty. Instead, they communicate via a mailbox.

o A mailbox is essen ally an object where messages are stored and later retrieved.

o For communica on to occur, processes must share a mailbox. The mailbox acts as
the communica on link between them.

For example, if Process P1 and Process P2 share a mailbox called X, P1 can send a message to X, and
P2 can later retrieve it. This decouples the sender and receiver from having direct knowledge of one
another.

Mailboxes are iden fied by a system-wide unique iden fier that ensures the correct mailbox is
accessed.

Advantages of Message Passing

1. Useful for Small Data Exchanges:

o Message passing is par cularly efficient for exchanging small amounts of data
between processes.

2. No Synchroniza on Required:

o Unlike shared memory, synchroniza on is not required in message passing. When

one process sends data, other processes do not need to wait for it, making
communica on smoother.

3. Suitable for Distributed Systems:

o Message passing is ideal for distributed systems where processes are running on
different machines. Shared memory cannot be used across machines, but message
passing can facilitate communica on in such environments.

Disadvantages of Message Passing

1. Slower than Shared Memory:

o Message passing is typically slower than shared memory communica on. Each send
and receive opera on requires system calls, which introduce overhead.

o For example, if 100 messages are being exchanged between processes, there will be
a significant number of system calls, each adding some latency.

2. Not Suitable for Bulk Data Transfers:

 o While it works well for small data exchanges, message passing is not ideal for large-
scale data transfers. In such cases, shared memory is a be er op on as it allows fast,
direct access to the data.

Summary

In this video, we discussed:

1. The concept of message passing as an IPC mechanism.

2. The two types of message passing: direct and indirect.

3. The advantages (suitable for small data, no synchroniza on, works well in distributed
systems) and disadvantages (slower, not ideal for large data transfers) of message passing.
Message Queue

Here’s a refined version of your transcript on Message Queue:

Video Topic: Message Queue in Inter-Process Communica on (IPC)

Hello, everyone! Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. The topic of this video is Message
Queue, which is an important mechanism in message passing-based inter-process communica on
(IPC).

In this video, we will cover the following:

1. Understanding the concept of a message queue.

2. Why message queues are needed in IPC.

3. How message queue-based IPC works.

What is a Message Queue?

A message queue is a data structure used in message passing-based IPC. In this IPC mechanism, the
sender process sends messages to the receiver process, but some mes the receiver may not be
ready to immediately retrieve the messages. This is where a message queue becomes essen al.

The message queue temporarily stores the messages un l the receiver is ready to receive them. In
other words, the sender appends messages to the queue, and the receiver retrieves them when
convenient.

How Message Queues Work

In this example, we have two processes, P1 (sender) and P2 (receiver), communica ng through a
message queue. P1 sends messages that are inserted into the queue, which are ordered like M0, M1,
M2, and so on. If the queue has a capacity of n+1 messages, once it is full, the sender (P1) must
block or wait. Otherwise, the queue will overflow, as it has limited capacity.

Similarly, if the queue becomes empty, and P2 tries to retrieve a message, two things can happen:

1. P2 might return empty-handed.

2. P2 may also need to block and wait un l a message becomes available.

Once the receiver retrieves a message from the queue, that message is deleted or removed from the
queue. This means that once a message is read, it cannot be accessed again.

Crea ng a Message Queue

In IPC, one process creates the message queue using specific func on calls available in different
opera ng systems. Once created, the message queue is associated with a system-wide unique
iden fier. Processes that wish to communicate using the queue must reference this iden fier.
Without access to it, they cannot send or receive messages.

Dele on of the Queue

A er the communica on ends, the creator process should delete the message queue before
termina ng. This ensures that the queue does not remain in the system unnecessarily.

Handling Synchronous Communica on

Message queues allow for asynchronous communica on, meaning the receiver doesn’t need to
retrieve messages immediately when they are sent. Messages can be retrieved later, giving flexibility
to the receiver process. However, care must be taken to avoid overflowing the queue, as this can
lead to message loss.

Mul plexing in Message Queues (Linux Environment)

Message queues also support mul plexing when there are mul ple receiver processes. Consider a
scenario with one sender process and three receiver processes: Receiver 1, Receiver 2, and Receiver
3. Each receiver only wants specific messages, such as:

 Receiver 1 retrieves Type 1 messages.

 Receiver 2 retrieves Type 2 messages.

 Receiver 3 retrieves Type 3 messages.

In this case, the sender doesn’t broadcast messages to all receivers but instead sends specific
messages to each receiver based on the message type. The message type is a field associated with
each message. The receiver specifies which type of message it wants, and unless that specific type is
available, the receiver’s request will not be completed.

Summary

In this video, we explored the concept of a message queue, how it facilitates inter-process
communica on, and opera onal details such as crea ng the queue, avoiding message loss, and using
mul plexing for handling different types of messages.
Pipe

Here’s a refined version of your transcript on Pipes in Inter-Process Communica on (IPC):

Video Topic: Pipe in Inter-Process Communica on (IPC)

Hello, everyone! Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will be discussing
pipes, an essen al IPC mechanism. We’ll cover:

1. The concept of a pipe.

2. The different types of pipes used in IPC.

3. How processes can communicate using a pipe.

A pipe acts as a communica on channel between processes, enabling them to pass informa on. In a
simple setup, one process writes to the pipe (ac ng as the sender), while the other process reads
from it (ac ng as the receiver). However, unlike message queues, the informa on passed through
pipes is not treated as dis nct messages.

Types of Pipes

There are two primary types of pipes used for IPC:

1. Ordinary Pipes

2. Named Pipes

Let’s explore both in detail.

Ordinary Pipes

Ordinary pipes allow unidirec onal communica on, meaning that data can only flow in one
direc on—from one process to another. If you need bidirec onal communica on, you must use two
pipes: one for each direc on.

 One process acts as the writer (producing informa on).

 The other process acts as the reader (consuming informa on).

Important Property:

Ordinary pipes can only be used between related processes, typically those with a parent-child
rela onship. This means that two unrelated processes (not linked as parent and child) cannot
communicate via an ordinary pipe.

Structure of a Pipe:

A pipe has two ends:

 Read End: Used by the reader process to retrieve informa on.

  Write End: Used by the writer process to send informa on.

Let’s consider a scenario where the parent process creates an ordinary pipe before crea ng a child
process. Since the child inherits resources from the parent (including the pipe), it can then read from
or write to the pipe, depending on the roles assigned.

 If the parent writes to the pipe, the child can read from it.

 The roles can also be reversed, where the child writes and the parent reads.

Best Prac ces:

 The reader process should close the write end of the pipe, as it only needs access to the
read end.

 The writer process should close the read end of the pipe, as it only needs access to the write
end.

This prac ce ensures efficient use of resources.

Ordinary Pipes on Linux:

On Linux, pipes are treated as a special kind of file. Both the read and write ends of the pipe are
represented as file descriptors. Since the pipe is treated as a file, when a parent creates a pipe and a
child process inherits it, both processes get their own set of file descriptors to access the pipe.

Once the communica on is over, the parent can delete the pipe, but this o en happens
automa cally when the parent terminates.

On Windows, ordinary pipes are referred to as anonymous pipes.

Named Pipes

Named pipes are more robust compared to ordinary pipes. They allow for bidirec onal
communica on, meaning data can flow in both direc ons between processes. Unlike ordinary pipes,
named pipes do not require processes to have a parent-child rela onship.

Key Features:

 Named pipes enable communica on between unrelated processes.

 They allow mul ple processes to communicate via the same pipe.

 Named pipes persist beyond the life me of the processes that were using them. This means
that the pipe remains available for future communica on even a er the processes
terminate.

On Linux, named pipes are also referred to as FIFO (First In, First Out).

Summary

In this video, we covered the concept of a pipe as an IPC mechanism. We also explored the two main
types of pipes:
 Ordinary Pipes, which allow unidirec onal communica on and require a parent-child
rela onship between processes.

 Named Pipes, which offer bidirec onal communica on and allow communica on between
unrelated processes, with the ability to persist even a er the processes have finished.
Job Queue

Introduc on to Job Queue

Hello, everyone! Welcome to the Opera ng Systems course. The topic of this video is the job queue.
By the end of this video, you will:

1. Understand what a job queue is.

2. Iden fy why a job queue is important in a system.

What is a Job Queue?

A job queue, also known as a job pool, is a data structure that resides in secondary storage (e.g.,
your hard disk). Its role is to store all the jobs submi ed by users, especially in batch systems.

Here’s a breakdown:

 A batch system typically involves mul ple users submi ng jobs simultaneously.

 These jobs are stored in the job queue un l they are ready to be executed.

 The job queue is not meant for immediate execu on but for storing jobs that will be
processed in an order.

How Job Queue Works in Batch Systems

In batch processing systems, jobs are submi ed by users with no expecta on of immediate results.
Instead, jobs are queued and processed one by one.

 Jobs are submi ed to the job queue but not executed right away.

 Jobs are selected in order and processed as the system resources allow.

 Users do not interact with the jobs during this process.

Why Do We Need a Job Queue?

One of the primary reasons for using a job queue in a batch system is due to memory limita ons.

 Main memory might not be large enough to accommodate all submi ed jobs, especially in
mul -user environments.

 By having a job queue, jobs can be stored in secondary storage and loaded into memory
later for execu on.

Benefits of a Job Queue

1. Memory Management:
 o The main memory has limited capacity. Instead of rejec ng jobs, they can be stored
in the job queue un l there is enough space in memory.

2. Resource Sharing:

o In a mul -user environment, the job queue ensures that computer resources are
shared among users, allowing for fair resource distribu on.

3. Controlling Main Memory Load:

o The job queue controls the number of processes loaded into the main memory
based on the computer’s load.

o When more space is available in memory, more jobs can be loaded from the job
queue, and vice versa.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the job queue:

 Ensures efficient resource u liza on.

 Helps manage computa onal load and memory capacity.

 Ensures that jobs are processed in a way that balances the system’s performance and
resources.
Ready Queue

Introduc on to Ready Queue

Hello everyone, and welcome to the Opera ng Systems course! The topic of this video is the Ready
Queue. By the end of this video, you will:

1. Understand what a ready queue is.

2. Learn why a ready queue is essen al in opera ng systems.

What is a Ready Queue?

The ready queue is a data structure that resides in the main memory. It is responsible for holding a
subset of jobs selected from the job queue, which stores all submi ed jobs on secondary storage
(e.g., hard disks).

Key points:

 Jobs from the job queue are moved into the ready queue when they are ready to be
executed.

 These jobs (also referred to as processes) in the ready queue are wai ng for processor
alloca on.

In simpler terms, the jobs in the ready queue are in a ready state and are just wai ng to be assigned
to a processor for execu on.

Ready Queue and Degree of Mul programming

The ready queue is directly linked to the degree of mul programming, which refers to the number
of jobs or processes present in the ready queue.

 The degree of mul programming indicates how many processes can be executed
simultaneously.

 For instance, if there are 10 processes in the ready queue, and the system has enough
processors or processing cores, all 10 processes could run simultaneously. However, if fewer
processors are available, fewer processes will run at the same me.

Ready Queue Data Structure: Linked List

The ready queue is maintained as a linked list data structure. Here’s how it works:

 A linked list consists of nodes, with each node poin ng to the next node in the list.

 In the ready queue, each node represents a Process Control Block (PCB), which contains
informa on about each process.

 The header node (or sen nel node) points to the first PCB and the last PCB in the queue.
  Each PCB points to the next PCB, and the last PCB points to null, indica ng the end of the list.

Example Structure of the Ready Queue

Here’s an example of how a ready queue might look:

 The queue header has two components: the head (first PCB) and the tail (last PCB).

 In this case, we have three processes in the queue: PCB3, PCB7, and PCB2. These numbers
represent the Process IDs (PIDs).

 The processes are linked together:

o PCB3 points to PCB7.

o PCB7 points to PCB2.

o PCB2 points to null, indica ng the end of the queue.

 The head of the queue points to PCB3, while the tail points to PCB2.

Please note that the processes are not necessarily stored in order of their PIDs. For example, in this
case, we have 3, 7, and 2.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the ready queue is a crucial part of the opera ng system, ensuring that jobs are
organized and ready for execu on as soon as resources (processors) are available. By maintaining the
ready queue as a linked list of PCBs, the system can efficiently manage and schedule processes.
Device Queue

Introduc on to Device Queue

Hello everyone, and welcome to the Opera ng Systems course! The topic of this video is the Device
Queue. By the end of this video, you will:

1. Understand what a device queue is.

2. Learn the func onality and purpose of a device queue within an opera ng system.

What is a Device Queue?

In the life cycle of a process, a process may transi on to the wai ng state for various reasons. One
common reason is the need to perform input/output (I/O) opera ons. Let's focus on the scenario
where a process is wai ng for I/O opera ons.

When a process needs to access an I/O device, it will send a request to the opera ng system. If the
requested device is available, the opera ng system allocates the device to the process. However,
when the process is performing I/O opera ons, it can no longer stay in the ready queue (since the
ready queue only holds processes in the ready state). Instead, the process will be removed from the
ready queue and inserted into the device queue.

Why Do We Need a Device Queue?

Every I/O device in the system, such as a disk or a printer, has its own device queue. This queue
holds all processes wai ng for access to that par cular device.

Since mul ple processes might request the same I/O device simultaneously, not all requests can be
handled at the same me. The device queue ensures that these requests are processed one a er
another, in some specific order, depending on the scheduling algorithm used.

Once the requested I/O opera on is completed for a process, the process is removed from the device
queue and returned to the ready queue, transi oning back from the wai ng state to the ready
state.

How is the Device Queue Maintained?

The device queue is maintained as a linked list of Process Control Blocks (PCBs), similar to the ready
queue. The key points are:

 The head of the device queue points to the first PCB in the queue.

 The tail of the device queue points to the last PCB in the queue.

 Each PCB points to the next PCB in the list.

Example of a Device Queue

Let’s take a look at an example:

 In this case, we have a device queue for a disk (hard disk).

 The queue contains three PCBs: PCB6, PCB10, and PCB4, represen ng processes with PIDs 6,
10, and 4.

 The head of the queue points to PCB6 (first process), and the tail points to PCB4 (last
process).

 Each PCB is linked to the next:

o PCB6 points to PCB10.

o PCB10 points to PCB4.

o PCB4 points to null, indica ng the end of the queue.

Please note, the order of the PCBs in the queue does not need to follow an increasing order of PIDs.
In this example, the processes are arranged in the order of 6, 10, and 4.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the device queue plays a crucial role in managing processes that need access to I/O
devices. By organizing these processes in a linked list of PCBs, the system ensures that I/O requests
are handled efficiently, and processes return to the ready state once their I/O opera ons are
complete.
Types of Processes

Introduc on to Types of Processes

Hello everyone, welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. The topic of this video is Types of
Processes. By the end of this video, we will:

1. Iden fy and understand the different types of processes.

2. Analyze system performance based on the types of processes running in the system,
par cularly in terms of resource u liza on.

Types of Processes Based on Resource U liza on

In terms of resource u liza on, processes can be categorized into two main types:

1. CPU-bound processes.

2. I/O-bound processes.

1. What is a CPU-bound Process?

A CPU-bound process spends the majority of its me performing computa on. This means:

 The process heavily u lizes the CPU for most of its life cycle.

 It generates very few I/O requests, meaning it doesn’t perform much input/output work.

In simple terms, a CPU-bound process keeps the CPU busy by performing intensive computa ons,
while genera ng minimal I/O ac vity.

2. What is an I/O-bound Process?

An I/O-bound process spends most of its me performing input/output opera ons. This means:

 The process frequently accesses I/O devices, such as disks, printers, or network interfaces.

 It spends less me on computa on and, consequently, doesn't use much CPU me.

I/O-bound processes are designed to keep I/O devices busy and are not heavily dependent on the
CPU.

System Performance and Resource U liza on

Let’s now analyze how system performance is affected when different types of processes are
running:
  CPU-bound processes keep the CPU busy. If the system is running mostly CPU-bound
processes, the processors will be highly u lized, but the I/O devices may remain idle, since
these processes don’t generate many I/O requests.

 I/O-bound processes keep I/O devices busy. When the system is dominated by I/O-bound
processes, the processors might be under-u lized because the processes spend most of
their me wai ng for I/O opera ons to complete.

Balancing the System

A good mix of CPU-bound and I/O-bound processes is cri cal for op mal system performance. If the
system runs too many I/O-bound processes, the CPU will be underu lized, was ng valuable
processing power. Similarly, if there are too many CPU-bound processes, the I/O devices will be idle,
leading to inefficient use of the system's resources.

Having a balanced mix ensures:

 The CPU is ac vely engaged in computa on, u lizing its cycles.

 The I/O devices are also kept busy, handling the I/O requests generated by the processes.

This balanced resource u liza on results in be er system performance and avoids idle resources.

Conclusion

In this video, we explored the two main types of processes—CPU-bound and I/O-bound—and
discussed how their execu on impacts resource u liza on. To ensure op mal performance, it’s
essen al to have a balanced mix of both types of processes in a system.
Schedulers

Introduc on to Schedulers

Hello everyone, welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. The topic of this video is Schedulers.
In this video, we are going to:

1. Understand the different types of schedulers typically present in a system.

2. Discuss the func ons of each type of scheduler.

What is a Scheduler?

A scheduler is a system so ware responsible for selec ng processes from a par cular scheduling
queue. We have already discussed different types of queues, such as the job queue, ready queue,
and device queue. Now, we will explore the three types of schedulers commonly found in an
opera ng system:

1. Long-term scheduler (Job scheduler).

2. Short-term scheduler (CPU scheduler).

3. Medium-term scheduler.

1. Long-term Scheduler (Job Scheduler)

The long-term scheduler is responsible for selec ng processes from the job queue and loading them
into the main memory (ready queue).

 Func on: It decides which jobs to load into the system based on available memory.

 Frequency of Invoca on:

o Invoked infrequently.

o Ac vated only when a process terminates, crea ng space in the main memory for
another job.

 Response Time: It can take some me to decide which process to load next because it's
invoked less o en.

 Role in Mul -programming: It controls the degree of mul -programming, i.e., the number
of jobs in the main memory. The number of jobs selected by the long-term scheduler
determines how many jobs are ac ve at any me.

2. Short-term Scheduler (CPU Scheduler)

The short-term scheduler selects a process from the ready queue and allocates the CPU to it.
  Func on: It decides which process should be executed next by the CPU, ensuring that
processes move between running, wai ng, and ready states.

 Frequency of Invoca on:

o Invoked frequently.

o Needs to make process selec on in very short me intervals (microseconds or

milliseconds).

 Response Time: It must be very fast to minimize the overhead, as the processor must be
allocated to new processes quickly to ensure smooth execu on.

 Usage: Present in most systems, including mul tasking and me-sharing systems.

3. Medium-term Scheduler

The medium-term scheduler provides an intermediate level of scheduling by temporarily removing

or adding processes from the main memory.

 Func on:

o Swaps out processes from the ready queue to secondary storage (called swap
space) to reduce the degree of mul -programming.

o Helps in improving the process mix by balancing the number of CPU-bound and I/O-
bound processes in the main memory.

 Swapping Process: When a process is swapped out, its state is saved, and the process is
stored in secondary storage temporarily. Later, the process can be swapped back into the
main memory and resume execu on from where it le off.

 Improving Process Mix: The medium-term scheduler can adjust the mix of processes to
prevent either the CPU or I/O devices from being underu lized.

Conclusion

In this video, we covered the three types of schedulers in an opera ng system—long-term

scheduler, short-term scheduler, and medium-term scheduler—and discussed how they manage
processes and resources efficiently. Each type plays a unique role in balancing process execu on and
resource u liza on.
Week 4

What is thread?

Introduc on to Threads

Hello, everyone. Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. The topic of this video is What is a
Thread? In this video, we are going to:

1. Define the concept of a thread.

2. Iden fy the different parts that make up a thread.

3. Understand how a thread is represented in a system.

What is a Thread?

A thread is defined as a lightweight process. A process can either be single-threaded or mul -

threaded. Here’s the dis nc on:

 Single-threaded process: A process that has only one thread of execu on can perform only
one task at a me.

 Mul -threaded process: A process with mul ple threads of execu on can perform mul ple
tasks simultaneously and, if enough processors are available, in parallel.

In systems that support mul -threaded applica ons, the thread becomes the basic unit of CPU
u liza on. If the system doesn’t support mul -threading, then the process remains the basic unit of
CPU u liza on.

Components of a Thread

A thread consists of several unique components, which are not shared with other threads in the
same process:

1. Thread ID (TID): Uniquely iden fies the thread.

2. Program Counter (PC): Holds the address of the next instruc on to be executed by the
thread.

3. Register Set: Stores temporary data and values used during execu on.

4. Stack: Each thread has its own stack to store func on calls, local variables, and return
addresses.

Even though these components are unique to each thread, certain parts of the process are shared
among all threads in that process, such as:

 Code Sec on: The instruc ons of the program.

  Data Sec on: Variables and data structures shared by the process.

 Resources: Files and other resources allocated by the opera ng system.

Single-threaded vs. Mul -threaded Process

Here’s a comparison:

1. Single-threaded process:

o Contains only one thread.

o Has a single stack, set of registers, and program counter.

2. Mul -threaded process:

o Contains mul ple threads, each with its own stack, registers, and program counter.

o Shares code, data, and resources among all the threads.

How is a Thread Represented?

Just like a process is represented by a Process Control Block (PCB), a thread is represented by a
Thread Control Block (TCB) in the system. The TCB is a kernel-level data structure that contains
informa on specific to each thread. Let’s look at the components of a TCB:

1. Thread Iden fier (TID): A unique ID assigned to each thread.

2. Stack Pointer: Points to the thread’s stack in the process’s address space.

3. Program Counter (PC): Stores the address of the next instruc on to be executed by the
thread.

4. Thread State: The current state of the thread (e.g., running, ready, wai ng).

5. Register Values: The temporary values stored in the thread’s registers.

6. Pointer to Process Control Block (PCB): Points to the PCB of the process that created the
thread.

7. Pointers to Other Threads: If the thread has created addi onal threads, the TCB will contain
pointers to those threads.

Conclusion

In this video, we discussed the concept of a thread, its different components, and how it is
represented inside a system using a Thread Control Block (TCB). We also highlighted the dis nc on
between single-threaded and mul -threaded processes.
Why is thread lightweight?

Why is a Thread Considered Lightweight?

Hello, everyone! Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. The topic of this video is Why is a
Thread Lightweight?

In this video, we are going to:

1. Analyze why threads are considered lightweight compared to processes.

2. Differen ate between a thread and a process in various aspects.

3. Understand how context switching occurs between threads of the same process.

Why is a Thread Lightweight?

In the previous video, we defined a thread as a lightweight process. But why is that the case?

1. Shared Resources:

o Threads of the same process share the code sec on, data sec on, and certain OS-
level resources like open files.

o All threads within a process share the address space of that process, meaning they
operate within the same memory loca ons allocated to the process.

o For example, a global variable, say x, declared by a process is accessible to all its
threads. Each thread does not have its own copy of the variable; instead, they all
access the same instance.

2. Process Crea on is Expensive:

o When a new process is created, a complete memory setup must be done, including
the alloca on of an address space. This process involves the memory management
unit (MMU), which adds to the complexity.

o Thread crea on, on the other hand, is much less expensive. When a new thread is
created within an exis ng process, it simply shares the exis ng address space, global
variables, and dynamic variables. No need to allocate new memory.

Interac on and Communica on Between Threads

Another reason threads are lightweight is their ease of interac on.

 Since threads share the address space, they can interact directly without the need for inter-
process communica on (IPC) mechanisms like shared memory, message passing, or pipes.

 Threads can easily share data structures and communicate with each other.

Note: Threads do not share the following:

  Stack: Each thread has its own stack for storing func on calls, local variables, and return
addresses.

 Registers and Program Counter: Each thread has its own set of registers and program
counter.

Context Switching Between Processes vs. Threads

Context switching refers to saving the state of one thread or process and loading the state of
another.

1. Process Context Switching:

o Each process has its own unique address space. During context switching, the system
must:

 Load the en re Process Control Block (PCB) contents.

 Switch to a different address space, which involves the MMU and requires
mul ple steps.

o This makes process context switching expensive and me-consuming.

2. Thread Context Switching:

o Threads of the same process share the same address space, so there’s no need to
change the address space during thread context switching.

o Instead, only thread-specific components such as the stack pointer and register set
need to be switched.

o For example, if you switch from thread T1 to thread T2 (both part of the same
process), the stack pointer that pointed to T1’s stack will now point to T2’s stack, and
the register set will be switched.

This makes thread context switching much faster and less resource-intensive compared to process
context switching, where the memory management unit must get involved.

Conclusion

In this video, we discussed:

 Why threads are considered lightweight due to shared resources and easier crea on
compared to processes.

 How threads within the same process can communicate easily.

 The reduced overhead of thread context switching compared to process context switching.
Mo va on of Mul threading

Mo va on for Mul -threading

Hello, everyone! Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. The topic of this video is Mo va on
for Mul -threading.

In this video, we will:

1. Understand the mo va on behind using mul -threaded applica ons.

2. Analyze why mul -threading is beneficial compared to other approaches.

3. Substan ate this concept through a real-world example involving client-server architecture.

Why Mul -threading?

Modern so ware applica ons are mostly mul -threaded. It's rare to find any contemporary
applica on that is single-threaded. In most mul -threaded applica ons, mul ple threads of
execu on run concurrently, each performing a different task.

Benefits of Mul -threading:

1. Be er User Experience:

o Different threads can handle different tasks simultaneously, allowing users to

interact with mul ple aspects of an applica on at the same me.

o For example, in a web browser, one thread might handle user input while another
fetches data from a server.

2. Parallel Execu on:

o On mul -core or mul -processor systems, threads can execute tasks in parallel,
significantly improving the applica on's performance and efficiency.

3. Handling Similar Tasks:

o If an applica on needs to perform similar tasks repeatedly, instead of deploying

mul ple instances of the applica on, each task can be handled by a separate thread.

o This reduces resource consump on and improves performance.

Case Study: Client-Server Architecture

Let’s substan ate the need for mul -threading with the client-server architecture example.

Before Mul -threading

In older systems, before mul processing, the server would act as a single-threaded process,
handling one client request at a me. This caused significant delays for other clients since each one
had to wait for the server to finish processing the previous request.
Mul processing Approach

To improve this situa on, mul processing was introduced. In this setup:

 When a client sends a request, the server creates a new process (a child server process) to
handle the request.

 The original server process remains available to handle future client requests.

However, while this approach allows the server to handle mul ple clients simultaneously, there’s a
downside—crea ng a new process is expensive. If hundreds or thousands of client requests are
made, each requiring the crea on of a new process, the system’s performance suffers due to the
overhead involved in process crea on.

Mul -threading Approach

A be er solu on is to use mul -threading.

1. Main Thread and New Threads:

o When the server receives a client request, instead of crea ng a new process, it
creates a new thread within the same server process.

o This new thread services the client request and sends the response, while the main
thread of the server goes back to wai ng for new requests.

2. Efficiency:

o Mul ple client requests can be handled simultaneously by different threads within
the same process.

o As discussed earlier, crea ng a thread is much less expensive than crea ng a

process, which reduces the overall system overhead.

This mul -threaded approach allows the server to handle many client requests with much less
resource consump on compared to the mul processing approach, making it both effec ve and
efficient.

Conclusion

In this video, we discussed:

 The mo va on behind mul -threading.

 The benefits of having mul -threaded applica ons, such as parallel execu on and reduced
overhead.

 A real-world example of client-server architecture to demonstrate how mul -threading

improves performance and reduces resource costs compared to mul processing.
Benefits of Mul threading

Benefits of Mul -threading

Hello, everyone! Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. The topic of this video is the
Benefits of Mul -threading.

In this video, we will:

1. Iden fy the key benefits of mul -threading.

2. Analyze each benefit in detail to understand why mul -threading is a valuable approach in
modern applica ons.

1. Responsiveness

Mul -threading enhances responsiveness, especially in interac ve applica ons. These applica ons
perform mul ple tasks simultaneously, allowing users to interact with several aspects at once.

Example: Word Processing Applica on

Consider a word processing applica on. It might:

 Respond to user keystrokes,

 Display graphics,

 Run a spelling and grammar check—all at the same me.

Without mul -threading, a lengthy task (like a big computa on triggered by a bu on click) would
cause the en re applica on to freeze. However, in a mul -threaded applica on, one long-running
task does not block other tasks. Other threads con nue execu ng, keeping the applica on
responsive. This responsiveness is par cularly cri cal in user interfaces, where users expect
immediate feedback without delays.

2. Resource Sharing

Mul -threading makes resource sharing much easier. Threads belonging to the same process share:

 The code sec on,

 The data sec on,

 Several OS resources like open files.

No Need for Explicit IPC (Inter-Process Communica on)

In single-threaded processes, communica on between processes requires IPC mechanisms like

shared memory, message queues, or pipes, which programmers must explicitly implement. However,
in a mul -threaded process, threads can seamlessly share informa on using shared memory or
global variables, avoiding the overhead of explicit IPC mechanisms.

3. Economy

Crea ng processes is costly because:

 New processes require memory alloca on and resource management.

However, crea ng threads is far less expensive since threads within the same process share memory
and resources.

Process Context Switching vs. Thread Context Switching

 Process context switching involves more overhead because it requires saving and loading
the en re process state.

 Thread context switching within the same process is faster because it only involves switching
the stack and register set of the threads.

In a mul -tasking environment, using threads for different tasks is much more economical than
using separate processes. This leads to increased throughput at a lower cost.

4. Scalability

Mul -threaded applica ons can take full advantage of mul -core or mul -processor systems. Each
thread can run on a separate processor, allowing for be er parallelism and performance.

Computa onal Speed-Up

 In single-threaded processes, only one processor is u lized per process.

 Mul -threading allows for tasks to be distributed across mul ple processors, enabling faster
comple on of tasks.

This scalability provides a computa onal speed-up while avoiding the overhead of crea ng and
managing addi onal processes.

Conclusion

In this video, we explored the benefits of mul -threading, which include:

1. Responsiveness: Keeping applica ons interac ve and fast.

2. Resource Sharing: Seamless communica on without explicit IPC.

3. Economy: Lower overhead compared to process crea on.

4. Scalability: Be er u liza on of modern mul -core architectures.

Which of the following is not a mo va on for mul threading?

Most of the current so ware applica ons are mul threaded.

Threads allow users to interact with mul ple aspects of the same applica on.

Threads eliminate the need for memory management.

Threads allow mul ple similar tasks to be executed within the same applica on.

Correct

This is not a mo va on for mul threading. Mul threaded applica ons definitely require memory
management.

4.

Ques on 4

What of the following is not a benefit of mul threading?

Storage management

Responsiveness

Resource sharing

Economy

This is not a benefit of using threads. Threads do not impact storage management as such.
What is Mul core programming?

What is Mul core Programming?

Hello, everyone! Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will discuss
Mul core Programming and understand how it enables be er resource u liza on of computer
systems.

What is Mul core Programming?

Mul core programming refers to the design and development of applica ons that can effec vely use
mul ple processors or cores in a system. This involves dividing an applica on into mul ple tasks and
then assigning each task to a different thread.

By using mul threading, different aspects of an applica on can be executed simultaneously, and if
the system has mul ple processors or cores, each thread can run on a separate processor. This
approach leads to parallel execu on of tasks, resul ng in:

1. Increased computa onal speed (computa onal speed-up).

2. Higher throughput: More work done in less me.

3. Be er resource u liza on: U lizing mul ple cores effec vely.

The Advantage of Mul threaded Programs on Mul core Systems

If a system has mul ple cores and you run a single-threaded program, it can only use one processor
at a me. However, with a mul threaded applica on, mul ple cores can be used simultaneously.

Benefits of Mul core Programming:

1. Parallel Execu on: Different tasks can run at the same me on different processors.

2. Increased Throughput: More tasks are completed simultaneously, leading to faster

execu on.

3. Lower Overhead: Thread crea on is much cheaper than process crea on. This leads to
increased efficiency when compared to running mul ple instances of a single-threaded
program.

For instance, if you use a single-threaded program and wish to use all the cores, you would need to
deploy mul ple instances of the program. This incurs high overhead due to the cost of process
crea on. In contrast, with a mul threaded applica on, you can keep mul ple cores busy at a much
lower cost, since thread crea on is less expensive than process crea on.

Mul threaded Programs Require Mul core Programming

To effec vely u lize mul core systems, it is essen al to design applica ons with mul threading in
mind. Mul core programming ensures that different tasks are allocated to separate cores, enabling
the system to maximize the processing power available.

However, to take full advantage of mul core programming, the tasks within your applica on need to
be independent of one another. If the tasks depend on each other or need to be executed in a
specific sequence, the program cannot fully u lize parallel processing. The tasks will be executed
serially, nega ng the benefits of mul core architecture.

Key Takeaways

 Mul core programming involves wri ng applica ons that can u lize mul ple cores by
employing mul threading.

 It leads to increased throughput, faster execu on, and be er resource u liza on at a lower
cost than running mul ple single-threaded processes.

 To fully benefit from mul core systems, tasks need to be independent, allowing them to run
in parallel across different cores.
Challenges of Mul core programming

Challenges of Mul core Programming

Hello, everyone! Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. The topic of this video is the
Challenges of Mul core Programming. In this video, we will iden fy the various challenges involved
in mul core programming and analyze each of them in detail.

1. Division of Tasks

One of the primary challenges in mul core programming is dividing the tasks. To take full advantage
of mul core systems, we need to iden fy independent tasks within an applica on—tasks that can
run simultaneously without any dependency on each other. This dis nc on needs to happen early in
the design phase.

 Independent tasks: Only tasks that are independent of each other can be executed in
parallel. If you miss iden fying any dependencies, it can cause problems later, as tasks with
dependencies cannot run simultaneously.

2. Balancing the Workload

Striking a balance between tasks is another cri cal challenge. When an applica on is divided into
mul ple tasks, each task should contribute equally to the overall execu on.

 Equal workload: Every task should perform approximately the same amount of work.
Assigning a trivial task as a separate thread can block a processor, was ng valuable
resources. Ensuring that tasks are balanced in terms of importance and workload helps avoid
underu lizing processing cores.

3. Spli ng the Data

If each thread in a mul threaded program requires data to execute, data par oning becomes
necessary.

 Segmen ng data: The dataset needs to be carefully split and assigned to different tasks. Each
task should get the appropriate segment of data it needs to work with, ensuring proper
distribu on. If not done correctly, tasks could either compete for the same data or not
receive the data they need.

4. Iden fying Data Dependency

A cri cal challenge in mul core programming is data dependency. Mul ple tasks may need to access
the same data, which introduces complexity.
  Data dependencies: If two tasks, say Task T1 and Task T2, have a dependency (e.g., T2 needs
the output of T1), they cannot be executed in parallel. These tasks need to be executed in a
synchronized manner.

 Avoiding simultaneous access: If mul ple tasks are accessing or modifying the same data,
careful synchroniza on is required. For example, read opera ons should only occur a er
write updates are completed to avoid corrup ng the data. Allowing simultaneous
modifica ons to the same dataset by different threads can lead to data corrup on, which
must be avoided.

5. Tes ng and Debugging

The final challenge is tes ng and debugging mul threaded applica ons.

 Complex execu on paths: In mul core programming, there are many poten al execu on
paths because mul ple threads are running simultaneously. Tes ng every possible path to
ensure that no errors exist is much more difficult than with single-threaded applica ons.

 Higher complexity: Mul threaded applica ons introduce task dependencies and data
dependencies, making the number of possible execu on paths grow exponen ally compared
to single-threaded programs. This complexity makes tes ng and debugging mul threaded
applica ons par cularly challenging.

Conclusion

In this video, we explored the challenges of mul core programming, including:

1. Task division.

2. Balancing workloads.

3. Spli ng data.

4. Iden fying data dependencies.

5. Tes ng and debugging.

These challenges need to be addressed carefully to effec vely take advantage of mul core systems.
Parallelism vs Concurrency

Parallelism vs. Concurrency

Hello, everyone! Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we’ll explore two
important concepts: Parallelism and Concurrency. We’ll define both terms and discuss their
differences, along with examples to clarify the dis nc on between the two.

Defining Parallelism and Concurrency

1. Parallelism:

o Parallelism refers to execu ng mul ple tasks simultaneously, meaning mul ple
tasks are happening at the same me.

o To achieve parallelism, you need a mul -core or mul -processor system where each
task can be executed on a separate core or processor.

2. Concurrency:

o Concurrency, on the other hand, refers to allowing mul ple tasks to make progress
within the same span of me.

o In a concurrent system, tasks appear to be executed at the same me, but in reality,
they are not executed simultaneously. Instead, the system switches between tasks
quickly, giving the illusion of simultaneous execu on.

o Concurrency can be achieved even on a single-core system by rapidly switching

between tasks.

Differences Between Parallelism and Concurrency

 Parallelism requires mul ple cores or processors, allowing tasks to be executed at the same
me in real parallel.

 Concurrency can be achieved on single-core systems, where tasks are switched back and
forth so rapidly that they appear to be running together, even though only one task is
execu ng at any given me.

Example: Single-Core System (Concurrency)

Let’s start with an example of a single-core system with four tasks: T1, T2, T3, T4.

 The system will execute T1 for a short me, then switch to T2, then to T3, and finally to T4.
A er execu ng each task for a brief period, the system will cycle back to T1 and repeat the
process.

 Although it seems like all tasks are being executed simultaneously, at any given moment,
only one task is being executed because there’s only one processing core.
  The illusion of parallelism is created by the quick context switching between tasks.

Example: Mul -Core System (Parallelism)

Now, let’s look at an example of a dual-core system with the same four tasks: T1, T2, T3, T4.

 Here, we have two cores: CPU0 and CPU1. In this case, CPU0 is execu ng T1 and T3, while
CPU1 is execu ng T2 and T4.

 At any given me, two tasks are being executed simultaneously, one on each core. For
instance, in the first block of me, T1 and T2 are executed in parallel, followed by T3 and T4
in the next block of me.

 This system demonstrates true parallelism because tasks are executed at the same me on
different cores.

Parallelism Implies Concurrency, But Not Vice Versa

One important thing to note:

 Parallelism implies concurrency. In a parallel system, tasks are also being managed
concurrently because each core switches between tasks.

 However, concurrency does not imply parallelism. A concurrent system does not necessarily
execute tasks in parallel—it just gives the illusion of parallel execu on.

Conclusion

In this video, we discussed the differences between parallelism and concurrency:

1. Parallelism involves real simultaneous task execu on, requiring mul ple processors or cores.

2. Concurrency allows tasks to make progress within the same me frame, even on a single-
core system, by switching between tasks quickly.
Types of Parallelism

Types of Parallelism

Hello, everyone! Welcome to the Opera ng Systems course. In this video, we will discuss the types
of parallelism. Specifically, we’ll iden fy the two main types of parallelism and understand them
using examples.

Two Types of Parallelism

There are primarily two types of parallelism:

1. Data Parallelism

2. Task Parallelism

Let’s explore each type in detail.

Data Parallelism

Data parallelism refers to spli ng up a single large data set into smaller subsets, which are then
distributed across mul ple processors or processing cores. Each processor executes the same task or
opera on, but on a different subset of the data.

Example of Data Parallelism:

 Suppose we have an array called list that contains 1,000 numbers.

 The task is to compute the maximum value in this array.

 In a mul -threaded program, we can create four threads: T1, T2, T3, and T4.

 We will par on the array into four segments:

o T1 will compute the maximum in the range from index 0 to 249.

o T2 will compute the maximum from index 250 to 499.

o T3 will compute the maximum from index 500 to 749.

o T4 will compute the maximum from index 750 to 999.

Each thread works on a different por on of the data but performs the same opera on—finding the
maximum value. A erward, the program will compute the overall maximum by comparing the four
maximum values returned by the threads.

This is data parallelism because each thread is handling a different segment of the data while
performing the same task.

Task Parallelism
Task parallelism refers to distribu ng different tasks or opera ons across mul ple processors or
processing cores. Each processor is performing a different task, although they may work on the same
data set or different data sets.

Example of Task Parallelism:

 Again, let’s consider the same array list containing 1,000 numbers.

 This me, we want to perform four different opera ons on the array:

1. Find the maximum number.

2. Find the minimum number.

3. Calculate the mean (average) of the numbers.

4. Find the median.

In this case, the four threads will perform different opera ons on the same data:

 T1 computes the maximum value.

 T2 computes the minimum value.

 T3 computes the mean.

 T4 computes the median.

Here, the tasks are different, but the data (the array) is the same for all the threads. This is task
parallelism, where each thread is performing a different task.

Summary

In this video, we covered the two types of parallelism:

 Data Parallelism: Same task, different subsets of data.

 Task Parallelism: Different tasks, same or different data sets.

Ques on 1

What is one advantage of mul core programming?

It ensures that programs will not have any bugs.

It eliminates the need for memory management for threads.

It allows a single thread to run faster than on a single-core processor.

It enables mul ple threads to run in parallel, improving overall system resource u liza on and
performance.

Correct

Correct. Mul core programming allows mul ple threads to run in parallel, which can lead to be er
resource u liza on and improved performance.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

2.

Ques on 2

Which of the following is not a challenge of mul core programming?

Striking balance

Tes ng and debugging

Iden fying data dependency

Keeping a backup of data

Correct

This is not a challenge of mul core programming. Data backup does not come under the purview of
mul core programming explicitly.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

3.

Ques on 3

What is the primary difference between parallelism and concurrency in programming?

Concurrency requires mul ple processors to func on, while parallelism can be achieved on a single
processor.

Concurrency eliminates the need to load mul ple programs in the main memory simultaneously,
while parallelism requires mul ple programs to be loaded in the main memory simultaneously.
Parallelism only applies to single-threaded programs, while concurrency applies to mul threaded
programs.

Parallelism involves running mul ple tasks simultaneously on mul ple processors, while concurrency
involves allowing mul ple tasks to make progress at the same me but not necessarily executed
simultaneously.

Correct

This is correct. Parallelism is about execu ng mul ple tasks at the same me using mul ple
processors, whereas concurrency is about managing mul ple tasks that can be in progress
concurrently, regardless of whether they are executed simultaneously or not.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

4.

Ques on 4

Which of the following examples best illustrates data parallelism?

A single processor performing mul ple tasks by switching between them rapidly.

One processor/task sorts a list while another processor/task searches a different list at the same
me.

One processor/task finds the maximum number from a list of numbers while another processor/task
finds the minimum number from the same list at the same me.

Spli ng a large dataset among mul ple processors/tasks, each performing the sum opera on on
their por on of the data simultaneously.

Correct

This is correct. This is an example of data parallelism, where the same opera on is performed on
different pieces of data in parallel.
User level threads & Kernel level threads

User-Level Threads vs. Kernel-Level Threads

Hello, everyone! Welcome to the Opera ng Systems course. The topic of today’s video is user-level
threads and kernel-level threads. We’ll understand both types and dis nguish between them.

User-Level Threads

User-level threads are managed en rely by a thread library located in the user space. These threads
are not recognized by the kernel, meaning the opera ng system kernel has no knowledge of their
existence.

Key Characteris cs of User-Level Threads:

 Managed by thread library in user space.

 The kernel doesn’t recognize user-level threads.

 User-level threads are created by applica on programs.

 From the kernel’s perspec ve, a mul -threaded process in user space is treated as a single-
threaded process.

 No kernel support is needed for thread management.

Example:

If a program creates mul ple user-level threads (say, T1, T2, T3), the kernel will treat the en re
process as single-threaded, even though, from a user perspec ve, it’s mul -threaded. This means
that only one thread will be scheduled by the kernel at any given me.

Blocking Opera on Issue:

 If one of the user-level threads performs a blocking opera on (e.g., a blocking system call),
the en re applica on will block.

 This happens because the kernel views the en re applica on as a single thread. When that
one thread blocks, the whole process stops.

Context Switching:

 Context switching between user-level threads does not require kernel support. It’s done
en rely in user space, making it faster and more efficient since there is no need to switch
between user and kernel modes.

API Func on Calls:

 When a user-level thread invokes a func on in the API, it is treated as a local func on call in
the user space, with no system call involved.

Examples of User-Level Thread Libraries:

 POSIX Pthreads
  Windows Threads

 Java Threads

Kernel-Level Threads

Kernel-level threads are recognized and managed by the opera ng system kernel. The crea on and
management of kernel threads require system calls.

Key Characteris cs of Kernel-Level Threads:

 Managed by the kernel and recognized by the opera ng system.

 The kernel schedules these threads independently.

 Kernel-level threads can u lize mul ple cores in a mul -core system.

Example:

If a program creates mul ple kernel-level threads (say, T1, T2, T3), each thread can be scheduled on a
different core, enabling true parallelism.

Blocking Opera on:

 If one of the kernel-level threads performs a blocking opera on, the other threads can
con nue execu ng. This is because the kernel recognizes each thread separately and
schedules them independently.

Context Switching:

 Context switching between kernel-level threads requires kernel support and involves a
switch to kernel mode.

API Func on Calls:

 When a kernel-level thread invokes a func on in the API, it results in a system call, switching
the opera on from user space to kernel space.

Examples of Systems Suppor ng Kernel-Level Threads:

 Windows

 Solaris

 Linux

 macOS

Summary

In this video, we explored:

 User-level threads, which are managed en rely in user space and are not recognized by the
kernel.
 Kernel-level threads, which are recognized and managed by the opera ng system kernel.
Many-to-One Model

Many-to-One Mul threading Model

Hello, everyone! Welcome to the Opera ng Systems course. The topic of today’s video is the many-
to-one mul threading model. We’ll first explore why mul threading models are needed and then
dive into the details of this par cular model.

Why Do We Need Mul threading Models?

We know that the kernel only recognizes kernel-level threads and does not recognize user-level
threads. Therefore, a mechanism is needed to map user-level threads to kernel-level threads. This is
where mul threading models come into play. These models ensure that user-level threads are
properly associated with kernel-level threads.

There are three primary mul threading models:

1. Many-to-One Model

2. One-to-One Model

3. Many-to-Many Model

In this video, we will focus on the Many-to-One Model.

Many-to-One Model

In the many-to-one model, mul ple user-level threads are mapped to a single kernel-level thread.
The user-level threads are managed by a thread library in user space, while the kernel-level thread is
managed by the opera ng system kernel.

Key Characteris cs:

 Several user-level threads are mapped to one kernel-level thread.

 User threads run in user space, and kernel threads run in kernel space.

 Thread management for user-level threads is done by the user space thread library, and
kernel thread management is handled by the kernel.

Example:

In an applica on with four user-level threads, all four threads would be mapped to one kernel-level
thread. This setup means the applica on as a whole will appear to the kernel as a single-threaded
process, even though mul ple threads exist in user space.

Blocking Opera on Issue:

If one of the user-level threads performs a blocking opera on (like a blocking system call), the en re
applica on will block. Since there is only one kernel-level thread, if it blocks, all the user threads
relying on it will also block.
Lack of Parallelism:

The many-to-one model is not capable of u lizing mul -core systems. Even if mul ple user-level
threads are created, they cannot run in parallel across mul ple cores, as they are ed to a single
kernel-level thread. Therefore, this model is unable to provide parallelism.

Concurrency and Limita ons:

 The many-to-one model cannot provide true concurrency or parallelism due to its reliance
on a single kernel-level thread.

 This model is restric ve and is used by only a few systems today.

Summary

In this video, we discussed:

 The many-to-one mul threading model, where mul ple user-level threads are mapped to a
single kernel-level thread.

 The opera onal details of this model, including its inability to u lize mul -core systems and
its limita ons in handling blocking opera ons.
One-to-One Model

One-to-One Mul threading Model

Hello, everyone! Welcome to the Opera ng Systems course. In this video, we’ll focus on the one-to-
one mul threading model and discuss its various func onal details.

Overview of the One-to-One Model

In the one-to-one model, each user-level thread is mapped to a separate kernel-level thread. This
means that if you have a mul threaded applica on with mul ple user-level threads, each one will
have a corresponding kernel-level thread.

Key Characteris cs:

 For example, if a mul threaded applica on has five user-level threads, it will have five
kernel-level threads. Each user-level thread is associated with its own kernel-level thread.

 When a new user-level thread is created, a new kernel-level thread is also created to
maintain this one-to-one mapping.

Visual Representa on:

 Imagine a mul threaded applica on with four user-level threads, each running in user space.
Each of these threads is associated with a different kernel-level thread, which executes in
kernel space. This alloca on ensures that the applica on has four kernel-level threads
corresponding to the four user-level threads.

Handling Blocking Opera ons

 If one user-level thread blocks (for example, due to a blocking system call), only the
corresponding kernel-level thread will block.

 This does not result in the blocking of the en re applica on; other threads can con nue
execu ng. Thus, the one-to-one model offers more concurrency compared to the many-to-
one model, where one blocking thread causes the en re applica on to block.

Concurrency and Parallelism:

 The one-to-one model enables be er concurrency and is well-suited for mul processor or
mul core architectures. Each kernel-level thread can run on a different core, allowing for
true parallel execu on.

 This leads to improved u liza on of modern computer architectures compared to the many-
to-one model.

Overhead Considera ons

While the one-to-one model provides significant advantages, there are some overheads associated
with it:

 Each me a user-level thread is created, a corresponding kernel-level thread must also be

created. This can lead to overhead in terms of resource alloca on and management.

 To manage this overhead, the number of threads per process may be restricted. This means
that for a par cular user-level applica on, there may be a limit on how many user-level
threads can be created, consequently limi ng the number of kernel-level threads.

Summary

In this video, we discussed the one-to-one mul threading model, including:

 Each user-level thread’s mapping to a separate kernel-level thread.

 How blocking opera ons affect execu on in this model.

 The advantages of increased concurrency and parallelism in mul processor and mul core
systems.

 The overhead involved in crea ng kernel-level threads and the poten al need to limit user-
level threads.
Many-to-Many Model

Many-to-Many Mul threading Model

Hello, everyone! Welcome to the Opera ng Systems course. In this video, we’ll explore the many-to-
many mul threading model and discuss its opera onal details. We'll also touch on the two-level
mul threading model, an extension of the many-to-many model.

Overview of the Many-to-Many Model

In the many-to-many model, several user threads are mapped to several kernel-level threads. This
means that the number of user-level threads is usually equal to or greater than the number of
kernel-level threads.

Key Characteris cs:

 The name "many-to-many" reflects the fact that mul ple user-level threads can be
associated with mul ple kernel-level threads.

 The opera ng system allocates a fixed number of kernel-level threads per applica on, which
can be predefined based on system architecture or opera ng system specifica ons.

Visual Representa on:

 Imagine an applica on with four user-level threads and three kernel-level threads. The four
user-level threads are mapped to the three kernel-level threads allocated by the opera ng
system, allowing them to func on in user space while kernel-level threads operate in kernel
space.

Blocking Opera ons and Concurrency

 When a user-level thread performs a blocking system call or opera on, the corresponding
kernel-level thread also blocks. However, other kernel-level threads associated with the
applica on can s ll be scheduled to run.

 This model allows an applica on programmer to create as many user-level threads as

needed, providing flexibility that the one-to-one model lacks, where user-level threads were
limited.

Concurrency and Parallelism:

 The many-to-many model ensures good concurrency by allowing mul ple user-level threads
to be mul plexed over mul ple kernel-level threads.

 This model also supports parallelism when sufficient processing cores are available, making it
more advantageous than the many-to-one model.

Kernel-Level Thread Alloca on

  The number of kernel-level threads can vary based on the machine or applica on. While the
opera ng system allocates a sufficient number of kernel-level threads for good concurrency,
some overhead is associated with their crea on and management.

 This can lead to restric ons on the number of kernel-level threads for different applica ons
running on the same machine.

Two-Level Mul threading Model

An extension of the many-to-many model is the two-level model. This model combines aspects of
both many-to-many and one-to-one models:

 Similar to the many-to-many model, several user-level threads can be mul plexed to several
kernel-level threads.

 Addi onally, the two-level model allows for a one-to-one associa on, where specific user-
level threads can be directly mapped to individual kernel-level threads.

Visual Representa on:

 For instance, in a two-level model, you might have four user-level threads mapped to three
kernel-level threads, plus one user-level thread that is individually associated with its own
kernel-level thread. This combina on provides both mul plexing and direct mapping.

Summary

In this video, we covered the many-to-many mul threading model:

 Mul ple user-level threads can be mapped to mul ple kernel-level threads.

 The model allows for flexibility, concurrency, and parallelism.

 We also introduced the two-level model, which combines features of the many-to-many and
one-to-one models, allowing for both mul plexing and direct mapping of threads.

In the two-level mul threading model, the mapping of user-level threads to kernel-level threads is
designed to provide both flexibility and efficiency by combining features from the many-to-many and
one-to-one models. Here’s a breakdown of the concept using your example of four user-level
threads and three kernel-level threads:

Mapping Explained

1. User-Level Threads:

o Let's say we have four user-level threads: U1, U2, U3, and U4.

2. Kernel-Level Threads:

o We also have three kernel-level threads: K1, K2, and K3.

 3. Mapping Structure:

o In the two-level model, you can have a combina on where:

 U1, U2, and U3 are mul plexed to K1 and K2.

 U4 is individually associated with K3.

This means:

o U1 and U2 can run on K1.

o U3 can run on K2.

o U4 has its own dedicated kernel-level thread K3.

Benefits of This Mapping

 Mul plexing:

o U1, U2, and U3 can share the resources of K1 and K2. This allows mul ple user-level
threads to be ac ve simultaneously on a smaller number of kernel-level threads,
op mizing resource use and improving efficiency.

o If U1 is blocked (e.g., wai ng for I/O), U2 can take over on K1, allowing the
applica on to con nue func oning without significant interrup ons.

 Direct Mapping:

o U4 has a direct associa on with K3. This means it can run independently without
being affected by the state of other user-level threads.

o If U4 is performing a blocking opera on, it will not impact U1, U2, or U3, which can
s ll run on their associated kernel threads.

Overall Advantage

 The two-level model provides the best of both worlds:

o It maintains flexibility through mul plexing, which can adapt to varying workloads
without requiring a one-to-one mapping for every user-level thread.

o It enhances responsiveness and reduces bo lenecks by allowing certain cri cal user-
level threads to run independently on dedicated kernel threads.
What is the primary difference between user level threads and kernel level threads?

Context switching for both user level threads and kernel level threads require kernel support.

User level threads are managed by the opera ng system, while kernel level threads are managed by
the user level threads library.

Kernel level threads can be scheduled on different processors by the opera ng system, while user
level threads are limited to a single processor.

User level threads do not require any synchroniza on mechanisms, while kernel level threads do.

Correct

Correct. Kernel level threads can be scheduled by the opera ng system on different processors,
allowing be er use of mul core systems, whereas user level threads are managed within a single
process (such a process appears single -threaded to the kernel) and are not visible to the opera ng
system's scheduler.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

2.

Ques on 2

Which of the following statements best describes the many-to-one threading model?

One user level thread is mapped to one kernel level thread.

Mul ple user level threads are mapped to mul ple kernel level threads.

Mul ple kernel level threads are mapped to a single user level thread.

Mul ple user level threads are mapped to a single kernel level thread.

Correct

Correct. In the many-to-one threading model, mul ple user level threads are mapped to a single
kernel level thread.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

3.

Ques on 3

In the one-to-one model, if there are 5 user level threads, how many kernel level threads will be
present?

1
5

Correct

This is correct. In the one-to-one threading model, each user-level thread is mapped to a separate
kernel-level thread.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

4.

Ques on 4

Which of the following best describes the rela onship between user level and kernel level threads in
the two-level threading model?

Mul ple user level threads are mapped to mul ple kernel level threads and a user level thread is also
associated with a single kernel level thread.

All user level threads are mapped to a single kernel level thread, which limits parallel execu on.

Only mul ple user level threads are always mapped to mul ple kernel level threads, allowing each
user level thread to be mapped to any kernel level thread.

Each user level thread is always mapped to a specific kernel level thread, with no flexibility for
different mappings.

Correct

This is correct. The two-level model combines aspects of both the many-to-many and one-to-one
models, allowing many-to-many mul plexing as well as one-to-one mapping.
Thread related data structures

This transcript covers several key concepts related to thread libraries, par cularly focusing on the
Pthreads library (POSIX threads). Below is a summary and explana on of the main points:

1. Thread Library Overview

 Defini on: A thread library provides an Applica on Programming Interface (API) for crea ng
and managing threads.

 Func onality: The library includes func ons and data structures that programmers can
u lize for thread opera ons, such as crea ng, synchronizing, and managing threads.

2. Implementa on Approaches

 User-Level Thread Library:

o Exists en rely in user space, without kernel support.

o API calls are treated as local procedure calls, meaning the kernel is not involved.

o Example: A program using a user-level library can execute thread-related func ons
directly without making system calls.

 Kernel-Level Thread Library:

o Exists en rely in kernel space and requires OS support.

o API calls result in system calls, meaning the kernel manages the threads.

o Example: Threads created through this library run in kernel mode, allowing for be er
resource management and scheduling.

3. Pthreads Library

 Defini on: Pthreads is a standard API for thread crea on and synchroniza on defined by the
POSIX standard.

 Specifica on vs. Implementa on: The Pthreads specifica on outlines how threads should
behave but leaves the actual implementa on details to developers. Different opera ng
systems can implement it in various ways.

 Compa ble Opera ng Systems: Common UNIX systems that support Pthreads include
Solaris, Linux, and macOS.

4. Pthreads Data Structures

 pthread_t:

o Represents a thread iden fier.

o Defined in the pthread.h header file.

o Opaque Data Type: Should not be treated as a specific primi ve type (like integer or
long). The actual underlying implementa on can vary (it might be an integer,
 structure, etc.), but it should always be referred to as pthread_t to maintain
portability across POSIX-compliant systems.

 pthread_a r_t:

o Represents thread a ributes (se ngs that define thread behavior).

o Also defined in the pthread.h header file.

o A ributes can include:

 Detach state: Determines if the thread is joinable or detached.

 Scheduling policy: Defines how the thread will be scheduled by the

opera ng system.

 Stack size and address: Specifies memory requirements for the thread.

 Scope: Indicates whether the thread can be scheduled on any processor.

 Scheduling priority: Sets the importance of the thread compared to others.

5. Conclusion

 The video effec vely summarizes the Pthreads library and introduces essen al data
structures that are vital for thread management in a POSIX-compliant environment.

 Understanding these concepts is crucial for developers working with mul threaded
applica ons, as they provide the necessary tools and knowledge to manage threads
efficiently.
Thread func ons

This video provides an overview of various thread func ons in the Pthreads library, discussing their
arguments, return types, and usage. Here’s a detailed summary of the key func ons covered:

1. pthread_a r_init

 Purpose: Ini alizes a thread a ributes object.

 Argument:

o pthread_a r_t* a r: A pointer to the thread a ributes object to ini alize.

 Return Type:

o int: Returns 0 on success or a non-zero error number if it fails.

2. pthread_a r_destroy

 Purpose: Destroys a thread a ributes object that is no longer needed.

 Argument:

o pthread_a r_t* a r: A pointer to the thread a ributes object to destroy.

 Return Type:

o int: Returns 0 on success or a non-zero error number if it fails.

 Note: The object must not be in use when destroyed.

3. pthread_create

 Purpose: Creates a new thread.

 Arguments:

o pthread_t* d: A pointer to store the thread iden fier of the newly created thread.

o const pthread_a r_t* a r: A pointer to a thread a ributes object that specifies

a ributes for the new thread (can be NULL for default a ributes).

o void* (*start_rou ne)(void*): A func on pointer to the func on that the new thread
will execute.

o void* arg: An argument passed to the start rou ne.

 Return Type:

o int: Returns 0 on success or a non-zero error number if it fails.

4. pthread_exit

 Purpose: Terminates the calling thread.

 Argument:

o void* status: A pointer to capture the exit status of the thread.

  Return Type:

o void: This func on does not return a value.

5. pthread_join

 Purpose: Waits for a specified thread to terminate.

 Arguments:

o pthread_t d: The iden fier of the thread to wait for.

o void** retval: A pointer where the exit status of the terminated thread will be
stored.

 Return Type:

o int: Returns 0 on success or a non-zero error number if it fails.

6. pthread_equal

 Purpose: Compares two thread iden fiers to see if they refer to the same thread.

 Arguments:

o pthread_t d1: The first thread iden fier.

o pthread_t d2: The second thread iden fier.

 Return Type:

o int: Returns a non-zero value if the iden fiers are equal and 0 if they are not.

Conclusion

The video thoroughly explains these essen al Pthreads func ons, providing insight into how they
work and their significance in mul threaded programming. Understanding these func ons is crucial
for effec ve thread management and synchroniza on in applica ons that u lize the Pthreads library.
If you need more details or examples for any specific func on, feel free to ask!
Example of mul threaded program

Here's a refined version of your video transcript, organized with headings, clear language, and
addi onal explana ons where necessary:

Mul threaded Program Using Pthreads

Hello everyone, and welcome to the Opera ng Systems course. In this video, we will discuss
examples of mul threaded programming using the Pthreads library. We will explore how different
Pthreads func ons can be u lized prac cally through a programming example.

Introduc on to the Program

In the following example, we'll demonstrate how to create and manage threads. The program
includes the following header files:

Copy code

#include <pthread.h>

#include <stdio.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

 pthread.h: This header defines the Pthreads func ons we will use.

 stdio.h: This is used for input and output func ons.

 stdlib.h: This includes func ons for memory alloca on and other u lity func ons.

Global Variable Declara on

We declare a global variable x and ini alize it:

Copy code

int x = 10; // Global variable accessible by all threads

This variable will be shared among all threads created in this program.

Main Func on Overview

Now let's focus on the main func on:

Copy code

int main() {
 pthread_t d1, d2; // Thread iden fiers

pthread_a r_t a r1, a r2; // Thread a ributes

int a = 10, b = 20; // Local variables

1. Thread Iden fiers: We declare two variables of type pthread_t to store the iden fiers for our
threads.

2. Thread A ributes: We also declare two variables of type pthread_a r_t to hold the thread
a ributes.

Thread A ribute Ini aliza on

Next, we ini alize the thread a ributes:

Copy code

pthread_a r_init(&a r1); // Ini alize a r1 with default values

pthread_a r_init(&a r2); // Ini alize a r2 with default values

Crea ng Threads

Now we will create the threads using pthread_create:

Copy code

pthread_create(& d1, &a r1, threadrun, &a); // Create first thread

pthread_create(& d2, &a r2, threadrun, &b); // Create second thread

 First Argument: A pointer to the thread iden fier (e.g., & d1).

 Second Argument: A pointer to the thread a ributes (e.g., &a r1).

 Third Argument: The func on that the thread will execute (threadrun).

 Fourth Argument: A pointer to the argument that will be passed to the thread func on (e.g.,
&a for the first thread and &b for the second).

Thread Func on Defini on

Let’s examine the threadrun func on:

Copy code

void* threadrun(void* arg) {

int sum;

int* val = (int*) arg; // Cast argument to int pointer

sum = x + *val; // Calculate sum

 prin ("Sum = %d\n", sum); // Print sum

prin ("Thread exi ng\n");

pthread_exit(0); // Exit thread with status 0

 Local Variable: sum is declared locally within each thread.

 Argument Cas ng: The arg parameter is cast to an int* to access its value.

 Sum Calcula on: The thread computes the sum of the global variable x and the passed
argument.

 Prin ng Results: Each thread prints its result before calling pthread_exit.

Wai ng for Threads to Finish

In the main func on, we wait for both child threads to finish using pthread_join:

Copy code

pthread_join( d1, NULL); // Wait for the first thread

pthread_join( d2, NULL); // Wait for the second thread

This ensures that the main thread waits un l both child threads complete their execu on.

Finalizing the Main Thread

A er both child threads finish, the main thread prints its final message:

Copy code

prin ("Main Thread Exi ng\n");

Compiling the Program

To compile this program, save it as threadprog.c and use the following command:

bash

Copy code

gcc threadprog.c -pthread

 The -pthread op on is crucial when compiling Pthreads programs to ensure proper linking.

Running the Program

A er successful compila on, run the executable:

bash

Copy code

./a.out

Expected Output

The output of the program will look like this:

mathema ca

Copy code

Sum = 20

Thread exi ng

Sum = 30

Thread exi ng

Main Thread Exi ng

The order of the first two statements may vary since the execu on of threads can interleave.

Conclusion

In this video, we explored various Pthreads func ons within a prac cal programming context. We
examined how to compile and execute a mul threaded program while discussing the expected
output. Thank you for watching!
Synchronous vs Asynchronous Mul threading

Here’s a structured and refined version of your video transcript on synchronous versus asynchronous
mul threading, with added clarity and organiza on:

Synchronous vs. Asynchronous Mul threading

[MUSIC]

Hello everyone, and welcome to the Opera ng Systems course. In this video, we will explore the
concepts of synchronous and asynchronous mul threading.

Asynchronous Mul threading

Let’s begin with asynchronous mul threading. In this model:

 A parent thread creates several child threads.

 A er crea ng the child threads, the parent thread resumes its execu on immediately.

 This means that both the parent thread and the child threads execute simultaneously and
independently.

Key Points:

 The parent thread does not wait for the child threads to finish.

 Each thread, including the parent and all its children, executes independently, leading to less
data sharing among them.

 If there are sufficient processing cores, all threads can run in parallel.

 The parent thread is not required to be aware of when its child threads terminate.

Synchronous Mul threading

Now, let’s discuss synchronous mul threading. In this model:

 When a parent thread creates child threads, it goes into a wai ng state immediately a er
their crea on.

 The parent thread will wait for each child thread to complete its execu on before it can
con nue.

Key Points:

 Only the child threads are execu ng concurrently while the parent thread is wai ng.

 Each child thread must finish its task before it can join back with the parent thread. This is
typically managed through the pthread_join func on in Pthreads applica ons.

 The strategy used here is o en referred to as the fork and join strategy:

o Fork: The parent creates several child threads.

 o Join: The parent waits for all child threads to finish.

 This model allows for more data sharing among the threads compared to asynchronous
mul threading, as the parent thread is ac vely managing the execu on of its child threads.

Conclusion

In this video, we covered the key differences between asynchronous and synchronous
mul threading, highligh ng their characteris cs and implica ons for thread execu on and data
sharing.
Thread Cancella on

Here’s a structured and refined version of your video transcript on thread cancella on, emphasizing
clarity and organiza on:

Thread Cancella on

Hello, everyone. Welcome to the Opera ng Systems course. In this video, we will discuss the concept
of thread cancella on and the different types of thread cancella on.

What is Thread Cancella on?

Thread cancella on refers to the process of termina ng a specific thread before it has completed its
execu on. The thread that is targeted for termina on is known as the target thread.

In the context of the POSIX Pthreads library, thread cancella on is accomplished using the func on
pthread_cancel. This func on accepts an argument of type pthread_t, which represents the
iden fier of the thread to be canceled. The return type of this func on is int.

When pthread_cancel is invoked with a specific thread iden fier, it sends a cancella on request to
the target thread. The way the target thread responds to this request depends on the cancella on
type. Therefore, understanding the different types of thread cancella on is crucial.

Types of Thread Cancella on

There are two main types of thread cancella on:

1. Asynchronous Cancella on

o In this model, when one thread issues a cancella on request to the target thread,
the target thread is immediately terminated.

o However, this approach can lead to problems:

 The target thread may have allocated several resources or be in the middle
of upda ng shared data (like a database).

 When a thread is abruptly terminated, the opera ng system reclaims its

allocated resources, but some resources may remain unreclaimed, leading to
poten al resource leaks.

 If the target thread is terminated while upda ng shared data, it can result in
data corrup on and an inconsistent state.

o Due to these issues, asynchronous cancella on, while supported in the Pthreads
library, is not recommended.

2. Deferred Cancella on

o In this model, a thread can request to terminate a target thread, but the target
thread will not be immediately terminated.
 o Instead, the target thread will check whether it is safe to cancel itself. It looks for a
cancella on point, which is a predefined loca on where it is safe to terminate.

o If the target thread has reached a cancella on point and there is a pending
cancella on request, it will invoke a cleanup handler to perform any necessary
cleanup ac vi es before termina on.

o This means that if the target thread was in the middle of upda ng shared data, it will
complete that update before termina ng, ensuring an orderly shutdown.

o In the Pthreads library, the default cancella on type is deferred due to the problems
associated with asynchronous cancella on.

Crea ng a Cancella on Point

To create a cancella on point in Pthreads, you can use the func on pthread_testcancel. This func on
does not accept any arguments and has a return type of void. When invoked, it creates a cancella on
point, allowing the target thread to complete any cleanup ac vi es before termina ng, provided
there are pending cancella on requests.

Conclusion

In this video, we covered the concept of thread cancella on and discussed the different types:
asynchronous and deferred cancella on. Understanding these types is crucial for managing thread
lifecycles effec vely.
Ques on 1

Which of the following is used to iden fy a thread in the Pthreads library?

pthread_t_ d

pthread_a r_t

pthread_ d

pthread_t

Correct

This is correct. Pthread_t corresponds to the thread iden fier.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

2.

Ques on 2

Which of the following func ons is used to ini alize the a ributes of a thread?

pthread_create()

pthread_a r_destroy()

pthread_a r_init()

pthread_exit()

Correct

pthread_a r_init() ini alizes the thread a ributes object passed as an argument to it using default
a ributes.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

3.

Ques on 3

In which header file, pthread_join() is defined?

stdlib.h

pthread.h

stdio.h

malloc.h

Correct

This is the correct header file.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

4.

Ques on 4

Which of the following is true?

In synchronous mul threading, the parent thread runs parallely with the child threads.

In asynchronous mul threading, there is less data sharing among the threads.

In asynchronous mul threading, a parent thread can create only a single child thread.

In synchronous mul threading, the child threads wait for the parent thread to terminate.

Correct

This is incorrect.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

5.

Ques on 5

What is the return type of pthread_cancel()?

Correct int

float

long int

void

Correct

This is correct.
Week 5

Coopera ng Processes

Here's a refined summary of your video transcript on coopera ng processes in opera ng systems:

Video Summary: Coopera ng Processes in Opera ng Systems

Introduc on Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will explore the concept
of coopera ng processes and discuss the effects of their execu on within a system.

1. Defini on of Coopera ng Processes

 Coopera ng Processes: These are processes that can affect or be affected by other
concurrently execu ng processes. They work together to accomplish a specific task and o en
exchange significant amounts of data.

 Communica on Methods: Coopera ng processes communicate through:

o Shared Memory: Accessing common data structures.

o Message Passing: Exchanging messages via communica on structures.

2. Effects of Coopera ng Processes

 Concurrent Execu on: Coopera ng processes may execute in parallel, sharing access to files
and data structures.

 Shared Access: To func on effec vely, these processes require shared access to resources
such as data structures and files.

3. Types of Concurrent Accesses

 Simultaneous Read Accesses: Mul ple processes can read from the same data structure or
file at the same me without any updates.

 Simultaneous Write Accesses: Mul ple processes modify the contents of a shared data
structure or file.

 Simultaneous Read and Write Accesses: Some processes read while others write to the
same data structure or file.

Conflic ng vs. Non-Conflic ng Accesses:

 Conflic ng Accesses:

o Simultaneous write accesses.

 o Simultaneous read and write accesses.

 Non-Conflic ng Accesses:

o Simultaneous read accesses.

4. Consequences of Concurrent Accesses

 Non-Conflic ng Accesses: Mul ple processes reading concurrently is acceptable.

 Conflic ng Accesses:

o Simultaneous write or update accesses can lead to data corrup on.

o Simultaneous read and write accesses may leave the data in an inconsistent state.

5. Addressing Data Consistency Issues

 Data Consistency: To prevent data corrup on, we must ensure that coopera ng processes
execute in an orderly manner.

 Synchroniza on:

o We need to synchronize the execu on of coopera ng processes.

o For conflic ng accesses, we must enforce an order of execu on to maintain a

consistent state of the data.

Conclusion In this video, we covered the concept of coopera ng processes, discussed the issues
related to their concurrent execu on, and highlighted the importance of synchroniza on to maintain
data consistency. Thank you for watching!
Race Condi on

Here's a refined summary of your video transcript on race condi ons in opera ng systems:

Video Summary: Race Condi on in Opera ng Systems

Introduc on Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will discuss the concept
of race condi ons and how concurrent process execu on can lead to them.

1. Defini on of Race Condi on

 Race Condi on: A situa on that occurs in a system where the outcome of concurrently
execu ng processes depends on the sequence in which they access shared data. This can
lead to data inconsistency, as the shared data may not accurately reflect the correct state.

2. Understanding Concurrent Execu on

 In a mul tasking environment, the CPU quickly switches between processes, leading to
interrup ons (process pre-emp on).

 Since mul ple processes can access and modify shared data structures simultaneously,
unregulated access can result in unintended modifica ons.

3. The Need for Synchroniza on

 To prevent race condi ons, it is essen al to allow only one process to manipulate shared
data at any given me.

 This brings us to the concept of process synchroniza on, which ensures mutually exclusive
access to shared data.

4. Example of Race Condi on Consider two processes, P1 and P2, that share three variables:

 Flag (ini alized to 1)

 Sum (ini alized to 0)

 MAX_VAL (set to 1000)

Both processes execute within infinite loops:

 P1 checks if flag == MAX_VAL. If true, it increments sum and flag.

 P2 checks if flag == 0. If true, it increments sum and decrements flag.

5. Machine-Level Implementa on The opera ons flag++ and flag-- are implemented at the machine
level:

 flag++ involves copying the value of flag to a register, incremen ng it, and then storing it
back.

 flag-- involves a similar process of decremen ng.

6. Execu on Sequence and Race Condi on Assuming flag starts at 10, consider the following
execu on sequence:

1. At me T1, P1 executes flag++, copying 10 to a register.

2. At T2, P1 increments the register to 11.

3. At T3, P2 executes flag--, copying 10 from flag to another register (since P1 hasn't yet
updated flag).

4. At T4, P2 decrements this register to 9.

5. At T5, P1 updates flag to 11 using its register.

6. At T6, P2 sets flag to 9.

The final value of flag becomes 9, which is incorrect. The expected value should have been 10. The
interleaved execu on resulted in this erroneous outcome, demonstra ng a race condi on.

7. Conclusion To avoid race condi ons, we need to ensure that the opera ons flag++ and flag-- are
executed without interrup on. Proper synchroniza on of concurrently execu ng processes is crucial
for maintaining data consistency.
Cri cal Sec on Problem

Here’s a refined summary of your video transcript on the cri cal sec on problem in opera ng
systems:

Video Summary: Cri cal Sec on Problem in Opera ng Systems

Introduc on Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will explore the
different segments of code and delve into the cri cal sec on problem, which is crucial for process
synchroniza on.

1. Code Segments In a scenario where processes access or modify shared variables or data
structures, the code can be divided into several key segments:

 Cri cal Sec on (CS):

o This is the code segment where a process accesses and modifies shared variables or
data structures. It’s crucial for ensuring data integrity when mul ple processes are
involved.

 Entry Sec on:

o This segment allows a process to request permission from other coopera ng

processes to enter the cri cal sec on. A process cannot access the cri cal sec on
without obtaining permission first.

 Exit Sec on:

o A er comple ng its opera ons in the cri cal sec on, a process executes this
segment to enable other wai ng processes to enter the cri cal sec on.

 Remainder Sec on:

o This code segment consists of ac ons that do not involve shared variables or data
structures. It follows the exit sec on and can be considered as the process’s ac vi es
outside the cri cal sec on.

2. Code Structure The typical structure of these segments in a process’s code is as follows:

1. Entry Sec on

2. Cri cal Sec on

3. Exit Sec on

4. Remainder Sec on

These sec ons are usually enclosed within an infinite loop, allowing the process to repeat its
execu on unless interrupted.
3. Understanding the Cri cal Sec on Problem

 Defini on:

o The cri cal sec on problem states that when one process is execu ng in its cri cal
sec on, no other process should be allowed to execute in its cri cal sec on
simultaneously. This means only one process can access or modify shared data at
any me.

 Objec ve:

o The goal is to enforce mutual exclusion to prevent simultaneous access to shared

variables or data structures, thereby maintaining data consistency.

4. Solving the Cri cal Sec on Problem To address the cri cal sec on problem, we need to design
algorithms that ensure mutually exclusive access to the cri cal sec on for processes. This guarantees
that at any given me, only one process can enter its cri cal sec on, thereby avoiding data
corrup on.

Conclusion In this video, we discussed the various segments of code that exist in process execu on
and the cri cal sec on problem related to process synchroniza on. Thank you for watching!
Requirements to be sa sfied

Here's a summary of your video on the requirements to be sa sfied for solving the cri cal sec on
problem in opera ng systems:

Video Summary: Requirements for Solving the Cri cal Sec on Problem

Introduc on Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will explore the three
fundamental requirements that any solu on to the cri cal sec on problem must sa sfy. We will also
analyze each of these requirements in detail.

1. Mutual Exclusion

 Defini on:

o Mutual exclusion ensures that if one process is execu ng in its cri cal sec on, no
other process can enter its cri cal sec on simultaneously. This guarantees that
shared resources or data are accessed in a mutually exclusive manner.

 Implica on:

o It prevents race condi ons and data corrup on by ensuring that only one process
can modify shared variables at a me.

2. Progress

 Defini on:

o The progress requirement states that if no process is execu ng in its cri cal sec on
and some processes wish to enter their cri cal sec ons, only those processes that
are not in their remainder sec ons should par cipate in deciding which process
enters the cri cal sec on next.

 Why is this necessary?

o A process that is not interested in entering its cri cal sec on (i.e., one that is in the
remainder sec on) should not prevent others from accessing the cri cal sec on.

 Decision Making:

o The decision as to which process enters next must occur within a finite me,
ensuring that no indefinite delays occur.

3. Bounded Wai ng

 Defini on:
 o The bounded wai ng requirement guarantees that a er a process makes a request
to enter the cri cal sec on, it will be allowed to do so within a bounded (finite)
amount of me.

 Implica on:

o This ensures fairness. A process should not be indefinitely deprived of entering the
cri cal sec on while other processes repeatedly gain access.

 Scenario:

o If process P1 requests access to the cri cal sec on and is constantly delayed while
process P2 repeatedly enters, this would violate the bounded wai ng requirement.
Bounded wai ng ensures that no process waits forever.

Conclusion In this video, we discussed the three key requirements—mutual exclusion, progress, and
bounded wai ng—that must be sa sfied by any solu on to the cri cal sec on problem. Each of
these requirements ensures the proper synchroniza on of processes and prevents issues like
indefinite wai ng and data inconsistency. Thank you for watching!
Peterson’s Solu on

The video covers Peterson's Solu on, a so ware-based method to address the cri cal sec on
problem, focusing on synchronizing two processes. Here's a brief summary of the key points:

Peterson's Solu on:

 Applicable for Two Processes (PI and PJ): It’s designed to manage two processes (e.g., P0
and P1) that share data.

 Shared Variables:

o turn (integer): Indicates which process's turn it is to enter the cri cal sec on.

o flag (Boolean array of size 2): Indicates whether a process is ready to enter the
cri cal sec on.

Working of the Solu on:

1. Entry Sec on:

o Process PI sets flag[I] = true, indica ng it's ready to enter the cri cal sec on.

o Then, PI sets turn = J to give process PJ a fair chance to enter.

o In a while loop, PI checks:

 If PJ is ready (flag[J] = true).

 If it is PJ's turn (turn = J).

 If both are true, PI waits in the loop, allowing PJ to enter first. If either is
false, PI enters the cri cal sec on.

2. Cri cal Sec on:

o PI executes the cri cal sec on.

3. Exit Sec on:

o PI sets flag[I] = false, indica ng it’s no longer ready to enter the cri cal sec on,
allowing PJ to take its turn.

4. Remainder Sec on:

o PI executes the remainder sec on of its code.

Limita ons of Peterson's Solu on:

1. Only for Two Processes: It does not work if there are more than two processes.

2. May Fail on Modern Systems: Due to how modern systems handle memory and interrupts,
simultaneous modifica ons of flag and turn might not be regulated properly, leading to race
condi ons.
In summary, Peterson's Solu on provides a simple approach to process synchroniza on, but its
applicability is limited to two processes, and it may not be effec ve on modern systems without
addi onal guarantees of uninterrupted variable modifica on.
Analysis of Peterson’s Solu on

This video focuses on analyzing Peterson's Solu on to the cri cal sec on problem, determining if it
sa sfies the three essen al requirements: mutual exclusion, progress, and bounded wai ng. Here's
a summary:

1. Mutual Exclusion:

 Mutual exclusion means that only one process can be inside the cri cal sec on (CS) at any
given me.

 If process Pi enters the CS, it sets flag[I] = true and turn = J. Meanwhile, Pj (the other
process) remains stuck in the while loop because flag[I] = true and turn = I.

 When Pi exits the CS and sets flag[I] = false, Pj can then enter the CS.

 This ensures that Pi and Pj cannot be in the CS simultaneously, thus mutual exclusion is
sa sfied.

2. Progress:

 Progress ensures that if no process is in the cri cal sec on and one wants to enter, it should
be allowed to do so without unnecessary delays.

 For example, if Pi wants to enter the CS and Pj has no inten on to do so (flag[J] = false), Pi
will quickly enter the CS since the while loop condi on becomes false.

 This demonstrates that Peterson’s Solu on ensures progress by allowing a process to enter
the CS when the other process isn’t a emp ng to enter.

3. Bounded Wai ng:

 Bounded wai ng ensures that a process will not be delayed indefinitely when trying to enter
the CS, i.e., there is a limit on how long one process can block another.

 If Pj is inside the CS, Pi will set flag[I] = true and wait in the while loop. When Pj exits and
sets flag[J] = false, Pi will quickly break out of the loop and enter the CS.

 Even if Pj quickly re-a empts to enter the CS a er exi ng, Pi is allowed to enter first due to
the turn mechanism, thus preven ng Pj from repeatedly entering and depriving Pi.

 This ensures that bounded wai ng is sa sfied.

Conclusion:

Peterson’s Solu on sa sfies all three condi ons of the cri cal sec on problem—mutual exclusion,
progress, and bounded wai ng—making it a valid solu on for synchronizing two processes.
Synchroniza on Hardware: test_and_set()

This video covers the topic of synchroniza on hardware, specifically the Test-and-Set instruc on,
which is a hardware-based solu on to the cri cal sec on problem. The discussion includes how Test-
and-Set works and how it provides a solu on to prevent race condi ons when mul ple processes
compete for access to shared resources. Here's a summary of the video:

1. Hardware-Based Solu on:

 Modern systems offer hardware-level solu ons to the cri cal sec on problem through
specific instruc ons, which operate based on locking mechanisms.

 In the entry sec on, a lock is acquired to secure access to the cri cal sec on, while in the
exit sec on, the lock is released a er the cri cal sec on is completed.

 The key feature of these hardware instruc ons is their atomicity—once an instruc on begins
execu on, it cannot be interrupted, ensuring that no par al execu on happens. This is
cri cal to prevent race condi ons where mul ple processes interfere with one another.

2. Test-and-Set Instruc on:

 The Test-and-Set instruc on is a hardware solu on that both tests the value of a variable
and modifies it atomically. Here's a breakdown of its pseudocode:

o Input: A Boolean pointer (target), which points to a lock variable.

o The instruc on stores the current value of target in a local variable rv, then **sets
target to true** (indica ng the lock is now acquired), and finally returns the original
value of target` (before modifica on).

o The key point is that this whole sequence—tes ng and se ng—is executed
atomically.
3. Solu on Using Test-and-Set:

 In this solu on, a shared Boolean variable lock is used, which is ini ally set to false
(indica ng the cri cal sec on is free).

 Each process executes a do-while loop that repeatedly calls the Test-and-Set func on on the
lock:

o If the lock is false, the process acquires the lock (since Test-and-Set returns false) and
enters the cri cal sec on.

o If the lock is true, the process remains stuck in the loop un l the lock becomes false,
meaning another process has finished execu ng its cri cal sec on.

 A er comple ng the cri cal sec on, the process releases the lock by se ng lock = false in
the exit sec on, allowing another process to acquire the lock.

Conclusion:

The Test-and-Set instruc on provides an atomic mechanism for locking access to the cri cal sec on,
ensuring that no two processes enter the cri cal sec on at the same me. This hardware-level
synchroniza on helps in crea ng a robust solu on to the cri cal sec on problem by sa sfying the
key requirements of mutual exclusion, progress, and bounded wai ng.
Analysis of solu on with test_and_set()

PjP_jPj = Pj

PiP_iPi = Pi

In this video, the solu on to the cri cal sec on problem using the Test-and-Set instruc on is
analyzed. The goal is to see whether this solu on sa sfies the three requirements for a cri cal
sec on problem solu on: mutual exclusion, progress, and bounded wai ng. Here’s a breakdown of
the analysis:

1. Mutual Exclusion:

 The video explains how mutual exclusion is ensured using the Test-and-Set instruc on.

 When process PiP_iPi tries to enter the cri cal sec on, it calls Test-and-Set on the lock
variable. If the lock is false (indica ng no other process is in the cri cal sec on), Test-and-Set
returns false, allowing PiP_iPi to enter the cri cal sec on and se ng lock = true to prevent
other processes from entering.

 If another process, PjP_jPj, a empts to enter the cri cal sec on while PiP_iPi is inside,
PjP_jPj will repeatedly invoke Test-and-Set, but since lock = true, PjP_jPj will be stuck in the
loop un l PiP_iPi exits and sets lock = false.

 Thus, only one process can enter the cri cal sec on at a me, ensuring mutual exclusion is
sa sfied.

2. Progress:

 Progress ensures that if no process is in the cri cal sec on and one or more processes want
to enter, the system will eventually allow one process to proceed.

 If PiP_iPi wants to enter the cri cal sec on and PjP_jPj does not, Test-and-Set will return
false immediately for PiP_iPi, allowing it to enter the cri cal sec on. PjP_jPj does not block
PiP_iPi, and this decision is made in a finite amount of me.

 Therefore, progress is sa sfied because processes that do not want to enter the cri cal
sec on do not hinder others from doing so.

3. Bounded Wai ng:

 Bounded wai ng requires that no process is forced to wait indefinitely to enter the cri cal
sec on a er making a request.

 However, the Test-and-Set solu on does not sa sfy bounded wai ng. Here’s why:

o Suppose PjP_jPj is in the cri cal sec on, and PiP_iPi wants to enter. PiP_iPi will wait
in the while loop while PjP_jPj is inside.

o When PjP_jPj exits and sets lock = false, it may quickly re-enter the cri cal sec on
(because it re-executes Test-and-Set before PiP_iPi no ces the lock is free). This
leads to PjP_jPj re-acquiring the lock, depriving PiP_iPi of entry.
 o PjP_jPj could repeat this mul ple mes, effec vely causing PiP_iPi to wait
indefinitely, and thus viola ng the bounded wai ng condi on.

Conclusion:

The solu on using the Test-and-Set instruc on sa sfies both mutual exclusion and progress, but fails
to meet the bounded wai ng requirement. This limita on means that while processes can safely
execute the cri cal sec on one at a me, some processes may experience indefinite delays, making
this solu on incomplete for scenarios requiring bounded wai ng.
1.

Ques on 1

What is a key feature of Peterson's solu on for process synchroniza on?

Peterson's solu on allows mul ple processes to enter the cri cal sec on simultaneously.

Peterson's solu on ensures mutual exclusion, progress, and bounded wai ng for two processes.

Peterson's solu on is guaranteed to work on any computer architecture.

Peterson's solu on is not related to process synchroniza on.

Correct

This is correct. Peterson's solu on is designed to provide mutual exclusion, ensure progress, and
guarantee bounded wai ng for two processes.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

2.

Ques on 2

How does Peterson's solu on sa sfy the three requirements for process synchroniza on?

by elimina ng the need for synchroniza on mechanisms en rely

by using a flag array and a turn variable to ensure only one process enters the cri cal sec on at a
me, making sure that wai ng processes get a turn, and that processes can't be indefinitely
postponed

by allowing both processes to enter the cri cal sec on at the same me

by allowing one process to enter the cri cal sec on mul ple mes while the other process waits
a er having put up the request to enter the cri cal sec on

Correct

This is correct. Peterson's solu on uses a flag array and a turn variable to achieve mutual exclusion,
ensure progress, and provide bounded wai ng.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

3.

Ques on 3

What is the return type of test_and_set()?

int

char

float
boolean

Correct

This is correct. test_and_set() an argument of type boolean * and returns a value of type boolean.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

4.

Ques on 4

How does the test_and_set() func on help achieve mutual exclusion in process synchroniza on?

by returning the value of the lock variable before it is set to true

by se ng lock to false in the exit sec on

by returning a boolean variable

by using a boolean variable lock

Correct

This is correct. When lock is false (implying that no process is in the cri cal sec on), then returning
false enables a process to break out of the single line while loop and enter the cri cal sec on. When
lock is true (implying that some process is execu ng in the cri cal sec on), then returning true
ensures that the reques ng process is stuck in the single line while loop.
Mutex Locks

This video covers the concept of Mutex Locks and how they can be used to solve the cri cal sec on
problem. Let's break it down:

Overview of Mutex Locks

 Mutex Locks are so ware-based solu ons for solving the cri cal sec on problem, as
opposed to hardware-based solu ons.

 These locks are designed for applica on programmers and are provided by the opera ng
system through system calls.

 The two key opera ons in a Mutex Lock are:

o Acquire: Used to gain access to the cri cal sec on.

o Release: Used to free up the cri cal sec on a er the process is done.

Key Characteris cs

 The execu on of acquire and release must be atomic, meaning they should not be
interrupted. This ensures that only one process can hold the lock at any given me.

 Mutex Locks have a Boolean variable called available, which tracks the status of the lock:

o True: Mutex lock is available, and no process is in the cri cal sec on.

o False: Mutex lock is not available, meaning a process is currently in its cri cal
sec on.
The Acquire Opera on

 A process checks if the lock is available (i.e., if available == true).

 If available == false, the process enters a busy wai ng state, repeatedly checking the value
of available un l it becomes true.

o Busy wai ng means the process does not move to a wai ng state but con nues
consuming CPU cycles.

The Release Opera on

 When a process finishes its cri cal sec on, it sets available to true, making the lock available
for other processes.

Mutex Lock in Cri cal Sec on Problem Solu on

 The solu on follows these steps:

1. Entry Sec on: The process acquires the lock.

2. Cri cal Sec on: The process performs its opera ons in the cri cal sec on.

3. Exit Sec on: The process releases the lock.

4. Remainder Sec on: The process executes any remaining code outside the cri cal
sec on.

This approach ensures that only one process can execute the cri cal sec on at a me, achieving
mutual exclusion and solving the cri cal sec on problem.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Mutex Locks

Here’s a concise summary of your video on the advantages and disadvantages of mutex locks in
opera ng systems:

Video Summary: Advantages and Disadvantages of Mutex Locks

Introduc on Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will explore the
advantages and disadvantages of implemen ng solu ons using mutex locks.

Busy Wai ng in Mutex Locks

 In the acquire opera on of a mutex lock, a process checks the value of an associated variable
(available).

 If available is false, the process enters a while loop, con nuously checking this condi on. This
state is known as busy wai ng.

 The process keeps using CPU cycles without doing any useful work, which is why mutex locks
are o en called spin locks.

Advantages of Mutex Locks

1. No Context Switching:

o While busy wai ng, the process remains in the running state and does not transi on
to the wai ng state.
 o This means there are no context switches involved, which can save me, especially if
the lock is held for a very brief period.

o If the lock is expected to be held for a short me, avoiding context switching is
beneficial since the overhead of context switching can exceed the dura on for which
the lock is held.

Disadvantages of Mutex Locks

1. Wasted CPU Cycles:

o If a mutex lock is held for an extended period, busy wai ng can lead to a significant
waste of CPU resources.

o Instead of u lizing CPU cycles for computa on, the process remains stuck in the
while loop, preven ng other processes from execu ng effec vely.

o Ideally, if the process transi oned to a wai ng state, those CPU cycles could have
been allocated to another process, improving overall system efficiency.

Conclusion In this video, we discussed the advantages of mutex locks, par cularly their efficiency in
scenarios involving brief lock dura ons, and highlighted the disadvantages, including the waste of
CPU cycles during busy wai ng. Thank you for watching!
Semaphore Implementa on

Here's a concise summary of your video on semaphore implementa on in opera ng systems:

Video Summary: Semaphore Implementa on

Introduc on Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will introduce
semaphores, explore opera ons on them, and discuss their implementa on for solving the cri cal
sec on problem.

What is a Semaphore?

 A semaphore is a synchroniza on construct used to control access to shared resources by

mul ple processes.

 It consists of an integer variable ini alized to a specific value.

 There are two primary opera ons for accessing a semaphore:

1. Wait opera on (P)

2. Signal opera on (V)

Busy Wai ng Implementa on

1. Wait Opera on:

o The process checks the value of the semaphore (S). If S is less than or equal to zero,
it engages in busy wai ng (a while loop).

o Once the value of S is greater than zero, the semaphore value is decremented by
one.

o Note: This implementa on can lead to wasted CPU cycles due to busy wai ng.

2. Signal Opera on:

o A process increments the semaphore value (S) by one.

o The opera ons must be executed atomically, meaning they cannot be interrupted.
Improved Implementa on without Busy Wai ng

 To avoid busy wai ng, the semaphore structure includes:

1. An integer variable value to represent the semaphore value.

2. A list (or queue) of processes wai ng on the semaphore.

Opera ons:

1. Block Opera on:

o When a process cannot proceed, it is added to the semaphore's wai ng queue and
transi ons to the wai ng state, freeing up CPU resources.

2. Wakeup Opera on:

o A process is removed from the wai ng queue and transi oned back to the ready
state when the semaphore becomes available.

Structure Representa on

 The semaphore can be represented using a structure containing:

o An integer variable (value) for the semaphore value.

o A list to maintain the wai ng processes.

Implemen ng Wait and Signal Opera ons without Busy Wai ng

1. Wait Opera on:

o Decrement the semaphore value.

o If the value becomes nega ve, the process is added to the wai ng list and blocked.

2. Signal Opera on:

o Increment the semaphore value.

o If the value is zero or nega ve, a process from the wai ng queue is woken up and
moved to the ready state.
Conclusion In this video, we covered the concept of semaphores, their implementa on with and
without busy wai ng, highligh ng the benefits of elimina ng busy wai ng to improve CPU resource
u liza on. Thank you for watching!
Types of Semaphore

Here’s a summary of your video on the types of semaphores in opera ng systems:

Video Summary: Types of Semaphore

Introduc on Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will explore the
different types of semaphores and discuss each type in detail.

Types of Semaphores Semaphores can be classified into two main types:

1. Binary Semaphore

2. Coun ng Semaphore

1. Binary Semaphore

 Defini on: A binary semaphore has an integer value that ranges only between 0 and 1.

 Value Characteris cs:

o The value never exceeds 1. If it is 1, subsequent signal opera ons will keep it at 1.

o Depending on the implementa on (with or without busy wai ng), the value may
become nega ve.

 Func onality:

o Allows only one process to enter the cri cal sec on at a me.

o Ideal for synchronizing access to a single-instance resource (e.g., a file).

 Usage Example:

o Before accessing a shared file, a process executes the wait opera on. A er the
access is complete, it executes the signal opera on.

o The binary semaphore should be ini alized to 1 to allow access; otherwise, the first
process will be blocked or engage in busy wai ng.

 Comparison: Similar to a mutex, which also allows only one process in the cri cal sec on.
2. Coun ng Semaphore

 Defini on: A coun ng semaphore can have a value ranging from 0 to n(n!=1), where n is a
posi ve integer.

 Value Characteris cs:

o Allows for mul ple processes to enter their cri cal sec ons simultaneously.

o If ini alized to n (e.g., 4), up to n processes can execute wait opera ons and enter
their cri cal sec ons un l the value reaches 0.

 Func onality:

o Useful when there are mul ple instances of a resource (e.g., several copies of a file)
that can be accessed concurrently.

 Usage Example:

o In scenarios where different processes can access different copies of a resource

simultaneously, a coun ng semaphore allows for parallel access without conflicts.

Conclusion In this video, we discussed the two main types of semaphores: binary semaphores,
which ensure mutual exclusion for single-instance resources, and coun ng semaphores, which allow
concurrent access to mul ple instances of resources. Understanding when to use each type is crucial
for effec ve process synchroniza on.
Improper usage of Semaphore

Here’s a summary of your video on the improper usage of semaphores in opera ng systems:

Video Summary: Improper Usage of Semaphore

Introduc on Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will explore the proper
and improper usage of semaphores, along with the consequences associated with improper usage.

Proper Usage of Semaphores

 Key Opera ons: The two main opera ons on a semaphore are:

o Wait Opera on: Indicates a process is locking access to the cri cal sec on.

o Signal Opera on: Indicates the process has finished execu ng the cri cal sec on
and releases it.

 Pseudo Code Example:

pseudo

Copy code

do {

wait(S); // Entry Sec on

// Cri cal Sec on

signal(S); // Exit Sec on

// Remainder Sec on

} while (true);

o Here, S is a binary semaphore ini alized to 1.

Improper Usage of Semaphores

 Example Scenario: Consider two binary semaphores, S1 and S2, both ini alized to 1. We
have two processes, P1 and P2:

o P1 executes:

1. wait(S1)

2. wait(S2)

3. Enters the cri cal sec on

4. signal(S1)

5. signal(S2)

o P2 executes:

1. wait(S2)

2. wait(S1)

3. Enters the cri cal sec on

4. signal(S2)

5. signal(S1)

 Deadlock Situa on:

o If P1 locks S1 and then waits for S2, while P2 locks S2 and then waits for S1, both
processes become blocked, leading to a deadlock. Each process waits for the other
to release a semaphore, resul ng in a situa on where neither can proceed.

 Defini on of Deadlock: A deadlock occurs when a set of processes are wai ng for events
that can only be triggered by themselves.
Starva on (Indefinite Blocking)

 Starva on occurs when some processes are perpetually denied access to resources while
others con nue execu ng.

 Example: If processes are dequeued from a semaphore's wai ng queue in a Last In, First Out
(LIFO) manner, the first process may be stuck in the queue indefinitely. Con nuous addi ons
to the queue may prevent it from ever being removed.

 Consequences: Processes may not get their fair chance to execute, leading to inefficiency
and poten al system failure.

Conclusion In this video, we discussed the proper usage of semaphores for solving the cri cal sec on
problem, as well as the improper usages that can lead to deadlocks and starva on. Understanding
these issues is crucial for effec ve process synchroniza on.
1.

Ques on 1

Which of the following is true for mutex locks?

acquire() and release() are not atomic.

Both acquire() and release() are atomic.

acquire() is atomic, but release() is not atomic.

acquire() is not atomic, but release() is atomic.

Correct

This is correct. Unless both acquire() and release() are atomic, the solu on to the cri cal sec on
problem using mutex lock will not be correct.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

2.

Ques on 2

Which of the following is a disadvantage of mutex locks?

makes the cri cal sec on of a program very large

wastage of CPU cycles

necessitate process context switch

not providing mutual exclusion

Correct

This is correct. Mutex locks do indeed waste CPU cycles because of being a spinlock.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

3.

Ques on 3

What is the data type of a semaphore variable?

double

int

char

float
Correct

This is correct. Semaphore S is indeed an integer variable.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

4.

Ques on 4

What is the primary difference between a binary semaphore and a coun ng semaphore? Consider
semaphore implementa on with busy wai ng.

A binary semaphore can have any non-nega ve integer value, while a coun ng semaphore is
restricted to values 0 and 1.

There is no difference between a binary semaphore and a coun ng semaphore.

A binary semaphore can only take values 0 and 1, while a coun ng semaphore can take any non-
nega ve integer value.

A binary semaphore is used for coun ng resources and not mutual exclusion, while a coun ng
semaphore is used for mutual exclusion.

Correct

This is correct. A binary semaphore is used for mutual exclusion and can only be 0 or 1, while a
coun ng semaphore can take any non-nega ve integer value to manage access to mul ple instances
of a resource, considering semaphore implementa on with busy wai ng.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

5.

Ques on 5

What is an example of improper use of semaphores in process synchroniza on?

Using semaphores to manage access to a shared resource among mul ple processes.

Using binary semaphores to enforce mutual exclusion in cri cal sec ons.

Using coun ng semaphores to keep track of the access to a specific number of resources.

Using semaphores to manage single-threaded opera ons without any shared resources.

Correct

This is correct. It is improper to use semaphores for single-threaded opera ons where there are no
shared resources, as semaphores are intended for synchroniza on in mul -threaded or mul -process
environments.
Producer-Consumer Problem

Here's a summary of your video on the producer-consumer problem in opera ng systems:

Video Summary: Producer-Consumer Problem

Introduc on Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will discuss the classical
synchroniza on problem known as the producer-consumer problem and explore its various details.

Concept of the Producer-Consumer Problem

 The Producer Process con nuously generates informa on and stores it in a shared buffer.

 The Consumer Process retrieves and consumes informa on from the same buffer.

 Buffer Characteris cs:

o The buffer has a bounded capacity, meaning it can hold a limited number of items.

o Mul ple producers and consumers can operate concurrently.

Blocking Condi ons

 When the buffer is full, the producer must block (i.e., stop) to prevent overflow.

 When the buffer is empty, the consumer must wait for new items to become available.

Pseudo Code for Producer Process

 The producer runs in an infinite loop, producing items:

pseudo

Copy code

while (true) {

produceItem(); // Generate an item

while (bufferFull) { /* Wait */ } // Block if full

storeItemInBuffer(); // Store the item

updateBufferPointer(); // Move to the next empty slot

Pseudo Code for Consumer Process

  The consumer also runs in an infinite loop, consuming items:

pseudo

Copy code

while (true) {

while (bufferEmpty) { /* Wait */ } // Block if empty

consumeItemFromBuffer(); // Consume an item

updateBufferPointer(); // Move to the next full slot

Synchroniza on Issues

 Race Condi on: Since the producer and consumer access the buffer simultaneously, there is
a risk of a race condi on if they modify shared variables (e.g., a count variable tracking the
number of items in the buffer) without proper synchroniza on.

 To avoid race condi ons:

o Mutual Exclusion: Ensure that only one process modifies the shared buffer or the
count variable at a me.

o Any modifica on should complete without interrup on.

Conclusion In this video, we introduced the producer-consumer problem, highligh ng the

interac ons between the producer and consumer processes, the issues of blocking condi ons, and
the importance of mutual exclusion to prevent race condi ons.
Solu on to Producer-Consumer Problem

Here's a structured summary of your video on the solu on to the producer-consumer problem:

Video Summary: Solu on to the Producer-Consumer Problem

Introduc on Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will discuss the solu on
to the producer-consumer problem and analyze its effec veness.

Problem Overview

 The producer and consumer share a buffer of size n, where each buffer slot can hold one
informa on item.

 We will use the following data structures:

o An integer variable n (size of the buffer)

o A binary semaphore called sem for mutual exclusion

o A coun ng semaphore called full to track the number of full slots

o A coun ng semaphore called empty to track the number of empty slots

Ini aliza on:

 n: equal to the size of the buffer

 sem: ini alized to 1 (indica ng the buffer is free)

 full: ini alized to 0 (no items produced yet)

 empty: ini alized to n (all slots are ini ally empty)

Pseudocode for Producer Process

 The producer runs in an infinite loop and follows these steps:

1. Produce an item.

2. Execute wait(empty): Decrement the count of empty slots.

3. Execute wait(sem): Lock the buffer.

4. Add the produced item to the buffer (cri cal sec on).

5. Execute signal(sem): Release the lock on the buffer.

6. Execute signal(full): Increment the count of full slots.

Pseudocode for Consumer Process

 The consumer also runs in an infinite loop with the following steps:

1. Execute wait(full): Decrement the count of full slots.

2. Execute wait(sem): Lock the buffer.

3. Remove an item from the buffer (cri cal sec on).

4. Execute signal(sem): Release the lock on the buffer.

5. Execute signal(empty): Increment the count of empty slots.

6. Consume the retrieved item.

Key Points

 Cri cal Sec on: Both producer and consumer modify the buffer in a cri cal sec on to
prevent race condi ons.

 Order of Opera ons: It’s crucial that the producer checks if the buffer is full before locking it,
and the consumer checks if the buffer is empty before locking it.
What Happens If the Order is Changed?

 If the producer executes wait(sem) before wait(empty) (and similarly for the consumer):

o The producer may lock the buffer when it's full, then get stuck on wait(empty).

o The consumer would be unable to lock the buffer, leading to a deadlock situa on
where neither can proceed.

Conclusion

 The solu on to the producer-consumer problem emphasizes the importance of order in

semaphore opera ons to prevent deadlocks.

 We reviewed the pseudocode for both the producer and consumer, highligh ng cri cal
sec ons and semaphore usage.
Dining Philosophers Problem

Here’s a structured summary of your video on the dining philosophers problem:

Video Summary: Dining Philosophers Problem

Introduc on Hello, everyone. Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video, we will
discuss the dining philosophers problem, a classical synchroniza on issue, and its rela onship to
process synchroniza on.

Problem Statement

 Setup: Five philosophers are seated around a circular table.

 Ac vi es: Each philosopher can either think or eat.

o When they become hungry, they will eat from a bowl of rice located at the center of
the table.

 Chops cks: Each philosopher requires two chops cks to eat. However, there are only five
chops cks available for the five philosophers.

 Ea ng Process:

o To eat, a philosopher will pick up the two nearest chops cks (the le and right ones).

o Once they finish ea ng, they return the chops cks to the table and resume thinking.

 States:

o Each philosopher can be in one of three states:

1. Thinking

2. Hungry

3. Ea ng

 Hungry State:

o Philosophers can transi on to the hungry state when they want to eat.

o If two adjacent philosophers become hungry simultaneously, they may face a conflict
over the shared chops cks, leading to a poten al deadlock situa on.

Rela on to Process Synchroniza on

 Processes: Each philosopher represents a process in a system, and they can execute
concurrently, meaning mul ple philosophers may become hungry at the same me.

 Shared Data:
 o The bowl of rice is the shared resource that all philosophers (processes) will access.

 Semaphores:

o The chops cks can be thought of as semaphores that must be acquired before
accessing the shared resource (the rice).

o A philosopher must grab the chops cks (semaphores) before serving rice and ea ng.

 Resource Alloca on:

o This scenario illustrates the challenges of resource alloca on among mul ple
processes, highligh ng poten al issues such as deadlock and starva on.

Conclusion In this video, we explored the dining philosophers problem and its implica ons for
process synchroniza on in opera ng systems. Thank you for watching!
Solu on to Dining Philosophers Problem

Here's a structured summary of your video on the solu on to the dining philosophers problem:

Video Summary: Solu on to the Dining Philosophers Problem

Introduc on [MUSIC] Hello everyone. Welcome to the course on Opera ng Systems. In this video,
we will explore the solu on to the dining philosophers problem and analyze its effec veness.

Overview of the Problem

 Shared Resource: The bowl of rice is the shared data accessed by mul ple philosopher
processes.

 Chops cks as Semaphores: Each chops ck is represented as a semaphore. Since there are
five chops cks, we declare an array of semaphores: semaphore chops ck[5], ini alizing each
element to 1, indica ng that each chops ck is available.

Algorithm Design

 Entry Sec on:

o When a philosopher wants to eat, they perform a wait opera on on their le

chops ck and their right chops ck.

o The chops cks are accessed as follows:

 For Philosopher i:

 wait(chops ck[i])

 wait(chops ck[(i + 1) % 5])

 Exit Sec on:

o A er ea ng, the philosopher performs a signal opera on to release the chops cks:

 signal(chops ck[i])

 signal(chops ck[(i + 1) % 5])

 Philosopher States: Philosophers alternate between thinking and ea ng, represented by an

infinite loop.
Example

 If Philosopher 0 is hungry, they will:

1. Grab Chops ck 0 (le ).

2. Grab Chops ck 1 (right, derived from (0 + 1) % 5).

 If Philosopher 3 is hungry, they will:

1. Grab Chops ck 3 (le ).

2. Grab Chops ck 4 (right).

 In this algorithm, philosophers pick up their right chops ck first and then their le chops ck.

Poten al Issues

 Deadlock Situa on:

o If all philosophers become hungry at the same me, each may grab their right
chops ck, leaving all le chops cks unavailable. This creates a deadlock where none
can proceed because they are wai ng for the le chops ck to become available.

Deadlock Solu ons

1. Limit Philosophers: Allow a maximum of 4 philosophers at the table. This way, there will
always be at least one available chops ck, preven ng deadlock.

2. Check Availability:

o When a philosopher grabs the right chops ck and a empts to grab the le :

 If the le chops ck is unavailable, they must put down the right chops ck.
This ensures that philosophers either acquire both chops cks or none.

3. Asymmetric Solu on:

o Odd-numbered philosophers (1, 3) pick up the right chops ck first, then the le .

o Even-numbered philosophers (0, 2, 4) pick up the le chops ck first, then the right.

o This arrangement prevents deadlock as it breaks the cycle of wai ng.

Conclusion In this video, we discussed the solu on to the dining philosophers problem and analyzed
its poten al deadlock scenarios along with strategies to mi gate those issues. Thank you for
watching! [SOUND]
1.

Ques on 1

In the Producer-Consumer problem, what is the role of the consumer?

To remove items from the shared buffer and process them.

To ensure that the producer blocks when the buffer is full.

To manage the synchroniza on between mul ple producers.

To ensure the buffer is always full.

Correct

This is correct. The consumer's role is to remove items from the shared buffer and process them,
ensuring the buffer does not overflow.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

2.

Ques on 2

In the solu on to the producer-consumer problem, which of the following is a binary semaphore?

full

empty

sem

Correct

This is correct. Sem is indeed a binary semaphore used to ensure mutually exclusive access to the
buffer.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

3.

Ques on 3

In the Dining Philosophers problem, which of the following corresponds to process?

chops ck

table

philosopher

bowl of rice

Correct
This is correct. Each philosopher corresponds to a process. Watch Video Dining Philosophers
Problem.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

4.

Ques on 4

In the Dining Philosophers problem, what is a common strategy to avoid deadlock? Note that you
need to make sure that the solu on is s ll correct.

Ensuring that all philosophers always pick up the le fork first and then the right fork.

Allowing each philosopher to eat with only one chops ck.

Correct A er picking up a chops ck if a philosopher finds that the other chops ck is unavailable,
s/he will let go of the picked up chops ck.

Ensuring that a philosopher keeps on holding onto a chops ck even if the other one is not available.

Correct

This is correct. This is one of the deadlock preven on strategies.

Week 6

Basics of Process Scheduling

Here's a structured summary of your video on process scheduling:

Video Summary: Process Scheduling in Opera ng Systems

Introduc on [MUSIC] Hello everyone. Welcome to this video session on process scheduling, also
known as CPU scheduling. In a mul programming environment, mul ple processes reside in the
main memory and wait for execu on by the CPU. Process scheduling is crucial for efficient CPU
u liza on.

Importance of Process Scheduling

 Defini on: Process scheduling determines which process out of many will access the CPU.

 Objec ve: Ensure the CPU is never idle; when free, the opera ng system selects a process
from the wai ng list.

 Component: The CPU scheduler is a special component of the opera ng system responsible
for this selec on.

Scheduling Algorithms

 Various algorithms exist, each using different criteria:

o Maximizing CPU U liza on

o Minimizing Turnaround Time

o Ensuring Fairness Among Processes

Basics of Scheduling

 Process Defini on: A process is a program in execu on.

 Execu on Cycles: An applica on program typically alternates between computa on and I/O
opera ons.

 CPU and I/O Bursts:

o CPU Burst Cycle: The period during which a process uses the CPU for computa ons.

o I/O Burst Cycle: The period during which the process waits for I/O opera ons to
complete.
  Execu on Pa ern: The execu on of a process consists of cycles of CPU execu on followed
by I/O wait. Efficient scheduling allows the CPU to be busy while one process is performing
I/O.

Important Scheduling Terminologies

1. Scheduling: Assigning CPU to a task or process.

2. Preemp on: Removal of CPU control from a process.

o Context Switch: Occurs when a process is preempted; the state of the old process is
saved, and the new process's state is loaded. The Process Control Block (PCB) is used
to save the context of a process.

Process Queues in Scheduling

 Job Queue: Maintained on mass storage (e.g., hard disk); contains processes that are
created.

 Ready Queue: In main memory; contains processes wai ng for CPU execu on.

 Device Queue: Separate queue for each I/O device; contains processes that need to perform
I/O.

Process Migra on: During execu on, processes move among these queues:

 Job Queue → Ready Queue (for execu on)

 Ready Queue → Device Queue (for I/O opera ons)

Summary

 Process scheduling is essen al in mul programming environments.

 We discussed the execu on cycles (CPU and I/O bursts) and how they contribute to CPU
resource u liza on.

 The importance of job, ready, and device queues in the scheduling process was highlighted.

Hope you had a great learning experience! Keep watching. Thank you.
Types of Scheduler

Here's a structured summary of your session on different types of schedulers in process scheduling:

Video Summary: Types of Schedulers in Process Scheduling

Introduc on Hello, everyone. Welcome to another session on process scheduling. Today, we will
explore the different types of schedulers.

Types of Schedulers There are four primary types of schedulers in an opera ng system:

1. Long-Term Scheduler (Job Scheduler)

o Func on: Decides which processes should be brought into the ready queue from the
job queue.

o Role: Controls the degree of mul programming, which indicates the number of
processes present in the main memory.

o Execu on Frequency: Executes infrequently, typically invoked when a process in

main memory leaves the system.

2. Short-Term Scheduler (CPU Scheduler)

o Func on: Selects one process from the ready queue and allocates it to the CPU.

o Objec ve: Aims to increase system performance based on selected criteria.

o Execu on Frequency: Executes frequently, triggered by events such as:

 Process crea on and entry into the ready queue

 Process termina on

 Process state switching from running to wai ng

 Occurrence of interrupts

3. Medium-Term Scheduler

o Func on: Supports virtual memory by temporarily removing processes from main
memory and placing them on secondary memory, or vice versa.

o Common Terms: This ac on is referred to as swapping in and swapping out.

4. I/O Scheduler

o Func on: Manages the scheduling of processes that are blocked and wai ng for I/O
resources.
Summary

 Process scheduling is vital in mul programming environments.

 We have discussed the roles of the long-term, medium-term, short-term, and I/O schedulers.

 Each scheduler is crucial for managing processes and enhancing system performance.
CPU Scheduling

Here's a structured summary of your session on CPU scheduling:

Video Summary: CPU Scheduling

Introduc on Hello, everyone! Welcome to our session on CPU scheduling. The CPU scheduler, also
known as the short-term scheduler, is a crucial component of an opera ng system. It selects
processes one by one from the ready queue and allocates them to the CPU. In this session, we'll
discuss how the CPU scheduler works, explore two important types of CPU scheduling (non-
preemp ve and preemp ve), and examine the role of the dispatcher.

CPU Scheduler Working Principle

 The CPU scheduler is invoked under four condi ons:

1. Process Switches from Running to Wai ng State: This occurs during an I/O request
or when invoking a wait system call.

 Example: A wait system call is invoked when a process creates a child

process and needs it to complete before proceeding.

2. Process Switches from Running to Ready State: This may occur due to an interrupt
(e.g., a mer interrupt signaling the end of the process's me quantum).

3. Process Switches from Wai ng to Ready State: Happens when a process completes
its I/O opera on or returns from a wait system call.

4. Process Terminates: The CPU scheduler must select a new process to run.

 The scheduler has to pick a new process under the first and last condi ons, while it has
op ons during the second and third condi ons (to con nue the current process or select a
different one based on priority).

Types of CPU Scheduling

1. Non-Preemp ve Scheduling

o A newly arrived process must wait un l the running process finishes its CPU cycles.

o A new process is selected only when:

 The running process terminates.

 An explicit system request causes a wait state (e.g., needing I/O).

o Example: If a parent process creates a child process, the parent may be preempted
for the child to execute.

2. Preemp ve Scheduling
 o A running process can be interrupted by another process.

o A new process can take control when:

 An interrupt occurs (e.g., meout).

 A new process becomes ready.

Dispatcher Role

 The dispatcher is a key component of the CPU scheduling func on:

o It gives control of the CPU to the process selected by the CPU scheduler.

o Major func ons include:

 Context switching

 Switching to user mode

 Jumping to the correct loca on in the user program to resume execu on.

 The CPU scheduler and dispatcher operate in kernel mode. The dispatcher also handles
switching back to kernel mode.

 Dispatch Latency: The me taken by the dispatcher to stop one process and start another.
Minimizing dispatch latency is crucial to avoid idle CPU me during context switches.

Summary

 In this session, we covered:

o The func ons of the CPU scheduler (short-term scheduler) and its cri cal role in
opera ng systems.

o The workings of the CPU scheduler, selec ng processes from the ready queue to
allocate to the CPU.

o Two significant types of CPU scheduling: non-preemp ve and preemp ve, along with
their implica ons.

o The vital role of the dispatcher in context switching and CPU control.
Features of a CPU Scheduler

Here's a structured summary of your session on CPU scheduling algorithms:

Video Summary: CPU Scheduling Algorithms

Introduc on Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on the CPU Scheduler. Today, we'll discuss
the various algorithms used for CPU scheduling and the features that define a good scheduling
algorithm.

Available Scheduling Algorithms Several scheduling algorithms exist, including:

 First Come First Served (FCFS)

 Shortest Job First (SJF)

 Shortest Remaining Time First (SRTF)

 Priority Scheduling

 Round Robin (RR)

 Mul level Feedback Queue

Each of these algorithms employs different criteria for scheduling processes. For example:

 FCFS: The process that arrives first in the ready queue is scheduled first.

 SJF: The process with the shortest CPU burst me is scheduled first.

Characteris cs of a Good Scheduling Algorithm

1. Fairness: The algorithm should ensure that all processes get a fair chance to run without
indefinite wai ng.

2. Efficiency: It should keep the CPU busy as much as possible to maximize CPU u liza on.

3. Maximized Throughput: A good algorithm should complete the largest number of processes
in a given me frame, minimizing user wait mes.

4. Minimized Response Time: This is the me from process crea on to the first output.
Reducing response me is especially important in interac ve systems, like online video
games.

5. Minimized Wai ng Time: The amount of me a process waits in the ready queue should be
kept low.

6. Predictability: Jobs should take a consistent amount of me to run across mul ple
execu ons, ensuring a stable user experience.
 7. Minimized Overhead: The scheduling and context switch mes should be as low as possible
to avoid unnecessary delays.

8. Maximized Resource U liza on: The algorithm should favor processes that can effec vely
u lize underu lized resources, keeping devices busy.

9. Avoid Indefinite Postponement: Every process should eventually get a chance to execute.

10. Priority Enforcement: If processes have assigned priori es, the algorithm should respect
these priori es meaningfully.

11. Graceful Degrada on Under Load: Performance should decline gradually under heavy
system loads, rather than abruptly.

Challenges and Contradic ons Some goals can conflict with each other. For instance:

 Minimizing overhead may lead to longer job run mes, which can hurt interac ve
performance.

 Enforcing priori es may result in lower-priority processes being indefinitely postponed.

Therefore, selec ng the appropriate scheduling algorithm depends on the specific requirements of
different applica ons.

Summary In this session, we explored the characteris cs that define a good CPU scheduler. A good
scheduling algorithm should be fair, efficient, and capable of maximizing CPU u liza on and
throughput. It should minimize response and wai ng mes while ensuring predictable performance,
minimal overhead, and resource maximiza on. Addi onally, it should prevent indefinite
postponement and gracefully degrade under heavy loads. Balancing these some mes contradictory
goals is essen al for selec ng the right scheduling algorithm for various applica ons.
Performance Metrics

Here’s a structured summary of your session on performance metrics for comparing CPU scheduling
algorithms:

Video Summary: Performance Metrics for CPU Scheduling Algorithms

Introduc on Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on the CPU scheduler. Today, we will
discuss various algorithms used for CPU scheduling and the performance metrics that help
determine which algorithm is the best.

Performance Metrics for Scheduling Algorithms Several performance metrics are crucial for
evalua ng the effec veness of scheduling algorithms in opera ng systems:

1. CPU U liza on:

o The goal is to keep the CPU as busy as possible.

o Conceptually, CPU u liza on can range from 0% to 100%.

o In prac ce, it typically ranges from 40% for lightly loaded systems to 90% for heavily
loaded systems.

2. Throughput:

o This metric indicates the number of processes completed per unit of me.

3. Turnaround Time:

o It measures the total me from the submission of a process to its comple on.

o This includes all wai ng and execu on mes.

4. Wai ng Time:

o This is the amount of me a process spends in the ready queue wai ng to be

executed.

5. Response Time:

o In interac ve systems, response me is cri cal.

o It measures the me from the submission of a request un l the first response is

produced.

o This differs from turnaround me, as response me focuses on the ini al response
rather than overall comple on.

Op miza on Goals
  The ideal scenario is to maximize CPU u liza on and throughput while minimizing
turnaround me, wai ng me, and response me.

 In most cases, the average of these metrics is op mized. However, under certain condi ons,
it may be more beneficial to focus on op mizing the minimum or maximum values.

o For instance, to ensure all users receive good service, minimizing the maximum
response me might be a priority.

 In interac ve systems like desktop environments, minimizing the variance in response me

can be more important than minimizing the average response me. Predictable response
mes o en lead to a be er user experience.

Summary In this session, we explored the various performance metrics used to compare scheduling
algorithms. These metrics are essen al for evalua ng and benchmarking the efficiency, fairness, and
responsiveness of different scheduling approaches.
1.

Ques on 1

What happens during a context switch?

A process is terminated.

The CPU is idle.

The state of the old process is saved, and the state of the new process is loaded.

A new process is created.

Correct

This is correct. Context switching involves saving the state of the old process and loading the state of
the new process.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

2.

Ques on 2

Which queue contains processes that are wai ng for keyboard and a printer?

PCB queue

Job queue

Ready queue

Device queue

Correct

This is correct. The device queue contains processes wai ng for specific I/O devices.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

3.

Ques on 3

Which scheduler is responsible for deciding which processes should be brought into the ready queue
from the job queue?

Medium-term scheduler

I/O scheduler

Long-term scheduler

Short-term scheduler

Correct
This is correct. The long-term scheduler, also called the job scheduler, decides which processes
should be brought into the ready queue from the job queue.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

4.

Ques on 4

In non-preemp ve scheduling, when is a new process selected to run?

When the CPU is idle or when a process is suspended.

When a process terminates or when an explicit system request causes a wait state.

When a process is created or when a process requests I/O.

When a higher priority process arrives or when a process finishes its CPU burst.

Correct

This is correct. In non-preemp ve scheduling, a new process is selected when the current process
terminates or enters a wait state.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

5.

Ques on 5

What is dispatch latency?

The me taken by the system to switch from user mode to kernel mode.

The me taken by the CPU scheduler to select a process from the ready queue.

The me taken by a process to complete its CPU burst.

The me taken by the dispatcher to stop one process and start another running.

Correct

This is correct. Dispatch latency is the me taken by the dispatcher to stop one process and start
another.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point
6.

Ques on 6

Which characteris c is crucial for a scheduling algorithm to minimize in an interac ve system, such as
an online video game?

Throughput

Wai ng Time

Scheduling Time

Response Time

Correct

This is correct. Minimizing response me is crucial in an interac ve system to ensure quick responses
to user inputs.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

7.

Ques on 7

Which performance metric measures the total me from the submission of a process to its
comple on?

CPU U liza on

Wai ng Time

Turnaround Time

Throughput

Correct

This is correct. Turnaround me measures the total me from the submission of a process to its
comple on.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

8.

Ques on 8

Which metric evaluates how efficiently the CPU is used?

CPU U liza on

Wai ng Time

Turnaround Time
Throughput

Correct

This is correct. CPU u liza on evaluates how efficiently the CPU is used by measuring the percentage
of me the CPU is busy processing tasks.
FCFS Scheduling Algorithm

Here's a structured summary of your session on the FCFS (First Come, First Serve) scheduling
algorithm:

Video Summary: FCFS Scheduling Algorithm

Introduc on
Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on process scheduling. Today, we will explore the
working principles of the FCFS scheduling algorithm, go through an example scenario, and discuss its
applicability and limita ons.

Overview of FCFS Scheduling

 The FCFS scheduling algorithm is one of the simplest process scheduling methods.

 In FCFS scheduling, the process that requests the CPU first is allocated the CPU first.

 It is implemented using a FIFO (First In, First Out) queue.

 Processes are placed in the ready queue according to their arrival me, and executed in the
order they arrive.

Execu on Flow

 Processes run to comple on before the next process begins execu on.

 Once a process finishes, it leaves the system, and the next process starts.

Non-preemp ve Nature
  FCFS is a non-preemp ve scheduling algorithm, meaning there is no interrup on of
processes once they start execu ng, except for I/O requests.

 If a process makes an I/O request, it moves to a wai ng state and is reinserted at the tail of
the ready queue upon comple on.

Context Switching

 Context switching in FCFS is minimal because processes are executed sequen ally.
Example Scenario
To illustrate how FCFS works, let’s consider four processes, P0, P1, P2, and P3, all arriving at me
zero, with their respec ve burst mes. We will calculate the finish me, turnaround me, and
wai ng me.
1. Gan Chart:

o A Gan chart is created to visually represent the execu on meline of processes.

o P0 executes first for 7 milliseconds, followed by P1 for 3 milliseconds, P2 for 4

milliseconds, and finally P3 for 6 milliseconds.

2. Calcula ng Finish Times:

o P0: 7 ms

o P1: 10 ms

o P2: 14 ms
 o P3: 20 ms

3. Turnaround Time (TAT):

o TAT = Finish Time - Arrival Time

o P0: 7 ms

o P1: 10 ms

o P2: 14 ms

o P3: 20 ms

4. Wai ng Time (WT):

o WT = Turnaround Time - Burst Time

o P0: 0 ms

o P1: 7 ms

o P2: 10 ms

o P3: 14 ms

5. Average Times:

o Average Turnaround Time = 12.75 ms

o Average Wai ng Time = 7.75 ms

Applicability and Limita ons

 FCFS is simple and easy to implement, making it suitable for batch processing systems (e.g.,
processing print jobs).

 It exhibits the convoy effect, where CPU-bound processes can monopolize CPU me, causing
I/O-bound processes to wait unnecessarily.

 It is best suited for scenarios with a good mix of CPU and I/O-bound processes, as this can
improve overall response mes.
Conclusion
In summary, while FCFS is easy to understand and implement, it has drawbacks such as poor
turnaround mes and the convoy effect. Despite these limita ons, it serves as a founda onal
algorithm for more complex scheduling methods in modern opera ng systems.
FCFS Example

Here's a structured summary of your session on the FCFS (First Come, First Serve) scheduling
algorithm with varying arrival mes:

Video Summary: FCFS Scheduling Algorithm with Different Arrival Times

Introduc on
Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on Scheduling Algorithms. Today, we will explore the
FCFS algorithm, specifically in a scenario where processes have different arrival mes. Let's get
started!

As you can see in the Gan chart,

while process P0 is execu ng,

processes P2 and P3 enter in the system.

Scenario Overview

 We have four processes: P0, P1, P2, and P3, each with dis nct arrival mes and burst mes.

 Our goal is to compute the average wai ng me and turnaround me.

Gan Chart Crea on

 A Gan chart is created to visualize the meline of each process's execu on.

 Arrival mes of the processes are marked on the chart.

Execu on Timeline:

1. At me t = 0, Process P0 arrives in the ready queue.

o Burst Time: 7 ms

o Execu on: P0 starts execu on and completes at t = 7 ms.

2. While P0 executes, Processes P2 and P3 arrive in the system.

3. Now at t = 7, Process P2 is at the front of the queue.

o Burst Time: 4 ms

o Execu on: P2 starts and completes at t = 11 ms.

4. Process P1 enters the ready queue while P2 is execu ng.

5. At t = 11, Process P3 is at the front.

o Burst Time: 6 ms

o Execu on: P3 starts and completes at t = 17 ms.

 6. Finally, at t = 17, Process P1 is at the front.

o Burst Time: 3 ms

o Execu on: P1 starts and completes at t = 20 ms.

Calcula ng Finish Times

 Finish Times:

o P0: 7 ms

o P2: 11 ms

o P3: 17 ms

o P1: 20 ms

Calcula ng Turnaround Times

 Turnaround Time (TAT) = Finish Time - Arrival Time

(Assuming the arrival mes are known)

 Average Turnaround Time = 9.75 ms

Calcula ng Wai ng Times

 Wai ng Time (WT) = Turnaround Time - Burst Time

 Average Wai ng Time = 4.75 ms

Conclusion
In summary, we examined the FCFS scheduling algorithm with processes that have different arrival
mes. We computed the average wai ng me and turnaround me based on the execu on meline
illustrated in the Gan chart.
SJF Scheduling Algorithm

Here’s a structured summary of your session on the Shortest Job First (SJF) scheduling algorithm:

Video Summary: Shortest Job First (SJF) Scheduling Algorithm

Introduc on
Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on scheduling algorithms. Today, we will explore the
working principle of the Shortest Job First (SJF) scheduling algorithm, discuss its two types, and
conclude with its merits, use cases, and limita ons. Let's get started!

Overview of SJF Algorithm

 The SJF scheduling algorithm selects the process with the shortest next CPU me to execute
first.

 If two processes have the same next CPU execu on me, the First-Come-First-Serve (FCFS)
method is used to break es.

 SJF is also known as the Shortest Next CPU Burst Algorithm.

Types of SJF:

1. Non-Preemp ve SJF: Once a process is given CPU me, it cannot be interrupted un l it

completes its burst me.

2. Preemp ve SJF: If a new process arrives with a shorter burst me than the currently
execu ng process, the CPU is preempted to allow the new process to execute first. This is
referred to as the Shortest Remaining Time First (SRTF) algorithm.
Example of Non-Preemp ve SJF
Consider a system with four processes: P1, P2, P3, and P4, all arriving at me zero with respec ve
burst mes:

 P1: 7 ms

 P2: 3 ms

 P3: 4 ms

 P4: 6 ms

Gan Chart:

 P2 executes first (shortest burst me).

 P2 finishes at t = 3 ms.

 P3 executes next and finishes at t = 7 ms.

 P4 executes next and finishes at t = 13 ms.

 P1 executes last and finishes at t = 20 ms.

Calcula ng Times:

 Finish Times:

o P2: 3 ms

o P3: 7 ms

o P4: 13 ms

o P1: 20 ms

 Turnaround Time (TAT) = Finish Time - Arrival Time

 Wai ng Time (WT) = Turnaround Time - Burst Time

 Response Time = First Response - Arrival Time

Computed Values:

 Average Turnaround Time: 10.75 ms

 Average Wai ng Time: 5.7 ms

 Average Response Time: 5.75 ms

Now let us consider

a preemp ve SJF algorithm used in

a system with four processes with different arrival me.

Here is the Gan chart and ready queue.

Let us mark the process arrival me on the Gan chart.

P1 arrived at t = 0,

P3 arrived at t = 3 millisecond,

P4 arrived at t = 5 millisecond,

and P2 arrived at t = 8 millisecond.

At t = 0,

we have only P1 in the ready queue.

The burst me is seven millisecond.

Let's schedule it. P1 executes ll t = 3 millisecond.

At t = 3 millisecond,

P3 arrives in the ready queue.

Now, we need to make a decision

whether to con nue P1 at schedule P3.

Let us compare the burst me of both the processes.

Process P1's remaining burst me is

four millisecond and P3's burst me is two millisecond.

Since P3's burst me is

less than P1's remaining burst me,

let us schedule P3.

P3 finishes its execu on at t = 5 millisecond.

At five millisecond, we

have two processes in the ready queue,

that is, P1 and P4.

P1's burst me is less than P4.

Let us schedule P1 process.

Since P3's burst me is

less than P1's remaining burst me,

let us schedule P3.

P3 finishes its execu on at t = 5 millisecond.

At five millisecond, we

have two processes in the ready queue,

that is, P1 and P4.

P1's burst me is less than P4.

Let us schedule P1 process.

At t = 8 millisecond,

P2 arrives in the system.

Now, we have to make a scheduling decision between P1,

P4, and P2.

As you can see, P1's remaining burst me

is less than others,

so con nue P1's execu on.

P1 finishes its execu on at t = 9 millisecond and exits.

At t = 9 millisecond,
we have P2 and P4 in ready queue.

P2 gets scheduled since P2's burst me is less than P4.

P2 completes its execu on

at t = 12 millisecond and exits.

At t = 12 millisecond,

we have only P4 in ready queue, that gets scheduled.

P4 completes its execu on at

t = 18 millisecond and exits.

Example of Preemp ve SJF

Consider a system with four processes with different arrival mes:

 P1 arrives at t = 0 (burst me: 7 ms)

 P3 arrives at t = 3 (burst me: 2 ms)

 P4 arrives at t = 5 (burst me: 6 ms)

 P2 arrives at t = 8 (burst me: 3 ms)

Gan Chart:

1. P1 starts execu ng un l t = 3 ms.

2. P3 arrives, has a shorter burst me than P1's remaining me, so P1 is preempted, and P3
executes and finishes at t = 5 ms.
 3. At t = 5 ms, P1 and P4 are in the queue. P1 has less burst me than P4, so P1 resumes and
finishes at t = 9 ms.

4. At t = 9 ms, P2 and P4 are in the queue; P2 executes next, finishing at t = 12 ms.

5. Finally, P4 executes and finishes at t = 18 ms.

Calcula ng Times:

 Finish Times, Turnaround Times, Wai ng Times, and Response Times are obtained from the
Gan chart.

Merits and Limita ons of SJF

 Merits:

o Op mality: SJF minimizes average wai ng me for processes.

o Efficiency: Shortest jobs are completed first, reducing overall wait me.

 Limita ons:

o Unfairness: Longer processes may starve if there is a con nuous stream of short
processes.

o Knowledge Requirement: Requires knowledge of process execu on mes, which

may not always be available.

 Es ma on of Times: The system can use historical data to es mate the next CPU burst mes
for effec ve SJF scheduling.

 Implicit Priority: Shorter jobs are priori zed, but CPU-bound processes may monopolize CPU
me if they enter the system first.

Conclusion
That concludes our session on the Shortest Job First (SJF) scheduling algorithm. We explored its
working principle, the differences between non-preemp ve and preemp ve types, and discussed its
advantages and limita ons.
Priority Scheduling Algorithm

Here’s a structured summary of your session on priority scheduling in opera ng systems:

Video Summary: Priority Scheduling in Opera ng Systems

Introduc on
Hello everyone! Welcome to another session on scheduling algorithms. Today, we will delve into
priority scheduling in opera ng systems.

What is Priority Scheduling?

 Defini on: Priority scheduling is a method where each process is assigned a priority. The
CPU is allocated to the process with the highest priority.

 Tie-Breaking: If two processes have the same priority, other criteria, such as First-Come-First-
Serve (FCFS), are used.

 Priority Representa on: Some systems use smaller integer values to indicate higher priority,
while others use larger values.

Types of Priority Scheduling:

1. Preemp ve Priority Scheduling: A running process can be preempted if a higher priority

process arrives.

2. Non-Preemp ve Priority Scheduling: The currently running process cannot be preempted;

the CPU is given to the higher priority process only a er the current process finishes.
Let us consider a system with five processes. Arrival me, burst me, and priority are tabulated in
the table. Note that a lesser integer value represents a higher priority. For example, process P5 has
the highest priority compared to all other processes in the system. Here is the Gan chart, here is
the ready queue. For the sake of solving this problem, I have men oned in the ready queue process
number, priority and burst me. Let us mark process arrival me on the Gan chart. As you can see,
at t = 0 process P1 enters the system. Let us schedule it. P1s burst me is 3 milliseconds. Since we are
using non-preemp ve algorithm, P1 executes for 3 milliseconds dura on and exits from the
processor at t = 3 milliseconds. While P1 was execu ng, P2 and P3 arrived in the ready queue. As you
can see, P3 has the highest priority compared to P2. Hence, P3 is scheduled to execute, P3 is burst
me 5 millisecond and it exits at t = 8 millisecond. At t = 8 millisecond we have three processes in the
ready queue, P2, P4, and P5. As you can see, P5 has the highest priority compared to other
processes. So P5 gets scheduled for 1 milliseconds and exits at t = 9 millisecond. At t = 9 millisecond,
we have two processes in the ready queue, P2 and P4. As you can see, P2 has the highest priority
compared to P4. So P2 gets scheduled for 2 millisecond and exits at t = 11 milliseconds. We have only
one process in the ready queue, that is P4. P4 gets scheduled for 4 millisecond and exits at t = 15
milliseconds.
Example of Non-Preemp ve Priority Scheduling
Consider a system with five processes with the following a ributes (where a lower integer indicates
higher priority):

Process Arrival Time Burst Time Priority

P1 0 3 3

P2 - 2 2

P3 - 5 1

P4 - 4 4

P5 - 1 0

Gan Chart:

 P1 runs from t = 0 to 3 ms.

 P3 (highest priority) runs from t = 3 to 8 ms.

 P5 runs from t = 8 to 9 ms.

 P2 runs from t = 9 to 11 ms.

 P4 runs from t = 11 to 15 ms.

Calcula ng Times:

 Finish Times:

o P1: 3 ms

o P3: 8 ms

o P5: 9 ms

o P2: 11 ms

o P4: 15 ms

 Turnaround Time (TAT) = Finish Time - Arrival Time

 Wai ng Time (WT) = Turnaround Time - Burst Time

 Response Time = First Response - Arrival Time

Computed Values:

 Average Turnaround Time: 6.2 ms

 Average Wai ng Time: 3.2 ms

 Average Response Time: 3.2 ms

Let us now examine the preemp ve version of priority scheduling.

The arrival me of various processes is as shown on the Gan chart.

At t = 0, P1 enters into the ready queue.

Since this is the only process in the ready queue, it gets scheduled.

At t = 2 millisecond, process P2 arrives in the ready queue.

Since this is a preemp ve scheduling,

we need to compare the priori es of newly arrived process P2 and running process P1.

As you can see, process P2's priority is higher than that of P1.

So P1, with a remaining burst me of one millisecond,

gets preempted and P2 gets scheduled.

At t = 3 millisecond, process P3 arrives in the ready queue,

out of three processes P1, P2, and P3,

P3 has higher priority so it gets scheduled.

At t = 4 millisecond, process P4 arrives in the ready queue.

Out of four processes P3 has higher priority and

con nues to execute.

At t = 6 millisecond, process P5 arrives in the ready queue.

Out of five processes, P5 has the highest priority,

so P3 gets preempted with the remaining me of 2 millisecond.

Now, P5 gets scheduled for 1 millisecond and

exits at t = 7 millisecond.

At t = 7 millisecond, we have four processes in the ready queue.

P3 has the highest priority, so it gets scheduled.

P3 finishes its task at t = 9 millisecond.

At t = 9 millisecond, we have three processes in the ready queue.

P2 has the highest priority, so it gets scheduled and

finishes its task at t = 10 millisecond.

At t = 10 millisecond, we have two processes in the ready queue.

P4 has the highest priority, so it gets scheduled.

P4 finishes its task at t = 14 millisecond.

At t = 14 millisecond, we have only one process,

P1 in the ready queue, so it gets scheduled.

P1 finishes its task at t = 15 milliseconds.

Table shows the values for various parameters such as finish me,

turnaround me, wait me, and response me.

Using this data, you can compute the average turnaround me,

average wait me, and response me.

Example of Preemp ve Priority Scheduling

 Arrival Times:

o P1 arrives at t = 0.

o P2 arrives at t = 2 ms.

o P3 arrives at t = 3 ms.

o P4 arrives at t = 4 ms.

o P5 arrives at t = 6 ms.

Gan Chart:

1. P1 runs from t = 0 to 2 ms.

2. P2 (higher priority) preempts P1, running from t = 2 to 3 ms.

3. P3 (higher priority) preempts P2, running from t = 3 to 4 ms.

4. P5 (highest priority) preempts P3, running from t = 6 to 7 ms.

5. P3 resumes and finishes at t = 9 ms.

6. P2 finishes at t = 10 ms.
 7. P4 runs from t = 10 to 14 ms.

8. P1 runs last, finishing at t = 15 ms.

Calcula ng Times:

 Finish Times, Turnaround Times, Wai ng Times, and Response Times are computed as
before.

Advantages of Priority Scheduling

 Ensures cri cal tasks are completed first, crucial for certain systems.

 Can be tailored to meet specific requirements, such as those in real- me opera ng systems.

Disadvantages of Priority Scheduling

 Starva on: Low-priority processes may never get executed.

 Indeterminate execu on mes: High-priority processes can delay others indefinitely.

 Managing dynamic priori es can add complexity.

Mi ga ng Starva on:

 Aging: Gradually increases the priority of wai ng processes over me, ensuring low-priority
processes will eventually get executed.

Applica ons of Priority Scheduling

 Common in real- me opera ng systems where certain tasks need priori za on.

 Used in systems with mixed workloads, such as mul media systems, where mely processing
is essen al.

Conclusion
To summarize, priority scheduling allocates the CPU based on process priority, with two types:
preemp ve and non-preemp ve. This method balances the need for priori zing cri cal tasks while
addressing poten al issues like starva on. Techniques like aging can help mi gate these challenges.
Round Robin Scheduling Algorithm

Here's a revised version of your video session transcript on the Round Robin scheduling algorithm,
with improved clarity, added examples, and structured headings and subheadings.

Video Session: Understanding Round Robin Scheduling Algorithm

Introduc on

Hello, everyone! Welcome to another video session on scheduling algorithms. Who doesn't love
playing video games? Video games fall under the category of real- me systems or interac ve
systems. Other applica ons of real- me systems include:

 Remote health monitoring

 Emergency systems

 Real- me monitoring of transporta on systems

 Financial trading

These applica ons o en require low latency, meaning tasks must be completed within a certain me
frame, and they should respond promptly to external s muli or events.

Overview of Round Robin Scheduling

In this session, we will explore the working principles of the Round Robin (RR) scheduling algorithm,
which is par cularly suited for real- me interac ve applica ons. By the end of this session, we will
cover:

 Working principles

 Example problem

 Merits and demerits

 Use cases

Let’s get started!

What is Round Robin Scheduling?

In a mul tasking environment, mul ple processes reside in the main memory, compe ng for CPU
me to execute tasks. The Round Robin scheduling algorithm ensures that all processes in the system
receive a fair chance to execute.

How It Works

The algorithm divides CPU me into slices called me quanta. Each process is allocated one of these
me quanta to execute its tasks. Typically, the me quantum is set between 10-100 milliseconds.
Once the allocated me quantum elapses, the running process is preempted and moved to the end
of the ready queue.
Let us consider a system with six processes, P1-P6.

Arrival me and burst me

of these processes is as shown.

The system uses Round Robin scheduling

with the me quantum equal to four millisecond.

We are required to draw the Gan chart,

and using this, let us

calculate average wait me and turnaround me.

P4 arrived at t = 1 millisecond, P5 arrived at t = 2 millisecond, P3 arrived at t = 3 millisecond, and so
on. Here is the ready queue. As you can see, at t = 0, no processes are in the system, so processor is
idle and is idle ll process P4 arrives. At t = 1 process P4 enters into the ready queue with the burst
me of nine millisecond. Since the me quantum is four millisecond, process P4 can execute for four
millisecond. A er that, it preempts and goes back to ready queue.
Let us mark this on the Gan chart.

You just pay a en on on the Gan chart.

While P4 is execu ng, P5,

P3, P2, and P1 arrived in the ready queue.

Let us mark this in the ready queue.

P5 arrived first with burst me two millisecond,

P3 arrived next with burst me seven millisecond,

and P2 arrived next with burst me six millisecond,

and P1 arrived next with burst me five millisecond.

Since P1 arrived at

t = 5 millisecond and P4 preempts at the same me,

so we shall put P4 behind P1.

Since P4 already executed for four milliseconds,

the remaining me of P4 is five milliseconds.

As you can see in the ready queue,

it is P5's turn to execute.

The burst me is two milliseconds.

The allocated me quantum is four milliseconds.

P5 begins its execu on at t = 5

and completes its execu on at t = 7 milliseconds.

A er that, it exits from the system.

As you can see on the Gan chart,

when process P5 is execu ng,

process P6 with burst me three milliseconds enters.

As you can see on the Gan chart,

when process P5 is execu ng,

process P6 with burst me three milliseconds enters.

Now it is P3's turn to execute.

The burst me is seven milliseconds.

It gets scheduled at t = 7 milliseconds,

it gets four milliseconds of me quantum,

and preempts at t = 11 milliseconds.

With the remaining me of three milliseconds,

it goes back to the ready queue.

Now it is P2's turn to execute.

P2's burst me is six milliseconds.

It gets scheduled at t = 11 milliseconds.

A er four milliseconds of me quantum, it preempts.

It goes back to ready queue with

the remaining burst me of two milliseconds.

The next process to execute is P1.

P1's remaining me is five millisecond,

and it executes for four milliseconds me quantum.

P1 then preempts at t = 19 millisecond

and goes back to the ready queue

with a remaining me one millisecond.

Next, P4's turn to execute,

and it preempts at t = 23 millisecond.

With the remaining one millisecond me,

it goes back to ready queue.

Next P6 gets a chance to execute and it

could complete its computa on

within three millisecond me.

Hence, it exits at t = 26 millisecond.

Next is P3's turn and it finishes

its computa on at t = 29 millisecond.

Next P2's turn,

and it finishes its computa on at t = 31 millisecond.

Next, P1's turn and it

finishes its computa on at 32 millisecond.

Next, P4's turn and it finishes

its computa on at t = 33 millisecond.

Let us now find out the finished me of each process.

P1's finish me is 32 millisecond,

P2's finish me is 31 millisecond,

P3's finish me is 29 milliseconds,

P4's finish me is 33 milliseconds,

P5's finish me is seven milliseconds,

and P6 finish me is 26 milliseconds.

Example Scenario

Let’s assume we have four processes in the system:

 P0: 20 milliseconds burst me

 P1: 15 milliseconds burst me

 P2: 7 milliseconds burst me

 P3: 8 milliseconds burst me

For this example, we will use a me quantum of 5 milliseconds. Here’s how the scheduling will occur:

1. P0 executes for 5 milliseconds (remaining me: 15 ms).

2. P1 executes for 5 milliseconds (remaining me: 10 ms).

3. P2 executes for 5 milliseconds (remaining me: 2 ms).

4. P3 executes for 5 milliseconds (remaining me: 3 ms).

5. P0 executes again for 5 milliseconds (remaining me: 10 ms).

6. This process con nues un l all processes complete their execu on.

Key Characteris cs

 Fairness: Every process gets an equal opportunity to use the CPU.

 Preemp on: Processes are preempted a er their allocated me quantum, ensuring no single
process monopolizes the CPU.

Performance Considera ons

If there are n processes in the ready queue and the me quantum is q, each process gets 1/n of the
CPU me in chunks of at most q me units. The overall performance of the algorithm varies with the
size of the me quantum:

 If q is large, RR behaves similarly to First-Come, First-Served (FCFS).

 If q is small, it can lead to high context switch overhead.

Example Problem: Gan Chart and Calcula ons

Let’s solve a problem with six processes: P1 to P6. The arrival and burst mes of these processes are
as follows, with a me quantum of 4 milliseconds.
Process Arrival Time (ms) Burst Time (ms)

P1 0 5

P2 0 6

P3 3 7

P4 1 9

P5 2 2

P6 4 3

Gan Chart Construc on

1. At t = 0: No processes in the system (CPU is idle).

2. At t = 1: P4 enters the ready queue.

3. At t = 5: P5 executes for 2 ms and exits.

4. At t = 7: P3 executes for 4 ms (remaining: 3 ms).

5. At t = 11: P2 executes for 4 ms (remaining: 2 ms).

6. At t = 15: P1 executes for 4 ms (remaining: 1 ms).

7. Con nue un l all processes complete execu on.

Finished Times

Process Finish Time (ms)

P1 32

P2 31

P3 29

P4 33

P5 7

P6 26
Turnaround Time Calcula on

Turnaround me = Finish me - Arrival me.

Process Turnaround Time (ms)

P1 32 - 0 = 32

P2 31 - 0 = 31

P3 29 - 3 = 26

P4 33 - 1 = 32

P5 7-2=5

P6 26 - 4 = 22

Average Turnaround Time: 22.83 ms.

Wait Time Calcula on

Wait me = Turnaround me - Burst me.

Process Wait Time (ms)

P1 32 - 5 = 27

P2 31 - 6 = 25

P3 26 - 7 = 19

P4 32 - 9 = 23

P5 5-2=3

P6 22 - 3 = 19

Average Wait Time: 17.5 ms.

Advantages of Round Robin Scheduling

 Simplicity: Easy to implement and understand.

 Fairness: Ensures all processes receive equal CPU me.

 Suitability: Ideal for me-sharing applica ons.

Disadvantages of Round Robin Scheduling

 Context Switching: If the me quantum is too small, the context switching overhead
increases.

 Real-Time Constraints: Not suitable for systems with strict real- me constraints.

 Long CPU Bursts: Performs poorly with processes that require long CPU bursts.

Conclusion

To summarize, Round Robin scheduling is effec ve for me-sharing environments. Balancing the me
quantum is crucial for op mal performance. This algorithm is par cularly ideal for systems requiring
fair CPU alloca on.
Mul level Scheduling Algorithm

Here's an improved version of your transcript for the video session on Mul level Queue Scheduling
Algorithms, with added examples and simplified language:

[MUSIC]

Hello everyone! Welcome to another session on process scheduling. Today, we’re going to explore
how processes can be classified and scheduled using Mul level Queue Scheduling Algorithms.

Classifica on of Processes

Based on their nature, processes can be grouped into two categories:

1. Foreground Processes: These are interac ve processes that require quicker response mes.

2. Background Processes: These are batch processes that are less me-sensi ve and can
tolerate longer response mes.

Since foreground processes o en need to respond quickly, they usually have a higher priority
compared to background processes. This difference in response me requirements shapes how we
schedule them.

Mul level Queue Scheduling

Let’s delve into mul level queue scheduling. In this method, the ready queue is divided into several
separate queues. Each process is assigned to a specific queue based on certain criteria, such as:

 Memory size

 Process priority

 Type of process (foreground or background)

Each queue can have its own scheduling algorithm, which allows for more efficient management of
processes. For instance, the foreground queue might use the Round-Robin (RR) algorithm, which is
suitable for interac ve processes. Meanwhile, the background queue might use the First-Come, First-
Served (FCFS) algorithm, appropriate for batch processes.

Scheduling Among Queues

In addi on to scheduling within the queues, we also need a way to manage the queues themselves.
This is o en done using fixed-priority preemp ve scheduling. For example, the foreground queue
can have absolute priority over the background queue, ensuring interac ve processes get faster
response mes.

Example of Mul level Queue Scheduling

Let’s look at a prac cal example. Suppose we have five dis nct queues, priori zed as follows:

1. System Processes (highest priority)

2. Interac ve Processes
 3. Interac ve Edi ng Processes

4. Batch Processes

5. Student Processes (lowest priority)

In this setup, no process in a lower-priority queue (like batch processes) can run unless all higher-
priority queues are empty. If an interac ve edi ng process enters while a batch process is running,
the batch process gets preempted un l the interac ve processes complete.

Starva on and Time Slicing

A poten al downside of this method is starva on, where lower-priority processes may not get a
chance to execute. To counter this, we can use me slicing. This means each queue gets a specific
amount of CPU me. For instance, the foreground queue might get 80% of the CPU me for Round-
Robin scheduling, while the background queue receives 20% for FCFS scheduling.

Mul level Feedback Queue

In mul level queue scheduling, processes are usually fixed to a par cular queue, which can be
inflexible. To address this, we use a mul level feedback queue, allowing processes to move between
queues. This method uses a technique called aging to prevent starva on by promo ng processes
stuck in lower-priority queues.
Consider a system with three Q0, Q1, and Q2.

Q0 uses Round-Robin scheduling with me quantum 8 milliseconds.

Q1 also uses Round-Robin scheduling with

the me quantum 16 millisecond.

And Q2 uses FCFS scheduling algorithm.

Scheduling works like this,

when a new process enters into the system,

it will be placed in Q, Q0.

When it gains CPU, the process receives 8 milliseconds of CPU me.

If it does not finish its task in 8 milliseconds,

the process will be moved to Q1, Q.

At Q1, process receives 16 addi onal milliseconds.

If it s ll does not complete, it is preempted and moved to Q, Q2.

Since Q0 uses FCFS, algorithm,

process will eventually complete its execu on.

Example of Mul level Feedback Queue Scheduling

Consider a system with three queues: Q0, Q1, and Q2.

 Q0 uses Round-Robin scheduling with a me quantum of 8 milliseconds.

 Q1 also uses Round-Robin scheduling but with a 16-millisecond me quantum.

 Q2 employs the FCFS scheduling algorithm.

Here’s how the scheduling works:

1. When a new process enters the system, it starts in Q0.

2. It receives 8 milliseconds of CPU me.

o If it doesn’t finish, it moves to Q1, where it gets an addi onal 16 milliseconds.

o If it s ll hasn’t completed, it moves to Q2, where it will complete its execu on using
the FCFS method.

Summary

In conclusion, mul level queue scheduling and mul level feedback queue scheduling provide flexible
and efficient ways to manage processes with different requirements. By classifying and scheduling
processes appropriately, we can op mize system performance and minimize response mes.
1.

Ques on 1

Which type of process o en requires quicker response mes and may have higher priority in
mul level queue scheduling?

Batch processes

System processes

Foreground processes

Background processes

Correct

This is correct. Foreground processes require quicker response mes and may have higher priority
over background processes in mul level queue scheduling.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

2.

Ques on 2

What happens if the me quantum in round-robin scheduling is set too small?

The system behaves like a First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) algorithm.

There will be high context-switching overhead.

The CPU will be underu lized.

Long CPU burst processes will finish first.

Correct

This is correct. There will be high context-switching overhead. A small me quantum leads to
frequent context switches, reducing efficiency.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

3.

Ques on 3

What is the primary characteris c of applica ons that fall under real- me systems?

They primarily run in batch mode.

They require large memory usage.

They operate with low latency and provide prompt responses to external s muli.

They priori ze graphical performance.

Correct

This is correct. They operate with low latency and provide prompt responses to external s muli. Real-
me systems must respond quickly within a certain meframe.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

4.

Ques on 4

In Preemp ve Priority Scheduling, what happens when a new process with a higher priority arrives?

The process with the lowest burst me is executed.

The current process con nues un l it finishes.

The new process waits for the current process to finish.

The new process immediately starts execu ng, preemp ng the current process.

Correct

This is correct. In Preemp ve Priority Scheduling, a higher priority process will preempt the currently
running process.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

5.

Ques on 5

How can the issue of starva on be addressed in Priority Scheduling?

By decreasing the memory usage of processes

By using a round-robin scheduling algorithm

By gradually increasing the priority of wai ng processes over me

By increasing the burst me of wai ng processes

Correct

This is correct. This technique is known as aging and helps prevent starva on.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

6.

Ques on 6

What problem can occur with SJF scheduling if there is a con nuous influx of short jobs?

Decreased context switching overhead

Starva on of long jobs

Increased average turnaround me

Starva on of short jobs

Correct

This is correct. Con nuous short jobs can starve long jobs, delaying their execu on.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

7.

Ques on 7

What is the finish me for Process P1 if its arrival me is 2 ms and its turnaround me is 15 ms?

20 ms

10 ms

13 ms

17 ms

Correct

This is correct. The finish me is calculated as the arrival me plus the turnaround me, which equals
17 ms.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

8.

Ques on 8

Which of the following is a characteris c of the Shortest Job First (SJF) scheduling algorithm?

It always leads to starva on for longer processes.

It can be preemp ve or non-preemp ve.

It is also known as First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) scheduling.

Processes with the longest burst me are executed first.

Correct

This is correct. SJF can be implemented as preemp ve (Shortest Remaining Time First - SRTF) or non-
preemp ve.
FCFS Algorithm with IO

Here’s an improved version of your transcript for the video session on the FCFS scheduling algorithm
with I/O considera on, with added examples and simplified language:

Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on the CPO Scheduling Algorithm. In today's session,
we will explore the concept of the First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) algorithm while considering I/O
opera ons.

Consider a system with four processes,

P1, P2,

P3, and P4.

The arrival me for each of these processes is as shown.

Note that the bus me

contains CPU execu on me as well as I/O me.

For example, process P1 arrived at

t = 0 goes for CPU execu on for six milliseconds,

then goes for I/O opera on for three milliseconds.

A er that, it goes for execu on for two milliseconds.

The total bus me contains both CPO me and I/O me,

and for process P1,

the bus me is equal to 11 milliseconds.

We intend to calculate finished me FT,

turn around me TAT,

wait me WT,

and response me RT.

Here is the place where we plot Gan chart,

and this is ready Q,

and this is I/O Q.

First, let us mark

the process arrival me on the Gan chart.

P1 arrived at zero,

P2 arrived at two,

P3 arrived at three and P4 arrived at five millisecond.

As you can see, at t = 0,

we have in ready Q only process P1.

Schedule process P1,

P1s CPU me is six milliseconds,

so it finishes its execu on at six milliseconds.

Now, P1 goes for I/O for three milliseconds.

It comes back to ready only at t = 9 milliseconds.

As you can see,

in process P1 is execu ng processes,

P2, P2 and P4 entered into the ready Q.

Now it's P2s turn to execute.

P2 is scheduled, P2 CPU me is five milliseconds.

It finishes at t = 11 millisecond.

Then P2 goes for I/O for one millisecond dura on

and comes back in ready Q at t = 12 milliseconds.

During the execu on of process P2,

process P1 enters into the ready Q.

Now it is P3 turn to execute.

P3 is scheduled, P3 CPU me is two milliseconds,

and it finishes at t = 13 milliseconds.

Then P3 goes for I/O for one milliseconds dura on and

comes back in ready Q only at t = 14 milliseconds.

During the execu on of process P3,

Process P2 enters into the ready Q.

Now, it is P4 turn to execute.

P4 is scheduled, P4 CPO me is one millisecond,

and it finishes at t = 14 milliseconds.

Then P4 goes for I/O for one millisecond dura on and

comes back in ready Q only at t = 15 milliseconds.

During the execu on of process P4,

process P3 enters into the ready Q.

Now, it is P1s turn to execute.

P1 is scheduled, P1 CPU me is two milliseconds,

and it finishes at t = 16 milliseconds.

During the execu on of process P1,

process P4 enters into the ready Q.

Now it is P2 turn to execute.

P2 is scheduled, P2 CPU me is one millisecond,

and it finishes at t = 17 milliseconds.

Now, it is P3s turn to execute.

P3 is scheduled, P3 CPO me is three milliseconds,

and it finishes at t = 20 milliseconds.

Next is P4 turn to execute, P4 is scheduled,

P4s CPO mes one millisecond,

and it finishes at t = 21 milliseconds.

Response me is given by

the first response minus arrival me.

First response for P1 is at t = 0,

so the response me is 0-0,

which is equal to zero.

First response for P2 is at t = 6,

so response me for P2 is 6-2,

that is equal to four milliseconds.

Similarly, first response for P3 is at t = 11,

so the response me is 11-3 = 8 milliseconds.

First response for 14 is at t = 13,

so the response me is 13-5 = 5 millisecond.

Now, let us calculate the average turn me,

wait me and response me.

Average turnaround me is 16 milliseconds.

Average wait me is 9.25 milliseconds,

and average response me is five milliseconds.

Introduc on to FCFS with I/O

Let’s consider a system with four processes: P1, P2, P3, and P4. Each process has a specific arrival
me, and the burst me includes both CPU execu on me and I/O me.

For example, process P1 arrives at me t = 0 and goes through the following sequence:

 CPU Execu on: 6 milliseconds

 I/O Opera on: 3 milliseconds

 CPU Execu on: 2 milliseconds

The total burst me for P1, combining both CPU and I/O mes, is 11 milliseconds.

Calcula ng Process Metrics

We aim to calculate the following for each process:

 Finished Time (FT)

 Turnaround Time (TAT)

 Wait Time (WT)

 Response Time (RT)

Gan Chart Overview

Let's plot the Gan chart to visualize the process scheduling, and mark the arrival mes:

 P1: Arrives at t = 0

 P2: Arrives at t = 2

 P3: Arrives at t = 3

 P4: Arrives at t = 5

At t = 0, the only process in the ready queue is P1.

1. Schedule P1:

o CPU Time: 6 ms

o Finishes at t = 6 ms.

2. P1 goes for I/O for 3 ms and returns to the ready queue at t = 9 ms. During this me, P2 (at t
= 2 ms) and P4 (at t = 5 ms) enter the ready queue.

Next, it’s P2’s turn to execute:

3. Schedule P2:

o CPU Time: 5 ms

o Finishes at t = 11 ms.

o P2 goes for I/O for 1 ms and returns at t = 12 ms.

While P2 is execu ng, P1 returns to the ready queue. Now, it’s P3’s turn:
 4. Schedule P3:

o CPU Time: 2 ms

o Finishes at t = 13 ms.

o P3 goes for I/O for 1 ms and returns at t = 14 ms.

Next up is P4:

5. Schedule P4:

o CPU Time: 1 ms

o Finishes at t = 14 ms.

o P4 goes for I/O for 1 ms and returns at t = 15 ms.

Now, it’s me to schedule P1 again:

6. Schedule P1:

o CPU Time: 2 ms

o Finishes at t = 16 ms.

Next, P2 executes again:

7. Schedule P2:

o CPU Time: 1 ms

o Finishes at t = 17 ms.

Now, it’s P3’s turn:

8. Schedule P3:

o CPU Time: 3 ms

o Finishes at t = 20 ms.

Finally, we schedule P4:

9. Schedule P4:

o CPU Time: 1 ms

o Finishes at t = 21 ms.

Calcula ng Finished Times

Now, let’s find the finished mes for all processes:

 FT(P1) = 16 ms

 FT(P2) = 17 ms

 FT(P3) = 20 ms

 FT(P4) = 21 ms
Turnaround Time (TAT)

Turnaround Time is calculated as: TAT=FT−Arrival Time\text{TAT} = \text{FT} - \text{Arrival

Time}TAT=FT−Arrival Time

Turnaround mes for the processes are as follows:

 TAT(P1) = 16 - 0 = 16 ms

 TAT(P2) = 17 - 2 = 15 ms

 TAT(P3) = 20 - 3 = 17 ms

 TAT(P4) = 21 - 5 = 16 ms

Wait Time (WT)

Wait Time is calculated as: WT=TAT−Burst Time\text{WT} = \text{TAT} - \text{Burst

Time}WT=TAT−Burst Time

Where burst me includes both CPU and I/O me. The wait mes are as follows:

 WT(P1) = 16 - 11 = 5 ms

 WT(P2) = 15 - 6 = 9 ms

 WT(P3) = 17 - 3 = 14 ms

 WT(P4) = 16 - 2 = 14 ms

Response Time (RT)

Response Time is calculated as: RT=First Response Time−Arrival Time\text{RT} = \text{First Response
Time} - \text{Arrival Time}RT=First Response Time−Arrival Time

 RT(P1): First response at t = 0 → 0 - 0 = 0 ms

 RT(P2): First response at t = 6 → 6 - 2 = 4 ms

 RT(P3): First response at t = 11 → 11 - 3 = 8 ms

 RT(P4): First response at t = 14 → 14 - 5 = 9 ms

Conclusion

I hope you enjoyed this session and found the informa on helpful. Thank you for watching!
SJF Algorithm with IO

Here’s a refined version of your transcript for the video session on the Shortest Job First (SJF)
scheduling algorithm with I/O considera on. I've added clarity, simplified the language where
possible, and included a structured format:

Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on the Scheduling Algorithm with I/O Considera on.
Today, we will explore the concept of the Shortest Job First (SJF) algorithm while considering I/O
opera ons.

Consider a system with four processes,

P1, P2, P3 and P4.

The arrival me and burst me for

each of these processes are as shown.

Note that burst me contains

CPU execu on me as well as I/O me.

Each process performs computa on,

then goes for I/O,

and then again performs computa on.

Also note that different

processes access different I/O devices.

We will calculate finish me FT,

turnaround me TAT eight,

wait me, WT, and response me RT.

This slide also shows the Gan chart,

ready queue and I/O queue.

As you can see, P1 arrived at zero,

P2 arrived at two,

P3 arrived at three and P4 arrived at five.

At t=0, we have in the ready queue only process P1.

Schedule process P1.

P1's CPU me is six milliseconds,

so it finishes its execu on at six milliseconds.

Now, P1 goes for I/O for three milliseconds and comes

back to the ready queue only at t=9 milliseconds.

As you can see in the Gan chart,

while process P1 was execu ng,

processes P2, P3 and P4 arrives in the ready queue.

Overview of SJF with I/O

Let’s consider a system with four processes: P1, P2, P3, and P4. Each process has specific arrival
mes and burst mes, where the burst me includes both CPU execu on me and I/O me.

Each process performs computa on, goes for I/O, and then performs computa on again. It’s
important to note that different processes access different I/O devices.

Metrics to Calculate

We will calculate the following for each process:

 Finish Time (FT)

 Turnaround Time (TAT)

 Wait Time (WT)

 Response Time (RT)

Gan Chart and Arrival Times

Let’s look at the Gan chart and mark the process arrival mes:

 P1: Arrives at t = 0

 P2: Arrives at t = 2

 P3: Arrives at t = 3

 P4: Arrives at t = 5

Scheduling Processes

At t = 0, the only process in the ready queue is P1.

1. Schedule P1:

o CPU Time: 6 ms

o Finishes at t = 6 ms.

2. P1 goes for I/O for 3 ms and returns to the ready queue at t = 9 ms.

While P1 is execu ng, processes P2, P3, and P4 arrive in the ready queue. Out of these, P4 is the
shortest job with a burst me of 1 ms.

3. Schedule P4:

o Finishes its CPU burst me and goes for I/O for 1 ms, returning to the ready queue at
t = 8 ms.
At t = 7 ms, P2 and P3 are in the ready queue. P3 is the shorter job.

4. Schedule P3:

o CPU Time: 2 ms

o Finishes at t = 9 ms, then goes for I/O for 1 ms, returning at t = 10 ms.

At t = 9 ms, we have P2, P1, and P4 in the ready queue.

5. Schedule P4 again:

o Finishes at t = 10 ms.

At t = 10 ms, we have P1 and P2 in the ready queue. P1 is the shorter job.

6. Schedule P1:

o CPU Time: 2 ms

o Finishes at t = 12 ms.

At t = 12 ms, we have P2 and P3 in the ready queue. P3 is the shorter job.

7. Schedule P3:

o Finishes at t = 15 ms.

At t = 15 ms, we have only P2 in the ready queue.

8. Schedule P2:

o CPU Time: 5 ms

o Goes for I/O at t = 20 ms, returning at t = 21 ms.

At t = 21 ms, we schedule P2 again.

9. Schedule P2:

o Finishes at t = 22 ms.

Note: The processor is idle between t = 20 ms and t = 21 ms.

Calcula ng Finish Times

Now, let's find the finish mes for all processes:

 FT(P1) = 12 ms

 FT(P2) = 22 ms

 FT(P3) = 15 ms

 FT(P4) = 10 ms

Turnaround Time (TAT)

Turnaround Time is calculated as: TAT=FT−Arrival Time\text{TAT} = \text{FT} - \text{Arrival

Time}TAT=FT−Arrival Time
Here are the turnaround mes for each process:

 TAT(P1) = 12 - 0 = 12 ms

 TAT(P2) = 22 - 2 = 20 ms

 TAT(P3) = 15 - 3 = 12 ms

 TAT(P4) = 10 - 5 = 5 ms

Wait Time (WT)

Wait Time is calculated as: WT=TAT−Burst Time\text{WT} = \text{TAT} - \text{Burst

Time}WT=TAT−Burst Time

Where the burst me includes both CPU and I/O me. The wait mes are:

 WT(P1) = 12 - 11 = 1 ms

 WT(P2) = 20 - 10 = 10 ms

 WT(P3) = 12 - 4 = 8 ms

 WT(P4) = 5 - 1 = 4 ms

Response Time (RT)

Response Time is calculated as: RT=First Response Time−Arrival Time\text{RT} = \text{First Response
Time} - \text{Arrival Time}RT=First Response Time−Arrival Time

The response mes are:

 RT(P1): First response at t = 0 → 0 - 0 = 0 ms

 RT(P2): First response at t = 6 → 6 - 2 = 4 ms

 RT(P3): First response at t = 9 → 9 - 3 = 6 ms

 RT(P4): First response at t = 8 → 8 - 5 = 3 ms

Priority Algorithm with IO

Here’s a refined version of your transcript for the video session on the non-preemp ve priority
scheduling algorithm with I/O considera on. I've structured the content for clarity and improved
readability:

Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on the Scheduling Algorithm with I/O Considera on.
In this session, we will explore the concept of a Non-Preemp ve Priority Algorithm with I/O.

Overview of Non-Preemp ve Priority Scheduling

We will consider a system with four processes: P1, P2, P3, and P4. Each process has specific arrival
mes and burst mes. Note that the burst me includes both CPU execu on me and I/O me.
Each process performs computa on, goes for I/O, and then performs computa on again. Also,
different processes access different I/O devices.

In this priority-based algorithm, each process is assigned an integer to indicate its priority. A smaller
integer value indicates higher priority.

Objec ves

Our goal today is to calculate the following averages:

 Average Turnaround Time (TAT)

 Average Wait Time (WT)

 Average Response Time (RT)

Gan Chart and Arrival Times

Let’s first mark the process arrival mes on the Gan chart:

 P1: Arrives at 0 ms

 P2: Arrives at 2 ms

 P3: Arrives at 3 ms

 P4: Arrives at 5 ms

For clarity, I have included the process number, priority, and CPU burst me beside the ready queue.
This informa on will assist us in making scheduling decisions.

Scheduling Processes

At t = 0, the only process in the ready queue is P1.

1. Schedule P1:

o CPU Time: 6 ms
 o Finishes at t = 6 ms.

A er finishing, P1 goes for I/O for 3 ms and returns to the ready queue at t = 9 ms.

During P1's execu on, processes P2, P3, and P4 arrive in the ready queue. Among these, P3 has the
highest priority.

2. Schedule P3:

o Finishes its CPU burst me at t = 8 ms and then goes for I/O for about 1 ms,
returning to the ready queue at t = 9 ms.

At t = 8 ms, processes P2 and P4 are in the ready queue. P2 has a higher priority.

3. Schedule P2:

o A er finishing 5 ms of burst me, it goes for I/O for about 1 ms and returns to the
ready queue at t = 14 ms.

At t = 13 ms, we have processes P3, P1, and P4 in the ready queue. P3 has the highest priority.

4. Schedule P3:

o A er finishing 3 ms of burst me, it exits at t = 16 ms.

At t = 16 ms, processes P2, P1, and P4 are in the ready queue. P1 has the highest priority.

5. Schedule P1:

o A er finishing 2 ms of burst me, it exits at t = 18 ms.

At t = 18 ms, we have processes P2 and P4 in the ready queue. P2 has a higher priority.

6. Schedule P2:

o A er finishing 1 ms of burst me, it exits from the system at t = 19 ms.

At t = 19 ms, we have only P4 in the ready queue.

7. Schedule P4:

o A er finishing 1 ms of burst me, it goes for I/O at t = 20 ms and returns to the ready
queue at t = 21 ms.

At t = 21 ms, we have only P4 in the ready queue.

8. Schedule P4:

o At t = 22 ms, P4 finishes its execu on and exits from the system.

Note: The processor is idle between t = 20 ms and t = 21 ms.

Finish Times Calcula on

Now, let's find the finish mes for all processes:

 FT(P1) = 18 ms

 FT(P2) = 19 ms
  FT(P3) = 16 ms

 FT(P4) = 22 ms

Turnaround Time (TAT)

Turnaround Time is calculated as: TAT=FT−Arrival Time\text{TAT} = \text{FT} - \text{Arrival

Time}TAT=FT−Arrival Time

I encourage you to pause this video now and calculate the turnaround mes. Here are the
turnaround mes for each process:

 TAT(P1) = 18 - 0 = 18 ms

 TAT(P2) = 19 - 2 = 17 ms

 TAT(P3) = 16 - 3 = 13 ms

 TAT(P4) = 22 - 5 = 17 ms

Wait Time (WT)

Wait Time is calculated as: WT=TAT−Burst Time\text{WT} = \text{TAT} - \text{Burst

Time}WT=TAT−Burst Time

The wait mes for each process are:

 WT(P1) = 18 - 11 = 7 ms

 WT(P2) = 17 - 6 = 11 ms

 WT(P3) = 13 - 4 = 9 ms

 WT(P4) = 17 - 2 = 15 ms

Response Time (RT)

Response Time is calculated as: RT=First Response Time−Arrival Time\text{RT} = \text{First Response
Time} - \text{Arrival Time}RT=First Response Time−Arrival Time

The response mes for each process are:

 RT(P1): First response at t = 0 → 0 - 0 = 0 ms

 RT(P2): First response at t = 6 → 6 - 2 = 4 ms

 RT(P3): First response at t = 8 → 8 - 3 = 5 ms

 RT(P4): First response at t = 20 → 20 - 5 = 15 ms

Round Robin Scheduling with IO

Here's a refined version of your transcript for the video session on the Round Robin scheduling
algorithm with I/O considera on. I've structured it for clarity and engagement:

Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on the Scheduling Algorithm with I/O Considera on.
In this session, we will explore the concept of the Round Robin Scheduling Algorithm with I/O.

Overview of Round Robin Scheduling

We'll be working with a system containing four processes: P1, P2, P3, and P4. Each process has
specific arrival mes and burst mes. As a reminder, burst me includes both CPU execu on me
and I/O me. Each process performs computa on, goes for I/O, and then performs computa on
again.

For this exercise, let’s assume that different processes access different I/O devices and that the me
quantum is set to 3 milliseconds.

Objec ves

The aim of this session is to calculate the following averages:

 Average Turnaround Time (TAT)

 Average Wait Time (WT)

 Average Response Time (RT)

Gan Chart and Arrival Times

First, let’s mark the process arrival mes on the Gan chart:

 P1: Arrives at 0 ms

 P2: Arrives at 2 ms

 P3: Arrives at 3 ms

 P4: Arrives at 5 ms

Each entry in the ready queue shows the process and its corresponding burst me.

Scheduling Processes

At t = 0, the only process in the ready queue is P1.

1. Schedule P1:

o Execu on Time: Executes for 3 ms and returns to the ready queue with 3 ms
remaining.

While P1 was execu ng, P2 and P3 arrived and joined the ready queue. The tail of the ready queue
contains P1.
 2. Schedule P2:

o Executes for 3 ms and returns to the ready queue with 2 ms remaining.

Meanwhile, P4 enters the ready queue.

3. Schedule P3:

o Completes its 2 ms burst me and at t = 8 ms, goes for I/O. A er 1 ms, it returns to
the ready queue at t = 9 ms.

Now it’s P1’s turn to execute.

4. Schedule P1:

o Completes its 3 ms burst me and at t = 11 ms, goes for I/O. A er 3 ms of I/O, it

comes back to the ready queue at t = 14 ms.

While P1 was execu ng, P4 entered the ready queue.

5. Schedule P4:

o Completes its 1 ms burst me and at t = 12 ms, goes for I/O. A er 1 ms, it returns to
the ready queue at t = 13 ms.

Now it’s P2’s turn to execute.

6. Schedule P2:

o Completes its 2 ms burst me and at t = 14 ms, goes for I/O. A er 1 ms, it returns to
the ready queue at t = 15 ms.

While P2 was execu ng, processes P4 and P1 arrived in the ready queue.

7. Schedule P3:

o Completes its 3 ms burst me and exits at t = 17 ms.

While P3 was execu ng, P2 arrived in the ready queue.

8. Schedule P4:

o Completes its 1 ms burst me and exits at t = 18 ms.

9. Schedule P1:

o Completes its 2 ms burst me and exits at t = 20 ms.

10. Schedule P2:

o Completes its 1 ms burst me and exits at t = 21 ms.

Finish Times Calcula on

Now, let’s find the finish mes for all processes:

 FT(P1) = 20 ms

 FT(P2) = 21 ms
  FT(P3) = 17 ms

 FT(P4) = 18 ms

Turnaround Time (TAT)

Turnaround Time is calculated as: TAT=FT−Arrival Time\text{TAT} = \text{FT} - \text{Arrival

Time}TAT=FT−Arrival Time

Here are the turnaround mes for each process:

 TAT(P1) = 20 - 0 = 20 ms

 TAT(P2) = 21 - 2 = 19 ms

 TAT(P3) = 17 - 3 = 14 ms

 TAT(P4) = 18 - 5 = 13 ms

Wait Time (WT)

Wait Time is calculated as: WT=TAT−Burst Time\text{WT} = \text{TAT} - \text{Burst

Time}WT=TAT−Burst Time

The wait mes for each process are:

 WT(P1) = 20 - 6 = 14 ms

 WT(P2) = 19 - 5 = 14 ms

 WT(P3) = 14 - 4 = 10 ms

 WT(P4) = 13 - 2 = 11 ms

Response Time (RT)

Response Time is calculated as: RT=First Response Time−Arrival Time\text{RT} = \text{First Response
Time} - \text{Arrival Time}RT=First Response Time−Arrival Time

The response mes for each process are:

 RT(P1): First response at t = 0 → 0 - 0 = 0 ms

 RT(P2): First response at t = 3 → 3 - 2 = 1 ms

 RT(P3): First response at t = 8 → 8 - 3 = 5 ms

 RT(P4): First response at t = 12 → 12 - 5 = 7 ms

Average Times Calcula on

Now, let’s calculate the averages for TAT, WT, and RT:

 Average Turnaround Time: 20+19+14+134=16.5 ms\frac{20 + 19 + 14 + 13}{4} = 16.5 \text{

ms}420+19+14+13=16.5 ms

 Average Wait Time: 14+14+10+114=12.25 ms\frac{14 + 14 + 10 + 11}{4} = 12.25 \text{

ms}414+14+10+11=12.25 ms
  Average Response Time: 0+1+5+74=3.25 ms\frac{0 + 1 + 5 + 7}{4} = 3.25 \text{ ms}40+1+5+7
=3.25 ms

Conclusion

With this informa on, we can summarize:

 Average Turnaround Time: 16.5 ms

 Average Wait Time: 12.25 ms

 Average Response Time: 3.25 ms

Week 7

System Model

Here's a refined version of your video transcript on deadlock, emphasizing clarity and structure while
keeping all essen al details intact:

Hello, everyone. In a mul -programming environment, several processes might a empt to use a
limited number of resources simultaneously. Examples of these resources include CPU, main
memory (RAM), disk storage, files, I/O devices, and network connec ons. When a process needs
resources, it requests them. If those resources aren't available, the process must wait.

However, some mes a wai ng process can remain stuck in the wai ng state indefinitely because the
resources it needs are held by other processes that are also wai ng. This situa on is called a
deadlock.

Understanding Deadlock

In this video, we will explore what deadlock is and then examine the system model.

Real-World Examples of Deadlock:

 Money to make money: There's a saying, "It takes money to make money." This is like a
deadlock—if you don't have money to invest, you can't make more money. But you need
more money to start inves ng in the first place.

 Job without experience: You can't get a job without experience, and you can't get
experience without a job. This is another deadlock situa on, where you need one thing to
get the other, but you're stuck with neither.

 Blocked railway tracks: A classic example is when people from all sides want to cross a
railway track but end up blocking each other, preven ng any movement. They are stuck in a
deadlock, showing how the situa on becomes stagnant.

What is Deadlock?

Deadlock is a state in an opera ng system where processes come to a stands ll—no progress is
made. In general, deadlock occurs when a set of blocked processes, each holding a resource, waits to
acquire a resource held by another process in the set.

Example of a Deadlock:

Imagine process P1 holds Resource 1 and wants Resource 2, which is held by process P2. Meanwhile,
P2 also needs Resource 1, held by P1. Both processes end up in a deadlock because neither can
proceed.

Another Deadlock Example:

Consider two disks, D1 and D2, with two processes, P1 and P2.

 P1 wants to copy the contents of D1 to D2.

  P2 wants to copy the contents of D2 to D1.

Ini ally, P1 acquires control over D1, and P2 acquires control over D2. To complete their tasks, both
processes need access to the other disk. However, since each disk is held by the other process, they
end up in a deadlock.

Causes of Deadlock:

The primary cause of deadlock is the finite availability of resources. Examples of limited resources
include memory space, CPUs, files, I/O devices such as printers, monitors, or DVD drives.

When talking about resources, we use two terms:

 Resource Types: For instance, "printer" is a resource type.

 Instances: The number of available resources of that type. For example, if there are three
printers, then there are three instances of the printer resource.

Resource Management:

A crucial point is that processes must request resources before using them and must release them
a erward. A process cannot hold onto a resource indefinitely. To manage resources efficiently,
processes follow this cycle:

1. Request the resource.

2. Use the resource.

3. Release the resource.

Different system calls are available to manage resources:

 For I/O devices, we use request and release system calls.

 For files, we use open and close.

 For memory, we use allocate and free.

Summary

In this session, we covered:

 What is a deadlock?

 Reasons behind deadlock.

Understanding how to manage and handle deadlocks is crucial for smoother opera ng system
performance and efficient resource management. This helps prevent processes from ge ng stuck
indefinitely.
Deadlock Characteriza on

Here’s a refined version of your video transcript on the four necessary condi ons for a deadlock,
emphasizing clarity while maintaining all key points:

Hello, everyone. Before we explore how to handle deadlock situa ons, it’s essen al to understand
the characteris cs that lead to deadlock. A deadlock can only occur if four necessary condi ons are
met in a system simultaneously. These condi ons are mutual exclusion, hold and wait, no
preemp on, and circular wait.

Let’s go through each of these condi ons:

1. Mutual Exclusion

Mutual exclusion ensures that only one process can use a resource at a me.

 Why do we enforce mutual exclusion? We do this to prevent race condi ons, where
mul ple processes access shared resources in a conflic ng way.

 When do we enforce mutual exclusion? We enforce it when resources are non-sharable.

This means if one process is using a non-sharable resource, other processes must wait un l
that resource is released.

Example:

If Process 1 holds Resource 1 and Process 2 holds Resource 2, and each process requires the
resource held by the other, we have a deadlock. This is because the enforcement of mutual exclusion
prevents both processes from accessing the necessary resources simultaneously.
2. Hold and Wait

This condi on occurs when a process is holding at least one resource and wai ng to acquire
addi onal resources held by other processes.

 For example, in the diagram, Process 1 holds Resource 1 but is wai ng for Resource 2, which
is held by Process 2.

3. No Preemp on

The no preemp on condi on states that resources cannot be forcibly taken away from a process. A
resource can only be released voluntarily by the process that holds it a er it completes its task.

 For example: If Process 2 voluntarily releases Resource 2, Process 1 can acquire it and finish
its task. This would prevent a deadlock. However, if resources can't be preempted, deadlock
is more likely to occur.
4. Circular Wait

In a circular wait, there is a set of wai ng processes, each holding one resource and wai ng for
another.

 Example: In a scenario where P₀ is wai ng for a resource held by P₁, P₁ is wai ng for a
resource held by P₂, and so on, un l the last process in the chain is wai ng for a resource
held by P₀. This creates a circular chain of wai ng, which leads to a deadlock.

In the diagram, Process 1 is wai ng for Process 2 to release a resource, and Process 2 is wai ng for
Process 1. This creates a loop, fulfilling the circular wait condi on, and leads to deadlock.

Summary

To summarize, for a deadlock to occur, four condi ons must be met:

1. Mutual exclusion – Only one process can use a resource at a me.

2. Hold and wait – A process is holding one resource and wai ng for addi onal ones.

3. No preemp on – Resources cannot be forcibly taken away from a process.

4. Circular wait – A circular chain of processes exists, each wai ng for a resource held by the
next.

Note: All four condi ons must be present simultaneously for deadlock to occur.

I hope you enjoyed this session and gained a clear understanding of the necessary condi ons for
deadlock. Take care and have a great day!
Resource Alloca on Graph

Here’s a refined version of your video transcript on resource alloca on graphs (RAGs) and their role
in detec ng and preven ng deadlock. The transcript is streamlined for clarity and ease of
understanding, while keeping all cri cal concepts intact:

Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on deadlock. Today, we’ll discuss Resource Alloca on
Graphs (RAGs), a vital tool for detec ng and preven ng deadlocks in opera ng systems. RAGs help
us visualize how resources are allocated to various processes and whether any deadlocks might
occur.

In this video, you’ll learn:

1. How to represent processes and resources using a resource alloca on graph.

2. How to detect a cycle in a resource alloca on graph and understand its implica ons for
deadlock.

Let’s dive right in! Is everyone ready? Let’s get started.

What is a Resource Alloca on Graph (RAG)?

A graph is a set of ver ces and edges, represented as V and E, respec vely. In a RAG, the vertex set is
divided into two categories:

1. Processes – Represented as circles.

2. Resources – Represented as squares.

Each resource may have mul ple instances, shown as small circles within the square. There are two
types of directed edges:

 Request edge: A directed edge from a process to a resource, showing that the process is
reques ng the resource.

 Assignment edge: A directed edge from a resource to a process, indica ng that the resource
has been allocated to the process.
There are two types of edges,

request edge and assignment edge.

Both are directed edges.

The request edge is the edge that

goes from a reques ng process to a resource.

Whereas an assignment edge,

an edge goes from the resource to a process,

indica ng that the resource

has been allocated to the process.

Process is represented by a circle while

resources are represented by using a square box.

Instances are indicated by

small circles or small squares within a square box.

Request and assignment edges are shown in the figure.

Example: Understanding a Resource Alloca on Graph

In this example, Resource 1 has three instances assigned to Processes P1, P2, and P4. Resource 2 has
one instance allocated to Process P3, while P4 is reques ng an instance of Resource 2. Resource 3
has two instances that are currently unallocated.

Ques on: Is there a deadlock?

To check for a deadlock, we need to determine whether all four condi ons for deadlock are present:
mutual exclusion, hold and wait, no preemp on, and circular wait. In this case, while some
condi ons may exist, we can confidently say there is no circular wait, because there is no cycle in
the graph.
Iden fying a Cycle in a RAG

Let’s look at another example. The edges in this graph go from P₀ to R₁, R₁ to P₁, P₁ to R₂, and R₂ back
to P₀. Since all edges follow the same direc on, this forms a cycle.

The reverse direc on one doesn’t form a cycle

Now, take a look at another graph. Here, there is no cycle because the edges do not follow a closed
loop. Pause the video and try to spot the cycles in this new graph. How many do you see? If you
answered one, you’re mistaken! There are actually two cycles:

 Cycle 1: P1 → R3 → P2 → R1 → P1

 Cycle 2: P1 → R3 → P2 → R2 → P4 → R1 → P1

Deadlock and Cycles

 If a graph contains no cycles, there is no deadlock.

 If a graph contains a cycle and there is only one instance per resource, then a deadlock
exists.

 However, if there are mul ple instances of a resource, a cycle does not guarantee a
deadlock.
In this graph we had seen earlier,

there are two cycles.

As you can see, resource R1 has

three instances out of which

two instances are allocated to P1 and P3.

One more resource can be allocated to either P2 or P4.

If we allocate this instance of R1 to P4,

Cycle 2 no longer exists.

Since P4 acquired both the resources,

a er a finite amount of me,

it completes its computa on and

releases all the acquired resources.

Now, R2 and R1 can be assigned to P2,

so Cycle 2 no longer exists.

Example: Mul ple Instances

Let’s revisit the earlier graph with two cycles. Resource R1 has three instances: two are allocated to
P1 and P3, and one instance remains available. If this instance is allocated to P4, Cycle 2 will break.
A er P4 finishes using the resources and releases them, P2 can then acquire the resources and
complete its task, elimina ng the cycle and preven ng a deadlock.

Thus, a cycle in the graph is a necessary but not sufficient condi on for deadlock.

Conclusion

Let’s sum up what we covered in this session:

1. We learned how to represent processes and resources using a resource alloca on graph
(RAG).

2. We explored how to iden fy cycles in a RAG.

In conclusion:

 No cycle in the graph means there is no deadlock.

 If a cycle exists, it could indicate a deadlock, but it is not guaranteed if there are mul ple
instances of resources.
Methods of Handling Deadlock

Here’s a refined version of your video transcript on methods for handling deadlocks:

Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on deadlock. In today’s video, we’ll be exploring the
methods for handling deadlocks in opera ng systems. There are three primary ways to deal with
deadlocks. Let’s dive right in!

1. Deadlock Preven on and Deadlock Avoidance

The first method includes two techniques: deadlock preven on and deadlock avoidance. Both
techniques aim to ensure that the system never enters a deadlock. It’s like the saying: "Preven on is
be er than cure."

 Deadlock Preven on: This technique works by ensuring that at least one of the four
necessary condi ons for deadlock does not occur. The four condi ons are:

o Mutual Exclusion

o Hold and Wait

o No Preemp on

o Circular Wait

If we prevent any one of these condi ons, a deadlock can’t occur.

 Deadlock Avoidance: This technique requires the system to have prior informa on about
the resources each process will request and use. Using this informa on, the system decides
whether to grant the current resource request in a way that avoids deadlock. The key
difference here is that the system has the foresight to prevent deadlock from happening by
analyzing poten al resource usage pa erns.

Main difference between preven on and avoidance: In deadlock preven on, we don’t need prior
informa on about resource requests. In deadlock avoidance, we use advance knowledge of
resource usage to prevent deadlocks.

2. Deadlock Detec on and Recovery

In the second method, we allow the system to enter a deadlock, and once it does, we detect and
recover from it. This approach involves:

 Detec ng the deadlock a er it occurs.

 Implemen ng strategies to recover from the deadlock, such as termina ng processes or

forcibly releasing resources.

3. Ignoring the Deadlock Problem

The third method is simple: we ignore the deadlock problem en rely. Opera ng systems like UNIX
and Windows o en use this approach, assuming that deadlocks rarely happen. The responsibility to
handle deadlocks is shi ed to applica on developers, who need to design their programs to avoid or
resolve deadlocks if they occur.
Recap

To summarize, there are three methods for handling deadlocks:

1. Deadlock Preven on and Avoidance – Both ensure that the system never enters a deadlock
state.

2. Deadlock Detec on and Recovery – Allows the system to get into a deadlock, and then finds
and fixes it.

3. Ignoring Deadlocks – Common in opera ng systems like UNIX and Windows, leaving
deadlock management to applica on developers.
Mutual Exclusion and Hold & Wait

Here’s a refined version of your transcript on deadlock preven on:

Hello, everyone! Let’s dive into another engaging session on deadlock. As we know, a deadlock
occurs when a set of processes are blocked, with each process holding one resource and wai ng for
another resource held by another process. You may recall that there are four necessary condi ons
for a deadlock to occur: mutual exclusion, hold and wait, no preemp on, and circular wait.

Today, we’ll focus on deadlock preven on schemes—strategies designed to ensure a system never
enters a deadlock state. These schemes aim to eliminate or break one of the four necessary
condi ons. In this session, we will focus on breaking the mutual exclusion condi on and the hold
and wait condi on.

1. Breaking the Mutual Exclusion Condi on

Mutual exclusion means certain resources cannot be shared by more than one process at the same
me. Systems typically have both shareable and non-shareable resources. Non-shareable resources,
like printers, must be used by only one process at a me. Imagine what happens if two processes try
to use the printer simultaneously—the printed page would contain content from both processes,
leading to chaos!

On the other hand, shareable resources—like read-only files—can be accessed by mul ple
processes at the same me. It’s important to differen ate between these types of resources. Mutual
exclusion should be enforced only for non-shareable resources, like printers, but not for shareable
resources like read-only files, which processes can access concurrently without wai ng.

2. Breaking the Hold and Wait Condi on

To avoid the hold and wait condi on, the system must ensure that when a process requests a
resource, it does not hold any other resources. There are two protocols we can use to break this
condi on:

 First Protocol: A process must acquire all necessary resources before it starts execu on.
This means no par al alloca on. Once a process has all its resources, it can begin execu ng.

 Second Protocol: A process can request resources only when it is holding none. If the
process needs more resources later, it must first release all previously held resources, then
request the new ones.

Let’s consider an example: A process that needs to copy data from a DVD to a disk, sort the file, and
print the result using a printer.

 Using the first protocol, the process would request the DVD drive, disk file, and printer at
the start of its execu on and hold onto them un l the end. This leads to poor resource
 u liza on, as the printer is held by the process the en re me, even though it’s needed only
at the end.

 Using the second protocol, the process would first request the DVD drive and disk file, use
them, then release them before reques ng the disk file and printer. While this improves
resource u liza on compared to the first protocol, the process s ll has to release and re-
request resources, which can be inefficient.

Both protocols result in poor resource alloca on, but Protocol 2 offers be er u liza on than
Protocol 1.

Summary

In this session, we discussed the objec ve of deadlock preven on strategies: to ensure the system
never enters a deadlock state by breaking one of the necessary condi ons. We focused on breaking
the mutual exclusion and hold and wait condi ons.

 Mutual exclusion is applied only to non-shareable resources, while shareable resources

don’t require it.

 To break the hold and wait condi on, we explored two protocols: one requiring all resources
to be requested before execu on, and another requiring processes to release all resources
before reques ng new ones.

Though both methods have limita ons in terms of resource u liza on, Protocol 2 tends to perform
be er.
No Preemp on and Circular Wait

Here’s a refined version of your transcript on breaking the no preemp on and circular wait
condi ons to handle deadlocks:

Hello, everyone! In our last session, we discussed deadlock preven on schemes and explored how
to break the mutual exclusion and hold and wait condi ons. In today’s session, we will learn how to
prevent deadlock by breaking the no preemp on and circular wait condi ons.

1. Breaking the No Preemp on Condi on

First, let's review what the no preemp on condi on is. It states that once a process has acquired a
resource, the system cannot preempt or forcibly take it away. This condi on can be broken using two
protocols.

Protocol 1:

In this protocol, if a process is holding some resources and requests another resource that cannot be
allocated immediately, it releases all the resources it currently holds. The process will then wait
un l it can acquire both its old resources and the new one it’s reques ng.

For example, if Process P1 is holding two resources and is wai ng for a third one, it will release all of
its currently held resources instead of wai ng. These preempted resources are returned to the
resource pool, and Process P1 will be restarted when it can regain all of the resources it needs.

Here, P1 is like a “saint,” sacrificing its acquired resources for the sake of avoiding deadlock.

Protocol 2:

In this protocol, if a process requests resources that are already allocated to another process, we
check whether the holding processes are wai ng for other resources. If they are, the requested
resources are preempted from those wai ng processes and allocated to the reques ng process.

For instance, if Process P1 requests resources held by P2 and P3, and both P2 and P3 are wai ng for
addi onal resources, the system will preempt the resources from P2 and P3 and allocate them to P1.

In Protocol 2, Process P1 is more “selfish” or “greedy,” as it seizes resources from other processes
that are also wai ng.

2. Breaking the Circular Wait Condi on

The circular wait condi on can be broken by imposing a linear ordering of resource types. In this
scheme, we assign an integer to each resource type. Processes must then request resources in
increasing order of these assigned integers.
For example, if Process P2 has been allocated Resource R2, it cannot request Resource R1 later since
R1 has a lower number than R2. This ensures that processes only request resources in an increasing
order, preven ng circular dependencies and thus breaking the circular wait condi on.

Summary

Let’s recap what we’ve covered today:

 The no preemp on condi on can be prevented using two protocols:

o In Protocol 1, if a process cannot get all the resources it needs, it releases all its
resources and tries again later.

o In Protocol 2, a process can preempt resources from other processes that are
wai ng for addi onal resources and use them for its own needs.

 The circular wait condi on can be broken by imposing a linear order on resource types,
ensuring processes request resources in a specific, non-circular sequence.

Thank you for watching! In our next session, we will con nue exploring more techniques to handle
deadlocks. See you next me!
1.

Ques on 1

What type of resources require mutual exclusion to prevent deadlocks?

Sharable resources

Both sharable and non-sharable resources

Non-sharable resources

Virtual resources

Correct

This is correct. Non-sharable resources, like a printer, require mutual exclusion because they cannot
be used by more than one process at the same me.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

2.

Ques on 2

There are two protocols to avoid Hold and Wait condi on. Which protocol requires a process to
acquire all needed resources before it begins execu on?

The mutual exclusion protocol

The deadlock detec on protocol

The second protocol for avoiding Hold and Wait condi on

The first protocol for avoiding Hold and Wait condi on

Correct

This is correct. The first protocol mandates that a process must request all its resources before it
starts execu on to avoid the Hold and Wait condi on.

Ques on 3

What does the No Preemp on condi on mean in the context of deadlock preven on?

A process cannot be forced to release its resources once they have been allocated.

Resources are automa cally released a er a fixed me period.

A process can request resources as soon as they become available.

A process can only hold one resource at a me.

Correct

This is correct. The No Preemp on condi on means that once a process has been allocated
resources, the system cannot forcibly take them away.
Deadlock Avoidance - An Introduc on

Here’s an improved version of your script on Deadlock Avoidance:

Hello, everyone! Welcome to another interes ng session on deadlocks. As we’ve learned, in the
deadlock preven on approach, we aim to ensure that at least one of the four necessary
condi ons—mutual exclusion, hold and wait, no preemp on, or circular wait—does not hold.
Today, we’ll dive into a different method: the Deadlock Avoidance scheme.

Deadlock Avoidance Overview

In the Deadlock Avoidance algorithm, the key idea is that we have complete informa on about the
processes’ resource requests and releases right from the beginning. Using this informa on, the
opera ng system decides whether a process should wait or be allowed to proceed. The main
advantage of this method is its simplicity, but the challenge lies in the fact that predic ng all future
resource requests and releases is difficult.

Resource Alloca on State

The resource alloca on state is determined by three factors:

1. Available resources: The total number of resources available for alloca on.

2. Allocated resources: The number of resources currently allocated to processes.

3. Maximum demands: The maximum resources each process may need.

When a process requests a resource, the opera ng system checks whether fulfilling this request will
keep the system in a safe state.

What is a Safe State?

A safe state is one where there is a sequence of processes such that:

 The first process in the sequence can obtain all the resources it needs, finish its execu on,
and release those resources.

 A er that, the next process can obtain its needed resources, finish, release resources, and so
on.

For example, if Process P_i’s required resources are not immediately available, it can wait un l
Process P_j finishes and releases its resources. Once P_j completes, P_i can proceed, obtain its
needed resources, and finish execu on. When P_i finishes, the next process in the sequence can
acquire its resources, con nuing in this manner.

A safe state ensures that the system can avoid deadlock by properly sequencing the resource
alloca on to processes.
Safe State vs Unsafe State

 If the system is in a safe state, deadlock cannot occur.

 If the system enters an unsafe state, there is a possibility of deadlock, but it is not
guaranteed.

Therefore, the goal of Deadlock Avoidance is to ensure that the system never enters an unsafe
state. It’s important to note that while all deadlocks are unsafe, not all unsafe states are deadlocks.

Techniques for Deadlock Avoidance

There are two key techniques for deadlock avoidance:

1. Resource Alloca on Graph: Used when the system has a single instance of each resource
type.

2. Banker’s Algorithm: Used when the system has mul ple instances of each resource type.

Summary

Let’s summarize what we’ve covered in this session:

 Deadlock Avoidance requires complete knowledge of resource requests and releases in

advance.

 The resource alloca on state depends on the available resources, allocated resources, and
the maximum demands of processes.

 A safe state ensures that resources can be allocated in such a way that deadlock is avoided.

 Resource Alloca on Graphs are used for systems with a single instance of a resource, while
the Banker’s Algorithm is used for systems with mul ple instances.
Resource Alloca on Graph Algorithm

Here’s an improved version of your script on Resource Alloca on Graph in Deadlock Avoidance:

Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on deadlocks. As you may recall, resources in a system
can be of two types: those with a single instance of each resource type and those with mul ple
instances of each resource type. For systems with a single instance of a resource type, the deadlock
avoidance algorithm uses a Resource Alloca on Graph (RAG). For systems with mul ple instances
of resources, the Banker’s Algorithm is used.

In this session, we’ll focus on using the Resource Alloca on Graph as part of the deadlock avoidance
algorithm.

Resource Alloca on Graph (RAG)

The Resource Alloca on Graph is a visual representa on of the system’s state, displaying how
resources are allocated to processes and the resource requests made by each process. In a RAG,
there are two types of edges:

1. Request Edge: Directed from a process to a resource, represen ng that the process is
reques ng that resource.

2. Assignment Edge: Directed from a resource to a process, indica ng that the resource has
been allocated to the process.

Introduc on to Claim Edge

In the deadlock avoidance algorithm, we introduce a third type of edge called the Claim Edge. A
claim edge represents the poten al future request of a resource by a process. For example, an edge
from P4 to R3 indicates that Process P4 may request Resource R3 at some point. This is depicted by a
dashed line.

 Claim Edge → represents a poten al request.

 Request Edge → represents an actual request.

 Assignment Edge → represents the resource allocated to the process.

The edge P42R3 indicates

that process P4 may

request resource R3 some me in future.

This edge is represented by a dashed line.

When a process requests a resource, its claim edge is converted to a request edge. When the
resource is allocated, the request edge is converted into an assignment edge. Similarly, when the
resource is released by the process, the assignment edge reconverts back to a claim edge.
Now suppose process P2 wants resource R2.

This request is granted only if conver ng P2 to

R2 request edge to R2 to

P2 assignment edge does not yield a cycle.

In this case, there is a cycle,

hence the request cannot be granted.

Supposing if P1 requests are two,

then the claim edge is first

converted into the request edge and

conver ng that request edge to

assignment edge will not yield a cycle,

hence, it is safe.

Example of Deadlock Avoidance Using RAG

Let’s consider a scenario with two processes, P1 and P2, and two resources, R1 and R2. In this
example:

 P1 has a claim edge to R2 (dashed line).

 P2 also has a claim edge to R2.

Now, suppose Process P2 requests R2. Before gran ng the request, we check if conver ng the claim
edge (P2 → R2) to a request edge, and then to an assignment edge, results in a cycle in the graph.

If a cycle is formed, the system will enter an unsafe state, and the request will be denied. In this
case, since gran ng P2 the resource leads to a cycle, the request cannot be granted.

However, if P1 requests R2, we can convert the claim edge to a request edge, and then to an
assignment edge without forming a cycle. Therefore, P1’s request is safe, and it is granted the
resource.
Key Points Recap

 The Resource Alloca on Graph is used to detect and avoid deadlocks in systems with single-
instance resources.

 The Deadlock Avoidance Algorithm modifies the basic RAG by introducing a claim edge in
addi on to the standard request and assignment edges.

 Any resource request must be checked for cycles before it is granted. If conver ng the claim
edge to a request edge and then to an assignment edge creates a cycle, the system enters
an unsafe state and the request is denied.

Thank you for watching this session! I hope you enjoyed learning how the Resource Alloca on Graph
can be used in deadlock avoidance. In the next session, we’ll explore the Banker’s Algorithm for
systems with mul ple instances of resources. See you then!
Bankers algorithm

h ps://youtu.be/7gMLNiEz3nw?si=KR4RNNsL-6Je2Op6
1.

Ques on 1

What is the main requirement for the Deadlock Avoidance scheme?

Processes must acquire all resources before execu on begins.

The system must always be in a deadlock state.

The ability to preempt resources at any me.

Requires complete informa on about resource requests and releases from the start.

Correct

This is correct. Deadlock avoidance requires full knowledge of all resource requests and releases at
the beginning to ensure safe states.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

2.

Ques on 2

In Deadlock Avoidance, what defines a "safe state"?

There is a sequence of processes that can finish without causing a deadlock.

Processes can hold resources indefinitely.

The system has entered a deadlock and cannot recover.

All resources are allocated without considering future requests.

Correct

This is correct. A safe state is one where the system can allocate resources to processes in a way that
avoids deadlocks.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

3.

Ques on 3

What happens to a claim edge when a process requests a resource in a Resource Alloca on Graph?

It is removed from the graph.

It is converted to a request edge.

It remains unchanged.

It is converted to an assignment edge.

Correct
This is correct. When a process requests a resource, the claim edge is converted to a request edge.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

4.

Ques on 4

What is the primary purpose of the Banker's Algorithm in deadlock avoidance?

To immediately grant all resource requests.

To allocate resources in a way that ensures the system remains in a safe state.

To reduce the number of processes in the system.

To prevent processes from reques ng more resources compared to other processes.

Correct

This is correct. The Banker's Algorithm is designed to allocate resources carefully to ensure that the
system is always in a safe state, avoiding deadlocks.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

5.

Ques on 5

What does the Work vector represent in the Safety Algorithm?

The total number of resources in the system.

The resources currently allocated to each process.

The maximum resources needed by all processes.

The number of currently available resources.

Correct

This is correct. The Work vector is ini alized with the values from the Available vector and represents
the number of available resources.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

6.

Ques on 6

What does a safe sequence indicate in the context of the Safety Algorithm?

The order in which processes can be allocated resources without causing a deadlock.

The maximum amount of resources that can be allocated to each process.

The sequence in which processes must release their resources.

The order in which the system should terminate processes.

Correct

This is correct. A safe sequence is the order in which processes can be allocated resources to ensure
that the system remains in a safe state.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

7.

Ques on 7

What is the primary goal of the Resource Request Algorithm in the Banker's Algorithm?

To ensure that a resource request can be granted while keeping the system in a safe state.

To terminate processes that exceed their resource requests.

To allocate resources to processes immediately.

To calculate the total resources available in the system.

Correct

This is correct. The Resource Request Algorithm aims to ensure that resource alloca on keeps the
system in a safe state. Please refer to the video “Bankers Algorithm – Part 3” of the lesson “Deadlock
Avoidance”.
Single Instance of Each Resource Type

Here’s an improved version of your script on Deadlock Detec on and Wait-for Graph:

[MUSIC]

Hello everyone! Welcome to another session on deadlocks. As we know, both deadlock preven on
and deadlock avoidance techniques aim to keep the system from entering a deadlock state. Today,
we will explore another approach: deadlock detec on.

Deadlock Detec on

In the deadlock detec on method, the system is permi ed to enter a deadlock. A detec on
algorithm is then employed to check whether the system is currently in a deadlock state. Upon
detec ng a deadlock, a recovery algorithm is ac vated to resolve the situa on. Similar to the
avoidance techniques, there are dis nct algorithms for single-instance resource types and mul ple-
instance resource types.
Wait-for Graph

For systems with a single instance of a resource type, we use a Wait-for Graph to detect deadlocks.
This directed graph represents the rela onships between processes, rather than including resources
like in a resource alloca on graph.

 Nodes: Each node represents a process.

 Directed Edges: An edge from P0 to P1 indicates that Process P0 is wai ng for Process P1 to
release a resource.

To check for deadlocks, we periodically invoke an algorithm that searches for cycles in the Wait-for
Graph. If a cycle exists, it implies a deadlock; if there is no cycle, the system is free from deadlock.
The cycle detec on algorithm typically has a complexity of O(n²), where n is the number of processes
in the graph.
Construc ng a Wait-for Graph

Let’s go through an example of how to create a Wait-for Graph based on a given resource alloca on
graph.

Consider the following resource alloca on graph:

1. Draw nodes for the processes. Here, we have five processes: P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5.

2. Iden fy the wai ng rela onships:

o P1 is reques ng R1, which is held by P2. So, draw an edge from P1 to P2.

o P2 is reques ng R3, which is held by P5. Draw an edge from P2 to P5.

o P2 is also reques ng R4, which is held by P3. Draw an edge from P2 to P3.

o P3 is reques ng R5, held by P4. Draw an edge from P3 to P4.

o P2 is reques ng R5, which is also held by P4. Draw another edge from P2 to P4.

o Finally, P4 is reques ng R2, which is held by P1. Draw an edge from P4 to P1.

This results in the following directed edges:

 P1 → P2

 P2 → P5

 P2 → P3

 P3 → P4

 P2 → P4

 P4 → P1
Cycle Detec on

Now, we need to apply a cycle detec on algorithm to check for cycles in the Wait-for Graph. In this
case, we iden fy two cycles:

1. Cycle 1: P1 → P2 → P4 → P1

2. Cycle 2: P1 → P2 → P3 → P4 → P1

The presence of any cycle indicates that there is a deadlock in the system.
Mul ple Instances of Each Resource Type

Here’s a refined version of your script on Deadlock Detec on in Systems with Mul ple Instances of
Resource Types:

Welcome, everyone!

As we all know, detec ng deadlocks is crucial because it prevents system freezes and ensures
efficient resource u liza on. Tradi onally, the Wait-for Graph scheme has been used for deadlock
detec on, but it’s only applicable to single instances of each resource type. Many systems, however,
have mul ple instances of each resource type, making the Wait-for Graph inadequate. Therefore, we
need a more sophis cated algorithm to handle such scenarios.
Deadlock Detec on Algorithm for Mul ple Instances

In this session, we will discuss deadlock detec on in systems with mul ple instances of resource
types. This algorithm employs several data structures similar to those used in the Banker's
Algorithm.

 Let n be the number of processes in the system.

 Let m be the number of resource types.

The algorithm u lizes the following data structures:

1. Available Vector: A vector of length m that indicates the number of available resources of
each type.

2. Alloca on Matrix: An n × m matrix that defines the number of resources of each type
currently allocated to each process.

3. Request Matrix: An n × m matrix that indicates the current request of each process.
The work vector is ini alized to available,

which is equal to 0, 0, 0,

and all the elements of finish vector are set to false.

This is because alloca on for each process is non-zero.

Let us find an index_i such that finish[i] is false,

and request_i is less than or equal to work.

Let us begin with P_0 where i = 0.

Is finish[0] = false?

Yes, the condi on is true.

Is request_0 less than or equal to work?

As you can see,

request_0 is 0, 0, 0,

and work is also 0, 0,

0, hence,

the condi on is true.

Let us proceed with

the next step at work and alloca on vectors,

and set finish[0] to true.

Updated values for work and finish is as shown.

Let us check whether P_1's requests

are sa sfied or not, i = 1.

Is finish[1] = false?

Yes, the condi on is true.

Is request_1 is less than equal to work?

The condi on is false.

This means that P_1's request cannot be fulfilled now.

Ini al Setup of the Algorithm

1. Work Vector: Ini alize a Work vector to be equal to Available.

2. Finish Vector: Create a Finish vector of length n. For each process, if Alloca on[i] is not equal
to 0, set Finish[i] to false; otherwise, set it to true.

Algorithm Steps

Step 1: Find an index i such that Finish[i] is false and Request[i] is less than or equal to Work.

 If no such i exists, proceed to Step 4.

  If such an i is found, update Work to be Work + Alloca on[i], set Finish[i] to true, and repeat
Step 1.

This step focuses on reclaiming resources allocated to process P_i. You might wonder why we reclaim
the resources as soon as we determine that Request[i] is less than or equal to Work. This approach is
op mis c, assuming that P_i will not need more resources and will soon release all currently
allocated resources. If this assump on is incorrect, a deadlock may occur later, which will be
detected the next me the deadlock detec on algorithm runs.

Step 2: Finally, if any Finish[i] is false, then the system is in a deadlock state, and the corresponding
process P_i is deadlocked.

Example Walkthrough

Let’s understand this algorithm through an example. Consider a system with five processes (P0
through P4) and three resource types (A, B, and C) with 7, 2, and 6 instances respec vely.

 The state of the data structures (Alloca on, Request, and Available) is as shown.

Ini aliza on:

 The Work vector is ini alized to Available, which is [0, 0, 0].

 All elements of the Finish vector are set to false since alloca on for each process is non-zero.

Finding an Index:

1. Start with P0 (i = 0):

o Finish[0] = false (true).

o Request[0] ≤ Work (true).

o Proceed to update Work and Finish.

2. Check P1 (i = 1):

o Finish[1] = false (true).

o Request[1] ≤ Work (false). Cannot fulfill P1’s request.

3. Check P2 (i = 2):

o Finish[2] = false (true).

o Request[2] ≤ Work (true). Update Work and Finish.

4. Con nue for P3 and P4, upda ng Work and Finish where possible.

A er itera ng through all processes, if all elements of the Finish vector are true, it indicates that
there is no deadlock.
Handling Deadlocks

Now, let’s assume Process P2 requests an addi onal instance of resource type C. To determine the
state of the system, we need to run the detec on algorithm again.

In this case, if the condi on Request ≤ Work is not sa sfied for any process (except for P0), a
deadlock exists among processes P1, P2, P3, and P4.

Strategies for Termina ng Processes

To handle deadlocks, there are two main strategies for termina ng processes:

1. Abort All Deadlocked Processes: This guarantees quick resolu on of the deadlock, but can
be costly, leading to significant loss of work, especially for processes that have completed
substan al computa on.

2. Abort Processes One at a Time: This method is more selec ve and can poten ally save more
work. However, careful decision-making is required regarding which process to terminate
first.

Factors to Consider When Choosing a Process to Terminate:

 Priority of the Process: Lower-priority processes may be terminated first.

 Dura on of Execu on: Processes closer to comple on might result in higher wasted effort if
terminated.

 Resources U lized: Termina ng processes that have used fewer resources might be more
economical.

 Resources Needed for Comple on: Processes requiring a large number of resources might
be be er candidates for termina on.

 Number of Processes to Terminate: The fewer, the be er.

 Process Type: Interac ve processes might have higher priority to remain running compared
to batch processes.

Summary

In this session, we discussed the working principle of the deadlock detec on algorithm for systems
with mul ple instances of resource types. Once a deadlock is detected, recovery procedures can be
ini ated. Handling deadlocks by termina ng processes requires careful considera on of various
factors to minimize the impact on the system. Whether we choose to abort all deadlocked processes
or one at a me, the goal is to resolve the deadlock efficiently and effec vely.
1.

Ques on 1

Which of the following techniques is used to handle deadlocks by allowing the system to enter a
deadlock state and then detec ng it?

Deadlock Preven on

Deadlock Detec on

Deadlock Avoidance

Resource Alloca on

Correct

This is correct. Deadlock detec on allows the system to enter a deadlock state and uses detec on
algorithms to iden fy it.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

2.

Ques on 2

What type of graph is used in deadlock detec on when resources have a single instance?

Process Resource Graph

Resource Alloca on Graph

System State Graph

Wait-for Graph

Correct

This is correct. A Wait-for Graph is used to detect deadlocks in systems with single instance
resources.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

3.

Ques on 3

Which of the following data structures are used in the deadlock detec on algorithm for systems with
mul ple resource types?

Process Table, Resource Table

Available vector, Alloca on matrix, Request matrix

Priority Queue, Mutex Locks

Wait-for Graph, Resource Alloca on Graph

Correct

This is correct. These data structures are used to track resource availability, alloca on, and requests
for deadlock detec on.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

4.

Ques on 4

In deadlock detec on scheme, what is the main condi on that must be checked to determine if a
system is in a deadlocked state using the algorithm?

If any Finish[i] remains false a er all possible alloca ons

If the Work vector has been exhausted

If the Request matrix is empty

If all processes have completed their execu on

Correct

This is correct. If any Finish[i] remains false a er the algorithm completes, it indicates a deadlocked
state.
Week 8

Introduc on

Here’s a refined version of your script on Introduc on to Main Memory Management Systems:

[MUSIC]

Hello, everyone! Welcome to this session on Introduc on to Main Memory Management Systems.
One of the main objec ves of an opera ng system is effec ve memory management. In this module,
our focus will be on main memory management.

Role of the Opera ng System in Memory Management

The opera ng system plays a crucial role in managing main memory, which refers to RAM. Some of
the key func ons it performs include:

 Memory Alloca on

 Memory Dealloca on

 Memory Protec on

 Memory Paging and Segmenta on

 Memory Scheduling

The objec ve of this session is to provide background on main memory management, followed by a
discussion of the key features of a main memory management system. Let’s get started!

What is Memory Management?

First, let’s define memory management.

Memory management is the process of controlling and coordina ng ac vi es in main memory. It is

essen al for the proper func oning of computer systems.

As we know, a process is a program in execu on. To execute a process, it must be available in main
memory. Main memory management involves alloca ng blocks of main memory to various processes
in the system and dealloca ng memory when it is no longer needed.

Some mes, when you write a program, you may allocate memory but forget to deallocate it when
it's no longer necessary. Over me, these unreleased memory blocks accumulate, consuming system
resources unnecessarily. This can lead to reduced performance, and eventually, the system may
become unstable or crash if the program consumes too much memory. This situa on is referred to as
a memory leak, which occurs when a process loses the ability to track its memory alloca ons.
Effec ve Memory Management

How can we determine whether memory management is effec ve or successful?

Good memory management should:

1. Improve the Degree of Mul programming: This allows mul ple processes to reside in main
memory simultaneously. The degree of mul programming has a direct impact on system
efficiency, as efficiency is a ained when the memory needs of various processes are
allocated adequately.

2. Ensure a Sufficient Supply of Ready Processes: This is essen al to u lize available processor
me efficiently. A robust memory management system contributes to overall system
performance by:

o Reducing overhead related to memory alloca on and dealloca on.

o Cu ng down the frequency of disk accesses in virtual memory systems.

o Op mizing memory access mes.

Key Features of a Good Memory Management System

A good memory management system should exhibit several key features:

 Reliability: It should ensure that processes receive the correct memory alloca ons.

 Security: Proper security mechanisms should be in place to prevent unauthorized access.

 Scalability: The system should accommodate varying workloads and configura ons.

 Ease of Use and Maintenance: Clear interfaces for memory alloca on and dealloca on
should be provided, along with tools for monitoring memory usage and diagnosing
problems.

Addi onally, it may be necessary to move processes back and forth between main memory and disk
during their execu on. The memory management system should keep track of allocated blocks and
free memory blocks available in main memory.

Summary

To summarize, during this session, we learned about the objec ves of the main memory
management system. We discussed its role in process alloca on and execu on, along with the key
features that define a good main memory management system, including:

 Degree of mul programming

 Efficiency

 Performance

 Reliability

 Security
 Scalability

 Ease of use
Compila on System

Here’s a polished version of your script on Understanding the Compila on System:

Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on the Main Memory Management System. Today,
we’ll delve into the compila on system, which refers to the collec on of so ware tools and
processes used to translate source code wri en in a high-level programming language into machine
code that can be executed by a computer's processor.

The primary goal of a compila on system is to convert human-readable code into a form that the
machine can understand and execute efficiently. During this session, we will explore how the
compila on system works. Let’s begin!

Understanding Program Execu on

I hope you are all familiar with this simple program. What is the outcome of this program?

That's right! This program prints "Hello World" on the monitor. Now, let’s understand how this
program gets executed in a computer system.

Here is the block diagram of a compila on system. This program goes through several phases,
including:

1. Pre-processing

2. Compila on

3. Assembly

4. Linking

5. Loading
Phases of the Compila on System

1. Pre-processing:

o During this phase, the pre-processor looks for statements that begin with the hash
symbol (#). In our program, we have one such statement: #include <stdio.h>.

o When the pre-processor encounters this statement, it replaces it with the content of
the header file. The outcome of this phase is a file named hello.i.

2. Compila on:

o In this phase, the program is converted to an assembly language program,

genera ng a file called hello.s.
 3. Assembly:

o The assembly language program is then converted to machine-understandable

binary object code, resul ng in a file named hello.o.

Why Use an Intermediate Compila on Phase?

I have a ques on here: Why is source code first converted to assembly language and then to object
code? Why can't we convert source code directly into object code?

Any guesses?

The reason is that source code is wri en in a high-level programming language and is pla orm-
independent. Directly conver ng it to object code without an intermediate phase would e the
compiled code to a specific machine architecture, making it less portable.

As men oned earlier, during the pre-processing phase, wherever there are direc ves star ng with a
hash symbol, the source code related to that direc ve gets inserted into the original source program.
The code related to header files usually contains func on declara ons and macro defini ons, which
are compiled and stored elsewhere.

During the linking phase, the object codes of these func ons and macros are linked to the hello.o
file. In our case, the rou ne related to the prin statement gets linked. The outcome of the linker
stage is an executable object program named hello.

4. Loading:

o The loader helps to load this compiled program into main memory.

Advantages of the Compila on System

Let’s discuss the advantages of using a compila on system:

 Code Op miza on: Compilers can op mize code to improve execu on speed and reduce
memory usage.

 Error Detec on: Compila on systems o en provide error and warning messages that help
developers catch syntax and seman c errors early in the development process.

 Portability: High-level languages and compila on systems enable the same source code to
be compiled and run on different hardware pla orms with minimal changes.

 Automa on: The compila on system automates the transla on of source code to executable
code, streamlining the development process.

Summary

To summarize, a compila on system is an essen al part of so ware development that transforms

high-level source code into executable machine code. This process enables the efficient execu on of
programs on a computer.
Main Memory Management Requirements

Here’s a refined version of your script on Main Memory Management Requirements:

Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on the Main Memory Management System. Before
we dive into the various mechanisms available for managing main memory, it’s important to
understand the fundamental requirements of main memory. In this session, we will explore these
requirements in detail. Let’s begin!

Main Memory Management Requirements

There are five key requirements for effec ve main memory management:

1. Reloca on

2. Protec on

3. Sharing

4. Logical Organiza on

5. Physical Organiza on

To execute a program, it must reside in main memory. When we create a process for a program, it
ini ally sits in the job queue, which contains all the processes on disk that are ready to be loaded
into main memory for execu on.

Ques ons for Reflec on

I’d like to pose two ques ons:

1. When you write code, do you know where it will be loaded in main memory?

2. Will the program occupy the same memory block each me you execute it?

The answer is that we o en don’t know where the program will be loaded. It’s the responsibility of
the main memory management system to allocate available free blocks. Addi onally, when you run a
program mul ple mes, it may be loaded in different memory loca ons depending on the free space
available at that moment.

Swapping and Logical Addressing

Some mes, a running process is swapped out of main memory to disk to make room for a new
process. For example, if process P1 is swapped out to accommodate process P2, when P1 returns to
main memory, it may be allocated to en rely different memory loca ons.

From the processor's perspec ve, it perceives that only one process is running at a given me, with
an address range from zero to a maximum value. This address space is referred to as a logical
address. It’s important to note that the CPU always generates logical addresses, which must be
translated into actual physical addresses—the loca ons that exist in the main memory unit.

To clarify:

 Logical address: Virtual address generated by the CPU.

 Physical address: Real or actual address in main memory.

Address Binding

Address binding is the process of mapping from one address space to another. This binding of
instruc ons and data to physical memory addresses can occur at three different stages:

1. Compile Time: Binding can happen if the memory loca on is known in advance. In this case,
absolute code is generated. For example, if we know that the program will be loaded at
loca on 1,000, all memory references in the program will be generated rela ve to this
address. However, if the star ng address changes, recompila on is necessary.

2. Load Time: If the memory loca on is not known at compile me, the compiler generates
relocatable code. The final address binding occurs at load me. If the star ng address
changes, the program has to be reloaded, but recompila on is not required.

3. Execu on Time: If a process is swapped in and out of memory during execu on, binding is
delayed un l run me. For execu on- me binding, we need hardware support.

Protec on Mechanism

The next requirement is protec on. Each process is allocated a separate memory address space. For
example, if process P0 is allocated memory addresses from 2,500 to 3,499, the next process, P1,
starts at 3,500. There’s a risk that processes may accidentally or inten onally access or modify
memory allocated to others, leading to security issues.

To address this, we use two registers: the base register and the limit register. The base register holds
the smallest legal physical memory address, while the limit register specifies the size of the range for
that process. When the CPU generates an address, it is compared with the contents of the base and
limit registers to ensure the address is valid.

Key Points:

 Illegal access to another process's address space results in a fatal error, which the OS handles
via a trap signal.

 Special privileged instruc ons are used to load the base and limit registers, which occurs in
kernel mode. The OS has unrestricted access to both its own memory and user memory.

Sharing and Modularity

Many mes, processes need to share data or parts of their code. Instead of maintaining separate
copies for each process—which is inefficient—having a single copy of the program code that mul ple
processes can access is advantageous. The memory management system must allow controlled
access to shared areas of memory while maintaining essen al protec on.
Memory Organiza on

Main memory is organized as a linear or one-dimensional array. It can be:

 Byte-organized: Each loca on stores a byte.

 Word-organized: Each loca on holds a word.

Even secondary memory is organized similarly.

Modular Approach: In programming, we o en follow a modular approach, which has several

advantages:

1. Modules can be wri en and compiled independently.

2. Different levels of protec on can be assigned to modules (e.g., some can be read-only while
others can be executable).

If the opera ng system and computer hardware effec vely manage user programs and data in
modular forms, these benefits can be fully realized.

Logical vs. Physical Organiza on

 Logical Organiza on: This perspec ve is imaginary, based on the programmer's viewpoint.
Logical addresses generated by the CPU need conversion into physical addresses.

 Physical Organiza on: Real physical memory organiza on differs in characteris cs:

o Main Memory: Faster access, rela vely high cost, vola le, and smaller capacity.

o Secondary Memory: Slower, cheaper, non-vola le, and higher capacity.

Management of these memories cannot be done by the programmer alone; we require a Memory
Management Unit (MMU) to manage it effec vely.
Memory Management Unit

Here’s a polished version of your script on the Memory Management System:

Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on the Memory Management System. A memory
management system is a crucial component of an opera ng system responsible for controlling and
coordina ng the alloca on and dealloca on of memory resources in a computer. Its primary role is
to ensure the efficient u liza on of available memory while providing a secure and reliable
environment for running processes and applica ons.

Hardware Support for Memory Management

During this session, we will explore the hardware support necessary for effec ve memory
management. There are two types of addresses you should be familiar with: logical addresses and
physical addresses.

 Logical Addresses: Generated by the CPU during program execu on, logical addresses are
also referred to as virtual addresses. They represent a memory loca on within the process's
address space—the range of memory addresses accessible to that process. These addresses
are generated by the CPU's arithme c logic unit (ALU) as the program executes instruc ons.
Importantly, logical addresses do not directly correspond to physical memory loca ons.

 Physical Addresses: In contrast, a physical address refers to the actual loca on of data in
physical memory (RAM). Physical addresses represent the exact loca on of data within the
computer’s physical memory chips.

The transla on from logical addresses to physical addresses is managed by the Memory
Management Unit (MMU).

Registers in Memory Management

To effec vely manage memory ac vi es, the MMU u lizes three essen al registers:

1. Base Register: Also known as the base address register, this holds the base address of the
main memory segment assigned to a specific process. When a program is executed, the base
register specifies the star ng address of the allocated memory segment. During address
transla on, the MMU adds the value in the base register to the logical address to determine
the corresponding physical address.

2. Limit Register: This register specifies the size of the memory segment allocated to a process.
It contains the length of the memory segment. When the CPU generates a logical address,
the MMU compares it with the value in the limit register to ensure that the address is within
the allocated memory segment. This comparison helps prevent processes from accessing
memory loca ons beyond their assigned boundaries, thereby enforcing memory protec on.

3. Reloca on Register: This register is used for dynamic address transla on. It adjusts the
logical addresses generated by the CPU to the corresponding physical addresses.
Example of Address Valida on

Let’s consider an example to illustrate how these registers work:

Assume process P0 has a logical address space spanning from 1,000 to 1,499. If the base register is
set to 1,000 and the limit register to 499, then the base plus limit register content will be 1,499.

 If the CPU generates an address of 1,200, the MMU checks:

o Is 1,200 greater than or equal to the base register content (1,000)?

o Yes, it is.

Next, it compares 1,200 with the base plus limit:

o Is 1,200 less than 1,499?

o Yes, it is a valid address.

Now, let’s consider a different scenario where the CPU generates an address of 1,800.

 This address is greater than the base register content (1,000) but greater than the base plus
limit value (1,499). Thus, this generated address is invalid.

In this case, the MMU generates a trap interrupt to the opera ng system to indicate an address
error.

Role of the Memory Management Unit (MMU)

The MMU is a hardware device that maps logical addresses to physical addresses. User programs
operate with logical addresses and do not interact with real physical addresses. The address space of
the user program runs from 0 to max, while the physical address space is represented as R + 0 to R +
max, where R is the value in the reloca on register.

Note that the CPU generates only logical addresses and assumes the process runs in the range 0 to
max. The MMU adds the value in the reloca on register to every address generated by the CPU.

For example, if the CPU generates a logical address of 346 and the reloca on register contains
14,000, the final physical address generated will be 14,346.

Summary

In this session, we explored the importance of memory management, focusing on the roles of the
reloca on register, base register, and limit register. The reloca on register adjusts logical addresses
to their corresponding physical addresses, while the base register specifies the star ng address of
the allocated memory segment, and the limit register defines the size of that segment. Together,
these three registers facilitate efficient and secure memory management in an opera ng system.
1.

Ques on 1

What is the primary objec ve of main memory management in an opera ng system?

Ensuring that memory leaks occur

Handling input and output opera ons

Alloca ng and dealloca ng memory for processes

Managing secondary storage devices

Correct

This is correct. Main memory management involves alloca ng blocks of memory to various processes
and dealloca ng memory when it's no longer needed.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

2.

Ques on 2

What is the primary goal of a compila on system?

To manage system resources

To edit and debug source code

To convert source code into machine code

To execute source code directly

Correct

This is correct. The main goal of a compila on system is to translate human-readable source code
into machine-executable code.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

3.

Ques on 3

Which of the following is NOT a requirement of main memory management?

Compila on

Sharing

Protec on

Reloca on

Correct
This is correct. Compila on is not a memory management requirement; it pertains to transla ng
code into executable form.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

4.

Ques on 4

What is the primary role of the Memory Management Unit (MMU) in an opera ng system?

To manage disk storage

To allocate memory segments to processes

To generate logical addresses

To translate logical addresses to physical addresses

Correct

This is correct. The MMU's main func on is to convert logical addresses generated by the CPU into
physical addresses in memory.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

5.

Ques on 5

What is the purpose of address binding in memory management?

To map logical addresses to physical addresses

To prevent memory leaks

To allocate memory for new processes

To convert physical addresses into logical addresses

Correct

This is correct. Address binding is the process of mapping logical addresses generated by the CPU to
actual physical addresses in memory.
Fixed Par on Memory Alloca on

Here’s a refined version of your script on Fixed Par on Memory Alloca on:

Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on the Memory Management System. In this session,
we will explore different memory alloca on schemes used to allocate memory to processes, such as
fixed memory par oning, segmenta on, paging, and virtual paging. Let’s get started by focusing on
fixed memory par oning.

Fixed Memory Par oning

In fixed par on memory alloca on, the physical memory is divided into several sta c par ons or
blocks during system ini aliza on. Once these par ons are created, they cannot be changed, which
is why it’s called fixed par on memory alloca on. There are two types based on the size of the
par ons: fixed size par ons and variable size par ons.

 Fixed Size Par ons: In this system, all par ons are of equal size, and each par on can
accommodate a single process. For example, consider a diagram where memory is divided
into six par ons, each 4 MB in size. When a process needs to be loaded into memory, it is
placed in a par on that is large enough to accommodate it. Therefore, a process can be
loaded into a par on of equal or larger size.

The main merit of this approach is its simplicity in implementa on.

Impact on Degree of Mul programming

Does this approach affect the degree of mul programming?

Yes, it does. The degree of mul programming is limited by the number of par ons available. There
is minimal opera ng system overhead since there are fixed par ons, and processes are loaded into
those designated spaces only. IBM OS/360 u lized this memory arrangement, which was popularly
known as Mul programming with a Fixed number of Tasks (MFT).

However, while it is simple, there are two significant challenges:

1. Program Size Limita ons: A program may be too large to fit into a par on. For instance, if
you have a 10 MB program, it cannot be loaded if the par ons are smaller than that. To
overcome this issue, the concept of overlays is used.

2. Inefficient Memory U liza on: If a program is only 2 MB and is allocated a 4 MB par on,
the remaining 2 MB goes unused, leading to wasted space. This le over space within the
par on is known as internal fragmenta on. One way to reduce internal fragmenta on is to
decrease the par on size, but this creates another problem: larger programs may not fit
into smaller par ons.

An alterna ve solu on is to have unequal size par ons, which offers more flexibility compared to
fixed-size par ons.
Process Assignment Techniques

There are two methods to assign processes to par ons:

1. One Process Queue Per Par on: In this technique, the system maintains a queue for each
par on. As processes arrive, they are placed in the appropriate queue based on their size.
For example, if the first par on is 1 KB, only processes smaller than 1 KB will be placed in
that queue.

2. Single Queue for All Par ons: In this method, all processes are placed in a single queue.

Pros and Cons of Each Technique

 One Process Queue Per Par on:

o Pros: Lesser internal fragmenta on, as processes are segregated based on par on
size.

o Cons: This is not an op mal solu on. For example, if the first queue has ten
processes while all other queues are empty, processes in the first queue must wait,
even if other par ons are free. This inefficiency can lead to resource
underu liza on.

 Single Queue Method:

o Pros: This is an op mal approach, as it allows for more efficient use of the memory.

o Cons: However, it may suffer from larger internal fragmenta on. When all par ons
are occupied, the system must swap out exis ng processes to bring in a new one.
Determining which process to swap out is based on the scheduling and replacement
algorithms.

Disadvantages of Fixed Par on Memory Alloca on

In general, fixed par on memory alloca on has some disadvantages:

 The number of par ons specified at system genera on limits the number of ac ve
processes in the system.

 It is inefficient because small jobs may not fully u lize the par on space, leading to wasted
memory.

Summary

To summarize what we learned in this session:

 Fixed Par on Memory Alloca on: Physical memory is divided into sta c par ons during
system ini aliza on, and these par ons remain unchanged.

 We explored two varia ons:

 o Fixed Size Par ons: Equal-sized par ons that are simple to implement but can
lead to internal fragmenta on.

o Variable Size Par ons: Offer more flexibility but are also inefficient for large
programs, necessita ng the use of overlays.

 Internal fragmenta on is a significant concern with both schemes, leading to underu liza on
of memory.

That concludes our session on fixed par on memory alloca on. Thank you for your a en on!
Overlays

Here's a refined version of your script on Overlays in Memory Management:

Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on Memory Management. In a fixed par on

memory alloca on system, memory is divided into fixed-size or variable-size par ons at the me of
system ini aliza on. Although this method is straigh orward, it has a significant drawback: memory
alloca on becomes impossible if a process requires more memory than the size of the par on.

To address this limita on, today we will explore a technique known as overlays. Overlays enable
more efficient memory management, especially in systems with limited memory resources. They
allow programs to be larger than the available physical memory by dividing them into smaller
modules—known as overlays—and loading only the necessary modules into memory at any given
me.

Understanding Overlays with the Assembler Example

To illustrate the concept of overlays, let’s consider an assembler as an example. An assembler is

so ware that translates assembly language instruc ons into machine code, which occurs in two
phases: Pass 1 and Pass 2.

1. Pass 1:

o The assembler reads through the en re assembly language program line by line,
performing several tasks:

 Iden fica on of labels and symbols.

 Opcode processing.

 Genera ng the symbol table.

 Handling assembler direc ves.

o Labels represent memory addresses at certain points in the program, while the
symbol table maps these labels to their respec ve memory addresses.

o Note: Pass 1 does not generate any machine code; it focuses on analyzing the
program and gathering informa on for the next pass.

2. Pass 2:

o The assembler u lizes the informa on gathered in Pass 1 to generate the actual
machine code. It goes through the assembly program again, transla ng the
instruc ons into machine language.

Memory Requirements of the Assembler

Here’s a breakdown of the memory requirements for an assembler:

  Code size of Pass 1: 70 KB

 Code size of Pass 2: 80 KB

 Symbol table size: 25 KB

 Common rou ne size: 25 KB

 Total assembler size: 200 KB

Now, let’s assume the main memory par on size is 150 KB. How can we fit a 200 KB assembler into
a 150 KB main memory par on? This is indeed impossible without using overlays.

How Overlays Work

Here’s how overlays func on:

1. Dividing the Program: The program is divided into logical modules (overlays), with each
overlay represen ng a dis nct por on of the program's func onality.

2. Loading Overlays: Ini ally, only the primary overlay is loaded into memory, along with the
main program code. This primary overlay contains the essen al code needed to start the
program and manage overlay swapping.

Overlay Management

To manage overlays, we need an overlay driver. When the program needs access to a module not
currently in memory, the overlay driver swaps out the currently loaded overlay and replaces it with
the required overlay from secondary storage (such as a disk).

 The overlay driver manages the swapping of overlays based on the program's execu on flow
and memory requirements. A er swapping an overlay into memory, control is transferred
back to the appropriate point in the program.

Applying Overlays to the Assembler

Referring back to the assembler example, since the codes for Pass 1 and Pass 2 are not needed
simultaneously, we can create two overlays:

 Overlay A: Contains the code for Pass 1, the symbol table, common rou nes, and the overlay
driver. Memory requirement: 130 KB.

 Overlay B: Contains the code for Pass 2, the symbol table, common rou nes, and the overlay
driver. Memory requirement: 140 KB.

Both overlays fit within the 150 KB par on size. Ini ally, the overlay driver loads Overlay A into
memory. A er comple ng Pass 1, the overlay driver is invoked to read Overlay B into memory,
overwri ng Overlay A, and control is transferred to Pass 2.

Summary
In summary, we have learned how to load a process larger than the main memory par on size using
overlays. The overlay technique, illustrated with the assembler example, provides efficient memory
usage by allowing large programs to run on systems with limited memory. Key benefits include:

 Minimal Memory Footprint: Only the necessary parts of the program are loaded into
memory, reducing wastage.

 Improved Performance: By keeping only essen al parts in memory, overlays can help
minimize disk I/O and paging overhead.

Overlays were especially common in older systems with limited memory, such as early mainframe
computers and some personal computers. However, as memory capaci es increased and virtual
memory systems became more sophis cated, overlays became less essen al. They s ll hold
relevance in certain embedded systems today.
Dynamic Par on Memory Alloca on

Here's a polished version of your script on Dynamic Memory Alloca on:

Hello, everyone! In this video, we will explore another memory alloca on approach known as
dynamic memory alloca on. Let’s get started!

Dynamic Memory Alloca on Overview

Dynamic par on alloca on is a memory management technique used by opera ng systems to

allocate memory to processes dynamically, as requested. In this method, par ons are of variable
length and number, allowing for exact memory alloca on based on process requirements.
Example Scenario

Let’s consider an example where the total space in main memory is 64 MB, and 8 MB is occupied by
the opera ng system. This leaves 56 MB of available space for processes. We have five processes: P1,
P2, P3, P4, and P5.

Here’s how the memory alloca on and release for these processes unfold:

1. Alloca on:

o The first process, P1, is allocated memory.

o Next, P2 is allocated memory.

 o Then, P3 is allocated memory.

o A er these alloca ons, there remains 4 MB of free space, known as a hole.

2. Releasing and Realloca ng:

o When P2 is released, it creates an addi onal hole of 14 MB.

o The next process, P4, which requires 8 MB, is placed in the 14 MB hole, leaving a
smaller hole of 6 MB.

o A er releasing P1, a 20 MB hole is created, and P2 is allocated again in that hole.

o Finally, when P5 needs 8 MB, there are several holes sca ered around, but since all
are smaller than 8 MB, it is impossible to allocate P5, even though the total available
space is sufficient.

Understanding External Fragmenta on

In dynamic par oning, this situa on leads to external fragmenta on. This occurs when there are
enough total holes in memory, but they are not con guous, making it impossible to allocate memory
for new processes. Although the holes may add up to sufficient size, their sca ered distribu on
means they cannot be u lized effec vely.

Solu on: Memory Compac on

To address the issue of external fragmenta on, we can use the compac on technique.

 Memory Compac on: This process involves moving allocated processes closer together,
thereby consolida ng free memory into larger con guous blocks. While effec ve,
compac on is me-consuming and can waste processor resources.

For successful and efficient dynamic memory alloca on, the opera ng system must maintain detailed
informa on about both allocated and free par ons.

Summary

In summary, we have learned about how processes are allocated memory using dynamic
par oning. We explored the concept of external fragmenta on and how compac on can help
minimize its effects.
Dynamic Par on Alloca on Schemes

Here’s a refined version of your script on Dynamic Par on Alloca on Schemes:

Hello, everyone! In this video, we will explore four schemes of dynamic par on alloca on. Let’s
begin!

Dynamic Par oning Overview

Dynamic par oning is a memory management technique used by opera ng systems to allocate
each process the exact amount of memory it needs. Unlike fixed par oning, which relies on fixed-
size par ons, dynamic par oning adjusts memory alloca on for each process based on its
requirements.

There are four primary alloca on schemes: first-fit, best-fit, next-fit, and worst-fit.

1. First-fit: Allocates the first hole that is big enough.

2. Best-fit: Allocates the smallest hole that is adequate, but must search the en re list unless
holes are ordered by size, producing the smallest le over hole.

3. Next-fit: Begins scanning from the loca on of the last placement and selects the next
available block that is large enough.

4. Worst-fit: Allocates the largest hole available, also requiring a complete scan of the list,
leading to the largest le over hole.

Comparison of Alloca on Schemes

To determine which scheme is more effec ve, let’s examine an example.

Assume we have six holes in the main memory with sizes: 300 KB, 600 KB, 350 KB, 200 KB, 750 KB,
and 125 KB. There are also six processes wai ng for memory alloca on, requiring 115 KB, 500 KB,
360 KB, 200 KB, and 375 KB.
1. First-Fit Scheme

In the first-fit scheme, we allocate the first hole that is big enough:

 115 KB is allocated in the 300 KB hole (remaining 185 KB).

 500 KB is allocated in the 600 KB hole (remaining 100 KB).

 360 KB is allocated in the 750 KB hole (remaining 390 KB).

 200 KB is allocated in the 350 KB hole (remaining 150 KB).

 375 KB is allocated in the 390 KB hole (remaining 15 KB).

A er all alloca ons, we are le with six holes of various sizes.

2. Best-Fit Scheme

Next, we use the best-fit scheme, which searches for the smallest possible hole that will
accommodate each block:

 115 KB is allocated in the 125 KB hole (remaining 10 KB).

 500 KB is allocated in the 600 KB hole (remaining 100 KB).

 360 KB is allocated in the 750 KB hole (remaining 390 KB).

 200 KB is allocated in the 200 KB hole (remaining 0 KB).

 375 KB is allocated in the 390 KB hole (remaining 15 KB).

This approach results in five holes.

3. Next-Fit Scheme

Now, let’s see how the next-fit scheme works:

 115 KB is allocated in the 300 KB hole (remaining 185 KB).

 The scan point moves to 185 KB.

 500 KB is allocated in the 600 KB hole (remaining 100 KB).

 360 KB is allocated in the 750 KB hole (remaining 390 KB).

 200 KB is allocated in the 390 KB hole (remaining 190 KB).

 There is no suitable hole for 375 KB, so it remains unallocated.

In this case, we again have six holes of variable sizes.

4. Worst-Fit Scheme

Finally, in the worst-fit scheme, we allocate the largest hole:

 115 KB is allocated in the 750 KB hole (remaining 635 KB).

 500 KB is allocated in the 635 KB hole (remaining 135 KB).

 360 KB is allocated in the 600 KB hole (remaining 240 KB).

 200 KB is allocated in the 350 KB hole (remaining 150 KB).

 There is no hole large enough for 375 KB, so it remains unallocated.

A er all alloca ons, we again have six holes.

Summary of Findings

In summary, we learned about four dynamic memory alloca on schemes:

 First-Fit: Allocates the first available block that is large enough, scanning from the beginning.

 Best-Fit: Allocates the smallest block that is large enough, minimizing wasted space.

 Next-Fit: Similar to first-fit but con nues the search from the last alloca on point.

 Worst-Fit: Allocates the largest block, leaving the biggest possible le over chunk.

Based on the results, next-fit and worst-fit were unable to allocate all the blocks, while best-fit
resulted in the fewest holes. Therefore, we conclude that the best-fit scheme is superior to the
others.
1.

Ques on 1

In a fixed-size par on memory alloca on system, how is the degree of mul programming
determined?

By the number of par ons created during system ini aliza on.

By the number of available CPUs.

By the number of processes in the job queue.

By the size of the main memory.

Correct

This is correct. The degree of mul programming is limited by the number of fixed par ons created
during system ini aliza on.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

2.

Ques on 2

What is the primary purpose of using overlays in memory management?

To increase the speed of process execu on

To allow programs larger than the available memory to run

To reduce the number of processes in the job queue

To allocate fixed-size memory par ons

Correct

This is correct. Overlays enable programs that are larger than the available physical memory to run
by loading only necessary parts into memory at a given me.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

3.

Ques on 3

What is a major drawback of dynamic par on alloca on in memory management?

It leads to internal fragmenta on.

It cannot allocate exact memory requirements.

It restricts the number of processes that can be loaded.

It can cause external fragmenta on.

Correct

This is correct. Dynamic par on alloca on can result in external fragmenta on, where free memory
is sca ered in small blocks that cannot be easily u lized.

Status: [object Object]

1 / 1 point

4.

Ques on 4

Which dynamic par on alloca on scheme is most likely to minimize wasted space by crea ng the
smallest le over holes?

Best Fit

Next Fit

Worst Fit

First Fit

Correct

This is correct. Best Fit allocates the smallest hole that is large enough for the process, minimizing
the size of le over holes and reducing wasted space.
Introduc on to Paging

Here's the enhanced version of your transcript, structured with headings and subheadings, and with
examples added where needed:

Main Memory Management System

Introduc on

Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on the Main Memory Management System. In today's
session, we will cover two key topics:

1. Fixed-Size and Dynamic Par on Memory Alloca on Schemes – We’ll explore their key
drawbacks.

2. Paging Scheme – We’ll learn how paging helps reduce the inefficiencies found in the fixed-
size and dynamic memory alloca on methods.

Fixed-Size and Dynamic Par on Memory Alloca on Schemes

Fixed-Size Memory Alloca on

In the fixed-size memory alloca on scheme, memory is divided into fixed-size blocks or par ons,
which can be allocated to processes. However, this method has a major drawback: internal
fragmenta on.

Key Issue: Internal Fragmenta on

Internal fragmenta on happens when allocated memory blocks are larger than the requested
memory. This leaves unused space within these blocks, leading to inefficient memory u liza on.

Example:
Let's say we have a block of 8 KB, and a process requires only 5 KB of memory. The remaining 3 KB in
the block will be unused, resul ng in internal fragmenta on.

Dynamic Par on Memory Alloca on

In the dynamic par on memory alloca on scheme, memory is allocated in variable-size blocks
based on the exact needs of processes rather than fixed sizes. This approach solves internal
fragmenta on but introduces external fragmenta on.

Key Issue: External Fragmenta on

External fragmenta on occurs when free memory is split into small, non-con guous blocks sca ered
throughout the memory, making it difficult to find a large enough block for new processes.

Example:
Suppose a process of size 4 KB finishes and leaves a free block in memory. If new processes of
varying sizes are allocated in different parts of memory, you might end up with enough total free
space but sca ered in smaller chunks, making it hard to allocate memory for a larger process.
Paging: A Solu on to Fragmenta on

Paging is another memory alloca on scheme that helps reduce internal fragmenta on and
completely eliminates external fragmenta on. Paging allows the physical address space of a process
to be non-con guous.

How Paging Works

In paging, both the physical memory and logical memory are divided into fixed-size blocks:

 Frames – Blocks in physical memory

 Pages – Blocks in logical memory

Both frames and pages are of the same size, typically a power of two (e.g., 4 KB or 8 KB).

Process Alloca on Example

Let's consider four processes:

 Process A has 4 pages.

 Process B has 3 pages.

 Process C has 4 pages.

 Process D has 5 pages.

The number of available frames in main memory is 15. Ini ally, the memory is empty.

1. Allocate Process A – Requires 4 pages, which are allocated to 4 available frames (A.1, A.2,
A.3, A.4).

2. Allocate Process B – Requires 3 pages, which are loaded into 3 free frames.

3. Allocate Process C – Requires 4 pages, which are allocated to 4 free frames.

4. Allocate Process D – Requires 5 pages, but only 4 frames are available. Process D cannot be
allocated at this moment.

A er Process B completes and terminates, its 3 frames are deallocated. Now, Process D can be
allocated to 5 available frames (3 from B and 2 from other free frames).
Implementa on of Paging

To implement paging, two main components are needed:

1. Free Frame Tracking – To know which frames in memory are available for alloca on.

2. Page Table – This is crucial for transla ng a logical address into a physical address.

Address Transla on
The CPU generated logical address

is divided into two parts,

the page number and the offset.

The page number is used to index

the page table to find the corresponding frame number.

The offset is added to

the frame number to produce the physical address.

By dividing memory into

fixed size pages and mapping

them to physical memory frames,

paging ensures more efficient memory alloca on.

Here is the first example.

The logical memory of a process consists of four pages,

page 0 to page 3.

Since there are four pages,

the page table will have four entries.

As you can see, page 0 is loaded in frame one.

The page table entry at index

zero contains frame number 1.

Page number 1 is loaded in frame number 4.

The page table entry at Index 1 contains frame number 4.

Page 2 is loaded in frame 3,

so the page table entry at Index

2 contains frame number 3.

Similarly, page 3 is loaded in frame 7 page table entry,

at Index 3 contains frame number 7.

Let us consider one more example.

Logical memory has an address space of 16 loca ons.

These 16 loca ons contain characters from A to

P. Number of bits

needed to address this logical memory is four bits.

This logical memory is divided into four pages,

P_0, P_1,

P_2, and P_3.

Number of bits needed to address the pages is two bits.

As you can see, each page contains four loca ons.

The page size is four.

Hence, the number of bits needed to address,

these four loca ons is called

offset and is equal to two bits.

The physical memory has an address space of 32 loca ons.

The number of bits needed to

address physical memory is five bits.

The frame size is equal to space size.

Hence, the number of frames is equal to eight,

which are represented as f_0,

f_1, f_2, et cetera.

Number of bits needed

to address the frames is three bits.

Let us assume that CPU generates logical address five,

poin ng to character f,

its equivalent in binary is 0101.

The least significant two bits

represents the offset d and

most significant two bits

represent page number P. As you can see,

the page number is 01,

which is equivalent to one in decimal.

Page table index is one.

At this index, we have six.

Is binary equivalent is 110.

Appending to this, the value of offset, we get 11001.

The most significant three bits

represent the frame number f6.

The remaining least significant two bits are used

to iden fy the loca on within that frame.

As you can see, the physical address is poin ng to

character F.
The logical address is divided into two parts:

 Page Number (P) – Used as an index to the page table to find the corresponding frame
number.

 Page Offset (d) – Added to the base address to produce the physical address.

Example of Address Transla on: Let’s assume the logical address space is 2^m and the page size is
2^n. Then:

 m represents the total bits for the logical address.

 n represents the bits for the offset.

The page number is used to look up the frame number in the page table, and the offset is added to
calculate the exact loca on in memory.

Example 1: Address Transla on with Paging

Consider a process with four pages (Page 0 to Page 3):

 Page 0 is loaded in Frame 1.

 Page 1 is loaded in Frame 4.

 Page 2 is loaded in Frame 3.

 Page 3 is loaded in Frame 7.

The page table will have four entries, each poin ng to the respec ve frames for the corresponding
pages.

Example 2: Binary Address Transla on

Suppose we have a logical memory of 16 loca ons (addressed from A to P), divided into four pages
(P_0 to P_3). Physical memory has 32 loca ons, divided into 8 frames (f_0 to f_7).

If the CPU generates a logical address for loca on 5 (character F):

 Logical Address: 0101 (binary for 5).

 The most significant two bits (01) represent the page number P_1.

 In the page table, P_1 points to Frame 6.

Thus, appending the offset, the physical address will be 11001, which points to Frame 6 and
iden fies loca on F.

Choosing the Op mal Page Size

Trade-offs of Page Size:

1. Internal Fragmenta on – Smaller pages lead to less internal fragmenta on.

 2. Page Table Size – Smaller pages result in more pages, increasing the size of the page table.

3. Disk I/O Efficiency – Smaller pages increase I/O overhead, as more pages must be
transferred between disk and memory.

Typical page sizes range from 4 KB to 8 KB depending on the system requirements.

Summary of Paging

 Paging is a dynamic alloca on scheme that eliminates external fragmenta on and reduces
internal fragmenta on.

 Pages (in logical memory) are mapped to frames (in physical memory).

 Efficient address transla on is achieved through page tables.

 The op mal page size depends on the balance between internal fragmenta on, page table
size, and disk I/O efficiency.
Paging - Examples
Introduc on to Segmenta on

Here's an organized, refined version of your transcript with headings, subheadings, and some added
examples to clarify key concepts:

Memory Management: Segmenta on Technique

Welcome and Introduc on

Hello everyone! In this session, we will discuss the segmenta on technique used in memory
management. We'll explore key concepts, benefits, and how it compares to other techniques like
paging. Let's get started.

What is Segmenta on in Memory Management?

Overview of Segmenta on
Segmenta on is a memory management technique that supports a user-oriented view of memory,
organizing memory based on logical segments rather than fixed-sized pages, as in paging.

Comparison with Paging

 Paging: The logical space of a user process is divided into equal-sized pages, loaded into
equally sized memory frames.

 Segmenta on: The user process is divided into variable-sized segments, reflec ng the logical
structure of the program.

How Segmenta on Reflects So ware Design

Modular Approach in Programming

Modern so ware is o en designed in a modular way. Programs are typically collec ons of modules
or segments. A program can have various segments such as:

 Main program

 Func ons (e.g., readData func on)

 Data structures (e.g., arrays, variables)

 Symbol tables

Execu on of Segments
When a process executes, its segments are loaded into non-con guous memory loca ons:

 For example, ini ally, a segment for the main program loads into memory.

 If a func on (like readData) is called, it then loads separately into memory.

Example: In a text editor program, segments could represent the core editor interface, spell-check
func onality, user se ngs, etc., each loaded as needed without having to occupy con nuous
physical memory.
Key Components of the Segmenta on Technique

Segment Table
In segmenta on, a segment table tracks the segments in memory. Each entry in this table has:

1. Base: The star ng physical address of the segment.

2. Limit: The segment's length.

Example of Segment Table Entry

For a user process with four segments, the segment table entries store physical memory details:

 Segment 0:

o Base: 1000 (star ng address in memory)

o Limit: 100 (size of the segment)

o Address Range: 1000 to 1099

Logical to Physical Address Conversion

Each logical address consists of:

 Segment Number: Used to locate the segment’s base address and limit.

 Segment Offset: Compared against the limit to validate the address.

Steps for Address Conversion:

1. Retrieve base and limit from the segment table.

2. Validate offset against the limit.

o If valid, add base and offset to generate the physical address.

o If invalid, a trap indicates an addressing error.

Example: If segment 1 has a base address of 2000 and a limit of 150, then a logical address with
segment number 1 and offset 50 would map to physical address 2050 (2000 + 50).

Segment Table Registers

Segmenta on requires two registers:

 Segment-Table Base Register (STBR): Points to the segment table's memory loca on.

 Segment-Table Length Register (STLR): Indicates the number of segments used by the
program.

Legal Segment Check

A segment number, s, is valid if it is less than STLR. Otherwise, an error occurs.

Summary: Advantages and Challenges of Segmenta on

Benefits of Segmenta on

 Modularity: Aligns with the logical structure of programs.

 Protec on and Sharing: Enables protec on at the segment level and segment sharing among
processes.

Challenges

 External Fragmenta on: Segmenta on can lead to memory gaps between segments.

 Increased Complexity: Managing variable-sized segments is more complex than fixed-size

paging.

Conclusion
Understanding segmenta on is essen al for designing efficient and effec ve memory management
systems. We hope you enjoyed this session. Thank you for your a en on!
Segmenta on - Example
Here’s an organized and refined version of the transcript, with headings, subheadings, and step-by-
step guidance to enhance clarity:

Segmenta on: Calcula ng Physical Addresses

Introduc on
Hello, everyone! Welcome to this session on segmenta on. Today, we will focus on how to calculate
physical addresses from logical addresses using a segment table.

Understanding the Segment Table

Structure of the Segment Table
A segment table is indexed by segment numbers, with each entry storing two values:

 Base: The star ng address of the segment in physical memory.

 Limit: The maximum allowable offset within the segment.

Example 1: Valid Address Calcula on

Given Logical Address

Let’s start by calcula ng the physical address for a logical address of (0, 430).

 Segment Number (s) = 0

 Offset (d) = 430

Step-by-Step Calcula on

1. Locate Segment Table Entry: Since s = 0, we look up the base and limit for segment 0:

o Base: 128

o Limit: 512

2. Validate Offset: Compare offset 430 with the limit value of 512.

o Since 430 is less than 512, it is within the allowable range.

3. Calculate Physical Address: Add the base value (128) and the offset (430):

o Physical Address = 128 + 430 = 558

Result
The physical address for logical address (0, 430) is 558, which is valid.

Note: If a logical address falls within the segment's limit, the corresponding physical address is
calculated by adding the base and offset values.

Example 2: Invalid Address Calcula on

Given Logical Address

Now, let’s calculate the physical address for a logical address of (1, 2056).

 Segment Number (s) = 1

 Offset (d) = 2056

Step-by-Step Calcula on

1. Locate Segment Table Entry: Since s = 1, find the base and limit for segment 1:

o Base: 8192

o Limit: 2048

2. Validate Offset: Compare offset 2056 with the limit of 2048.

 o Since 2056 is greater than 2048, it exceeds the allowable range.

3. Result: The address is invalid due to exceeding the segment limit, typically resul ng in a
segmenta on fault.

Note: If the offset exceeds the segment's limit, the logical address is invalid, which generates an error
indica ng an addressing issue.

Summary: Conver ng Logical to Physical Addresses

To summarize, conver ng a logical address to a physical address in segmenta on requires:

1. Retrieving the base and limit from the segment table.

2. Valida ng the offset against the limit.

3. Calcula ng the physical address if valid; otherwise, an error indicates an invalid address.

Conclusion
This approach provides an efficient way to manage memory by aligning logical addresses with
physical addresses in memory segments. Thank you for joining, and I hope this session helped clarify
address conversion in segmenta on!
Week 9

Mo va on

Here’s an organized and refined version of your transcript with headings, subheadings, and
explana ons to help clarify the content:

Introduc on to Virtual Memory

Welcome and Overview

Hello, everyone! Today, we’ll discuss virtual memory, a crucial concept in modern compu ng. Virtual
memory helps manage limited physical memory by moving data between a computer's RAM and its
disk storage, crea ng the illusion of a larger, con nuous block of memory. This enables applica ons
to run efficiently, even on systems with limited physical memory.

We’ll start with the mo va on behind virtual memory, discuss its advantages, and explore how it
supports mul programming.

Mo va on for Virtual Memory

Increasing CPU Efficiency with Mul programming

Mul programming increases CPU efficiency by running mul ple programs either concurrently or in
an interleaved manner. This requires keeping several programs in memory simultaneously so that the
CPU can quickly switch between them, reducing idle me and maximizing produc vity. The level of
mul programming directly impacts how efficiently the CPU and memory are u lized.

Enhancing Mul programming with Virtual Memory

To increase the level of mul programming, more processes need to reside in main memory.
However, limita ons arise with:

 Fixed and Dynamic Memory Alloca on: The degree of mul programming depends on
par on size and number.

 Paging: The number of frames and frame size affect mul programming, but enough frames
are required to fit the en re program, which may be imprac cal with limited memory.

Memory U liza on Pa erns in Programs

Error Handling Code and Rarely Used Features

Programs o en contain sec ons that handle rare condi ons, such as error handling for:

 Invalid user inputs

 Hardware failures
These parts of code are rarely executed but necessary for stability. Similarly, many programs allocate
more memory than immediately needed for arrays, lists, or tables, or include features that are
infrequently used.

Example: A typical user might only use 10% of Microso PowerPoint’s features, meaning a significant
por on of the applica on’s code and data remains inac ve in memory.

Understanding Thrashing
Thrashing occurs when the system spends more me swapping processes in and out of memory than
execu ng them, a problem commonly seen in mul programming with dynamic par on alloca on.

Principle of Locality
The Principle of Locality (or Locality of Reference) states that programs tend to access memory
loca ons that are close to each other within a given meframe. This behavior o en leads to clusters
of memory access, meaning that only a part of a program may need to be loaded at a me.

Virtual Memory: Key Concept and Advantages

Ques on: Is En re Program Loading Necessary?

Given that programs rarely use all parts of their code and data simultaneously, is it necessary to load
the en re program into main memory? The answer is no. Virtual memory allows loading only the
necessary fragments of a program on demand.

What is Virtual Memory?

Virtual memory is a technique that enables the execu on of processes without fully loading them
into main memory. By loading por ons of a program as needed, virtual memory addresses the
limita ons of physical memory.

Advantages of Virtual Memory

1. Overcoming Physical Memory Constraints: Programs are no longer limited by the physical
memory available.

2. Unrestricted Applica on Features: Developers can add more features without memory
constraints.

3. Reduced Physical Memory Usage: Only parts of a program are loaded, allowing more
efficient use of memory.

4. Increased Degree of Mul programming: Loading smaller program fragments allows more
processes to reside in memory simultaneously, improving mul programming.

5. Higher CPU U liza on and Throughput: A higher degree of mul programming keeps the
CPU ac ve, increasing both u liza on and throughput.

6. Reduced I/O Opera ons: Since only required fragments are loaded or swapped, the number
of I/O opera ons decreases, speeding up each program’s execu on.

Summary

Key Takeaways
 Virtual Memory Concept: Solves the limita ons of fixed, dynamic, and paging memory
alloca on by loading only required fragments of a program.

 Mo va on: Virtual memory was developed to address the inefficiencies of tradi onal
memory management techniques.

 Benefits: Virtual memory enhances mul programming, improves CPU u liza on, and
increases system throughput.
Virtual Memory Concept

Here’s a refined version of your transcript with a clear structure, headings, and subheadings to
improve readability:

Virtual Memory and Paging: Key Concepts and Differences

Introduc on
Hello, everyone! Welcome to this session on virtual memory. Today, we’ll explore the basics of
virtual memory, its differences from the paging memory alloca on scheme, and how these concepts
work together to enhance memory management.

Paging vs. Virtual Memory

Paging in Memory Alloca on

In paging, physical memory is divided into frames, and logical memory is divided into pages. Here’s
how it works:

 The CPU generates logical addresses, which the Memory Management Unit (MMU)
translates into physical addresses.

 Paging requires the en re program to be in main memory during execu on, meaning
physical memory space should be at least as large as the program's logical address space.

Virtual Memory Technique

Unlike paging, virtual memory provides the illusion of a large, con nuous memory space by allowing
only part of a program to be loaded into main memory at once. Key features include:

 Logical (Virtual) Address Space: Can be larger than physical memory, allowing efficient
mul programming.

 Shared Physical Memory: Mul ple processes can share physical address space, improving
resource use.

Virtual Memory Structure and Address Transla on

Virtual Address Space and Physical Memory

In virtual memory, each user process is assigned a virtual address space that appears as a con nuous
block. This address space is divided into:

 Pages in the virtual address space

 Frames in physical memory of equal size

Each user process is given a virtual address space,

which is a con guous range of addresses.

The virtual address space allows each process to believe

it has access to a large con nuous block of memory.

Here is the physical memory.

The best part of the virtual memory concept is that

the virtual memory address space

is greater than physical memory.

Similar to the paging scheme, here also,

the virtual memory is divided

into fixed size blocks called pages,

and physical memory is divided

into blocks of the same size called frames.

A few pages from

virtual address space are

loaded onto physical memory frames.

CPU generates a virtual address.

The memory management unit,

a hardware component in the CPU is responsible

for transla ng

virtual addresses into physical addresses.

A table is maintained by the memory management unit,

which maps pages in

the logical memory to physical memory frames.

Each process has its own page table,

which keeps track of where

its virtual pages are stored in physical memory.

Supposing what happens if

there is no free frame available in

the physical main memory when a processor

generates a virtual address corresponding to a new page.

Under this situa on, one of

the exis ng pages is swapped out

and a new page is swapped into the physical memory.

Role of the Memory Management Unit (MMU)
The MMU, a hardware component, manages address transla on:

 Virtual Addresses generated by the CPU are translated into physical addresses.

 Each process maintains its own page table to track where virtual pages are mapped within
physical memory.

Page Replacement Mechanism

If the physical memory has no free frames when a process generates an address for a new page, one
of the exis ng pages must be swapped out to make room for the new one. The page replacement
algorithm employed by the OS determines which page to remove.

Each process is assigned

a virtual address space, which is as shown.

The address space is divided into code,

data, heap, and stack blocks.

The heap to grow upward in memory

as it is used for dynamic memory alloca on.

Similarly, we allow the stack to grow

downwards in the memory during successive func on calls.

As you can see, there is a large gap between

the heap and the stack

as part of the virtual address space.

This space is required to be filled up with

actual physical pages only if the heap stack grows.

Virtual Address Space Layout

Process Memory Layout

Each process’s virtual address space is divided into blocks:

 Code, Data, Heap, and Stack

 Heap grows upwards for dynamic memory alloca on.

 Stack grows downwards during func on calls.

Note: There’s a large gap between the heap and stack in virtual address space, which is filled with
physical pages only when required.

Summary

Key Points Recap

 Paging and Virtual Memory: Both divide logical memory into pages and physical memory
into frames.

 Address Transla on with MMU: Virtual addresses are translated into physical addresses by
the MMU using a page table.

 Illusion of Con nuous Memory: Virtual memory creates the illusion of a large memory
space, suppor ng mul programming by loading only needed program parts.

 Page Replacement: When memory is full, the OS uses a replacement algorithm to swap out
exis ng pages.

Thank you for watching! I hope this session clarified how virtual memory and paging contribute to
efficient memory management. See you in the next session!
Introduc on

Here’s an improved version of the transcript with structured headings, subheadings, and points to
clarify the content and key takeaways:

Virtual Memory: Demand Paging

Introduc on
Hello, everyone! Welcome to this session on Virtual Memory. Today, we’ll explore demand paging, a
concept related to virtual memory that op mizes memory usage by loading only required parts of a
program into main memory. Let’s dive in!

Tradi onal Paging vs. Demand Paging

Overview of Tradi onal Paging

In tradi onal paging:

 En re Program in Memory: The en re program is loaded into main memory.

 Drawback: This approach is inefficient because o en, only certain parts of the program are
accessed at a me, resul ng in unnecessary memory usage.

Introduc on to Demand Paging

Demand Paging is an alterna ve approach where:

 Pages Load on Demand: Only the pages that are needed for execu on are loaded into main
memory.

 Unused Pages Remain in Secondary Memory: If a page is never accessed, it stays in

secondary storage, reducing the memory footprint and op mizing performance.

Key Concept: Demand paging is efficient as it minimizes the memory footprint by loading only
necessary pages, in contrast to tradi onal paging, where all pages are loaded upfront.

Components of Demand Paging

Pager vs. Swapper

In demand paging:

 Pager: Handles individual pages, loading them only when they are required. It is also known
as a lazy swapper because it waits to load pages un l they are needed.

 Swapper: In tradi onal paging, the swapper loads en re processes into memory. Demand
paging replaces the swapper with a pager for a more selec ve loading process.

Example Diagram
Imagine two processes, Process A and Process B:

 Secondary Memory: All program pages ini ally reside here.

  Physical Memory: Only the required pages are loaded into physical memory as needed.
Pages of both Process A and B are swapped in individually based on usage.

Handling Memory Shortages: Page Replacement

Page Replacement Strategy

If no free frames are available in physical memory when a page is needed:

 Swapping: One of the exis ng pages is swapped out to free up space, and the new required
page is swapped in.

 Page Replacement Algorithm: The opera ng system decides which page to remove based on
its page replacement algorithm, op mizing space usage and memory efficiency.

Example: If a process tries to access a page that isn’t in memory, the OS checks if there’s an available
frame. If not, it selects an exis ng page to swap out and replaces it with the new page.

Summary

Key Takeaways

 Demand Paging: Only loads required pages, op mizing memory usage and improving system
performance.

 Lazy Swapping: The pager (or lazy swapper) only loads pages when necessary, unlike the
swapper in tradi onal paging.

 Page Replacement: When memory is full, a page replacement algorithm selects pages to
swap out to make room for new pages.

Thank you for watching! Demand paging provides an efficient memory solu on, especially for large
and complex programs. See you in the next session!
Basic Concepts

Here's an enhanced, structured transcript of the session with clear sec ons, bullet points, and
highlights of key ideas:

Virtual Memory: Hardware Support for Demand Paging

Introduc on
Hello, everyone! In today’s session, we will cover the hardware support needed to implement a
pager in virtual memory systems, as well as discuss two essen al algorithms: the Frame Alloca on
Algorithm and the Page Replacement Algorithm.

Pager Func onality: Educated Guess for Memory Efficiency

Pager’s Role

 Selec ve Page Loading: When a process is swapped in, the pager makes an educated guess
about which pages will be needed immediately.

 Efficient Memory Use: Rather than loading the en re process, the pager brings in only these
guessed pages, avoiding loading unnecessary pages.

 Reduced Physical Memory Requirements: This approach minimizes swap me and

decreases the physical memory used.

Key Point: The pager’s selec ve loading helps op mize memory usage and reduce swap overhead.

Hardware Support for Demand Paging

Valid-Invalid Bit

 Purpose: To dis nguish between pages currently in memory and those s ll on disk.

 Func onality:

o If the valid-invalid bit is set to ‘valid’, the page is in memory and ready for access.

o If the bit is set to ‘invalid’, the page is either outside the logical address space or is
on disk.

Page Table and Secondary Memory

 Page Table Entries:

o Each page’s table entry is updated when it is brought into memory.

o If a page isn’t in memory, the page table entry either shows an invalid bit or points to
the page’s loca on on the disk.

 Secondary Memory (Swap Space):

o Pages not in the main memory are stored here.

o This high-speed disk, also known as the swap device, acts as the swap space.

Algorithms Required for Demand Paging

Frame Alloca on Algorithm

This algorithm handles frame alloca on for each process and aims to op mize performance and
minimize page faults. There are several frame alloca on methods:

1. Equal Alloca on:

o Every process receives an equal number of frames.

o Simple but doesn’t consider individual process requirements, which can lead to
inefficient memory use.

2. Propor onal Alloca on:

o Frames are allocated based on each process’s size.

o Larger processes receive more frames, making it more efficient than equal alloca on.

o However, it may be less effec ve if processes have varying page fault rates.

3. Priority Alloca on:

o Frames are allocated based on the priority of each process.

o Higher-priority processes receive more frames, ensuring that cri cal tasks have
sufficient resources.

o Lower-priority processes may experience higher page fault rates as a result.

page replacement algorithms work.

Let us assume that the processor generates a virtual address

corresponding to a par cular instruc on,

but the corresponding page is not available in the main memory.

Play video star ng at :5:43 and follow transcript5:43

How does the processor know that the requested page is not in the main memory?

Any guess?

It first checks the page table, finds that the entry is invalid,

this in turn results in a trap to the opera ng system.

The next step is to find the loca on of the desired page on the desk.

Then find a free frame.

If there is a free frame, use it.

If there is no free frame,

use a page replacement algorithm to select a vic m frame.

Write the vic m frame to the desk.

Change the page and frame tables accordingly.

Then read the desired page into the newly freed frame.

Once again, change the page and frame tables.

A er that, restart the user process.

Page Replacement Algorithm

When the processor requires a page that isn’t in main memory, the page replacement algorithm
determines how to free up space:

1. Page Fault Handling:

o Step 1: The processor generates a virtual address. If the page isn’t in memory, a page
fault occurs.

o Step 2: The page table is checked, which leads to an OS trap if the entry is invalid.

o Step 3: The system iden fies the page’s loca on on the disk and searches for a free
frame.

o Step 4: If a frame is available, the desired page is loaded; if not, the OS uses a page
replacement algorithm to select a vic m frame.
 o Step 5: The OS writes the vic m frame to disk, updates the page and frame tables,
then loads the requested page.
2. There is a question, what happens when no frames are free?
3. When no frames are free, as I mentioned earlier,
4. the OS needs to invoke a replacement algorithm.
5. Then what is the overhead?
6. There will be overhead in terms of page transfers.
7. Let me explain, when no frames are free,
8. the replacement algorithm identifies the victim frame and
9. the page associated with that frame will be paged out or swapped out.
10. Then we have to get the required page in so
11. there are two page transfers.
12. Now the question is, is there a way to minimize this overhead?
13. Yes, we can minimize this overhead.
14. Swap out only modified pages, if the page contents are not modified,
15. then there is no need to swap out that page.
16. The next question is how to implement this?

17. Minimizing Overhead with the Dirty Bit:

o Challenge: Page replacement involves overhead in terms of page transfers, especially

when no free frames are available.

o Solu on: Use a dirty bit, which is set only when a page has been modified.

o Benefits:

 Selec ve Swapping: Only modified pages are swapped out, reducing transfer
overhead.

 Implementa on: The OS checks the dirty bit before swapping out pages,
swapping out only when the bit is set.

Summary

Key Takeaways

 Pager’s Efficient Guessing: The pager loads only likely-needed pages, reducing swap mes
and memory usage, which improves overall performance.

 Hardware Support: Implementa on requires hardware support, including the valid-invalid

bit.

 Algorithms: Demand paging relies on:

o Frame Alloca on Algorithms (Equal, Propor onal, and Priority) to allocate frames
op mally.

o Page Replacement Algorithms with a dirty bit to reduce overhead by minimizing

unnecessary page transfers.
Introduc on to Replacement Algorithms

Here’s an enhanced and structured version of the transcript on Replacement Algorithms in Virtual
Memory Systems. This format highlights each topic, organizes key points, and summarizes cri cal
takeaways.

Replacement Algorithms in Virtual Memory Systems

Introduc on
Hello, everyone! Today, we’re discussing replacement algorithms in virtual memory, a crucial
component of modern opera ng systems. Replacement algorithms enable efficient memory
management by deciding which memory pages to retain in physical memory and which to swap out.
Let’s explore their importance, benefits, and the common types used in virtual memory systems.

Why Replacement Algorithms Are Essen al

1. Efficient Memory U liza on

o Memory as a Limited Resource: Physical memory is limited, and virtual memory

helps extend it by using disk storage.

o Op mizing Memory Use: Replacement algorithms keep the most relevant pages in
physical memory, op mizing the use of this limited resource.

2. Reducing Page Faults

o Defini on: A page fault occurs when a program a empts to access data not
currently in physical memory, requiring retrieval from disk.

o Goal of Replacement Algorithms: By predic ng which pages are least likely to be

needed soon, these algorithms aim to minimize page faults and the associated
slowdown due to disk access.

3. Performance Op miza on

o Memory and System Speed: Replacement algorithms improve performance by

retaining frequently accessed pages in memory.

o Efficient Page Swapping: By dynamically managing which pages to swap out, they
help balance memory usage and system speed.

4. Balancing Memory in Mul tasking Environments

o Fair Resource Alloca on: In a mul tasking environment, various processes compete
for memory. Replacement algorithms ensure each process receives a fair memory
share.

o Preven ng Memory Monopoliza on: This prevents any single process from
domina ng memory and ensures smooth performance across mul ple applica ons.

5. Handling Variable Memory Demands

 o Adap ve Memory Alloca on: As applica ons have changing memory needs,
replacement algorithms adapt to these fluctua ons.

o Dynamic Management: This flexibility ensures memory alloca on aligns with real-
me requirements, improving resource management.

Common Types of Replacement Algorithms

1. First-In, First-Out (FIFO)

o Descrip on: Replaces the oldest page in memory.

o Advantages: Simple to implement.

o Drawback: Does not consider page usage pa erns, which can lead to subop mal
performance in some cases.

2. Least Recently Used (LRU)

o Descrip on: Replaces the page that hasn’t been used for the longest me.

o Assump on: Pages accessed recently are more likely to be needed again.

o Challenge: Complex to implement, as it requires tracking the order of page accesses.

3. Op mal Page Replacement (OPT)

o Descrip on: Replaces the page that will not be used for the longest me in the
future.

o Performance: Provides the best theore cal performance.

o Limita on: Imprac cal in real systems as it requires predic ng future memory access
pa erns.

Summary

Key Takeaways

 Vital Role of Replacement Algorithms: These algorithms ensure physical memory is used
effec vely, reduce page faults, and balance memory needs across processes.

 Types of Algorithms: While there’s no one-size-fits-all solu on, the choice of algorithm
depends on the system’s specific needs and workload pa erns.
FIFO Algorithm

Here’s an improved and structured version of your transcript on the FIFO (First-In, First-Out) Page
Replacement Algorithm for virtual memory management. It organizes key points and enhances the
explana on with headings, summaries, and an example to clarify the algorithm’s applica on.

FIFO Page Replacement Algorithm in Virtual Memory Management

Introduc on
Hello, everyone! Today, we’ll explore the First-In, First-Out (FIFO) page replacement algorithm, one
of the simplest methods used in virtual memory management. We’ll discuss how the algorithm
works, its advantages and disadvantages, and walk through an example to illustrate its applica on.

What is the FIFO Page Replacement Algorithm?

 FIFO Principle: As the name suggests, FIFO operates on the principle of “first-in, first-out.”
The page that has been in memory the longest is replaced when a new page needs to be
loaded.

 Basic Idea: FIFO maintains a straigh orward order based on the arrival me of pages. Pages
are added to the memory in a queue format, and the page at the front of the queue is
removed when a replacement is required.
How FIFO Works: An Example

1. Ini al Setup

o Page Reference String: Consider a reference string of page requests. The numbers in
the string represent the requested page numbers.

o Frames in Memory: Assume we have three frames (slots) available in the physical
memory.

o Timing Table: The table includes three frames—f0, f1, and f2—and a meline to
track when pages are loaded and replaced.

2. Execu on Steps

o t = 0: Page 1 is requested, causing a miss. Load it into Frame 0.

o t = 1: Page 2 is requested, causing another miss. Load it into Frame 1.

o t = 2: Page 3 is requested, causing a miss. Load it into Frame 2.

Now all frames are full, so we start replacing pages based on FIFO.

o t = 3: Page 4 is requested, causing a miss. Page 1 (the oldest) is replaced by Page 4.

o t = 4: Page 1 is requested, causing a miss. Replace Page 2 (now the oldest) with Page
1.

o t = 5: Page 2 is requested, causing a miss. Replace Page 3 with Page 2.

o t = 6: Page 5 is requested, causing a miss. Replace Page 4 with Page 5.

Con nue following this logic to update each frame based on the oldest page.

3. Result

o Total Page Faults: Out of 12 page references, 10 resulted in page faults.

o Page-Fault Ra o: The page-fault ra o here is approximately 83% (10/12).

Advantages of FIFO

1. Simplicity

o FIFO is easy to understand and implement, requiring minimal bookkeeping.

o The algorithm is computa onally inexpensive, making it efficient in terms of system

resources.

2. Predictability

o FIFO is highly predictable, which can be beneficial in controlled environments where

memory usage is rela vely consistent.

Disadvantages of FIFO

1. Lack of Adaptability

o FIFO does not consider how frequently pages are accessed. Pages are removed
strictly based on arrival me, regardless of usage.

o Result: Frequently accessed pages may be replaced, leading to high page faults and
reduced efficiency.

2. Belady’s Anomaly

o Defini on: Unlike most algorithms, FIFO can experience more page faults as memory
frames increase—an unexpected behavior known as Belady’s anomaly.

o Illustra on: This anomaly is represented in a graph where the page fault count may
increase despite more frames being available, highligh ng FIFO’s inefficiency in some
cases.

Summary

The FIFO page replacement algorithm provides a straigh orward approach to virtual memory
management by replacing pages based on their arrival me. While it is simple and computa onally
light, FIFO has notable drawbacks, such as its lack of adaptability to usage pa erns and suscep bility
to Belady’s anomaly.

Thank you for your a en on! I hope this session has clarified how the FIFO algorithm works and its
role in virtual memory management.
Op mal Algorithm

Here’s an improved, structured transcript for your session on the Op mal (OPT) Page Replacement
Algorithm. This revision includes clear sec ons, examples, and summaries to enhance
comprehension.

The Op mal (OPT) Page Replacement Algorithm

Introduc on
Hello, everyone! Today, we’re discussing the Op mal (OPT) Page Replacement Algorithm, one of the
most theore cally efficient strategies in virtual memory management. We’ll explore its mechanics,
advantages, disadvantages, and understand its importance as a benchmark for other page
replacement algorithms.

What is the Op mal Page Replacement Algorithm?

 Core Principle: The OPT algorithm replaces the page that will not be used for the longest
period in the future. This minimizes page faults by ensuring only pages needed soon remain
in memory.

 Theore cal Nature: The OPT algorithm is ideal but requires knowledge of future page
requests, which is imprac cal in real-world systems. Thus, it serves as a theore cal model
rather than a prac cal solu on.

Advantages of the OPT Algorithm

1. Minimizes Page Faults

o OPT is designed to achieve the fewest possible page faults, se ng an ideal standard.

2. Benchmark for Other Algorithms

o Real-world algorithms like FIFO or LRU can be evaluated by comparing their

performance to the OPT algorithm. This allows us to assess how close these
algorithms come to ideal performance.
Example: Applying the OPT Algorithm

Consider a virtual memory system with three frames. We’ll calculate the page fault ra o for a given
reference string using the OPT algorithm.

Steps to Solve

1. Setup

o Page Reference String: Refer to a series of page requests over me.

o Frames in Memory: Assume we have three frames (f0, f1, f2).

o Tracking Table: Every column in the table reflects the state of frames at a specific
me.

2. Execu on Steps

o t = 0: Page 1 is requested → Miss. Load Page 1 into Frame 0.

o t = 1: Page 2 is requested → Miss. Load Page 2 into Frame 1.

o t = 2: Page 3 is requested → Miss. Load Page 3 into Frame 2.

Now that all frames are full, we begin replacements based on OPT.

o t = 3: Page 4 is requested → Miss. Using OPT, replace Page 3 (which won’t be used
soon) with Page 4.

o t = 4: Page 1 is requested → Hit. No change in frames.

o t = 5: Page 2 is requested → Hit. No change in frames.

o t = 6: Page 5 is requested → Miss. Replace Page 4 (not needed soon) with Page 5.

o t = 7: Page 1 is requested → Hit. No change in frames.

o t = 8: Page 2 is requested → Hit. No change in frames.

 o t = 9: Page 3 is requested → Miss. Replace Page 5 with Page 3, as Page 5 won’t be
referenced.

o t = 10: Page 1 is requested → Hit.

o t = 11: Page 2 is requested → Hit.

3. Result

o Total Page Faults: Out of 12 page references, there are 6 page faults.

o Page-Fault Ra o: The fault ra o here is 50% (6/12).

Disadvantages of the OPT Algorithm

1. Imprac cal for Real-Time Use

o OPT requires knowing future page requests, which is generally impossible in real
compu ng environments.

2. Ideal but Unusable

o While OPT serves as a theore cal ideal, it can’t be implemented in real-world

systems that operate dynamically without future insights.

Summary

The Op mal (OPT) Page Replacement Algorithm offers a theore cally perfect approach to minimizing
page faults and serves as a benchmark for assessing other algorithms. However, its reliance on future
knowledge of page requests limits its prac cality in real- me applica ons. Despite this, OPT remains
crucial for evalua ng and understanding the efficiency of real-world page replacement strategies.

Thank you for your a en on! I hope this explana on has clarified the role of the OPT algorithm in
virtual memory management.
LRU Algorithm

Here’s a structured and enhanced transcript for your session on the Least Recently Used (LRU) Page
Replacement Algorithm. This format emphasizes clarity, key points, and prac cal examples to
enhance understanding.

The Least Recently Used (LRU) Page Replacement Algorithm

Introduc on
Hello, everyone! In this session, we’ll explore one of the most widely used and prac cal page
replacement algorithms: the Least Recently Used (LRU) algorithm. We will cover how it works, its
key features, advantages, disadvantages, and provide a prac cal example to illustrate its applica on.
Let’s get started!

What is the LRU Algorithm?

 Core Principle: The LRU algorithm replaces the page that hasn’t been used for the longest
me. The underlying idea is that pages recently accessed are more likely to be accessed
again soon, whereas those that haven’t been used for a while are less likely to be needed.

 Tracking Mechanism: LRU keeps track of the order in which pages are accessed. This can be
accomplished using various methods, such as:

o Counters: Keeping a mestamp of each page’s last access.

o Stacks: Maintaining a stack of pages to track usage order.

 Replacement Strategy: When a new page needs to be loaded into memory and it is full, LRU
replaces the page that has not been accessed for the longest me.
Did you observe something here?

Just look at this mestamp of page 1.

It is changed 4-7.

This indicates that earlier,

page 1 was referenced at t is equal to four.

Now it is referenced at t is equal to seven.

The mestamp of page 2 is changed 5-8.

At T is equal to nine,

request for page 3.

It's a miss. Replace page 5 with page 3.

This is mainly because the me stamp of page

5 is lesser than all other pages.

Example: Applying the LRU Algorithm

Let’s consider a physical memory with three frames: f0, f1, and f2. We will analyze a page reference
string and track the page faults using the LRU algorithm.

Setup

 Page Reference String: [1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2]

 Ini al State: All frames are empty.

Execu on Steps

1. t = 0: Page 1 is requested → Miss. Load Page 1 into Frame 0.

Frames: [1, -, -]

2. t = 1: Page 2 is requested → Miss. Load Page 2 into Frame 1.

Frames: [1, 2, -]

3. t = 2: Page 3 is requested → Miss. Load Page 3 into Frame 2.

Frames: [1, 2, 3]

4. t = 3: Page 4 is requested → Miss. All frames are full.

o Replace Page 1 (least recently used).

Frames: [4, 2, 3]

5. t = 4: Page 1 is requested → Miss.

o Replace Page 2 (least recently used).

Frames: [4, 1, 3]

6. t = 5: Page 2 is requested → Miss.

o Replace Page 3 (least recently used).

Frames: [4, 1, 2]
 7. t = 6: Page 5 is requested → Miss.

o Replace Page 4 (least recently used).

Frames: [5, 1, 2]

8. t = 7: Page 1 is requested → Hit.

No replacement needed.
Frames: [5, 1, 2]

9. t = 8: Page 2 is requested → Hit.

No replacement needed.
Frames: [5, 1, 2]

10. t = 9: Page 3 is requested → Miss.

o Replace Page 5 (least recently used).

Frames: [3, 1, 2]

11. t = 10: Page 1 is requested → Hit.

No replacement needed.
Frames: [3, 1, 2]

12. t = 11: Page 2 is requested → Hit.

No replacement needed.
Frames: [3, 1, 2]

Results

 Total Page Faults: Out of 12 page references, there are 8 misses.

 Page Fault Ra o: The fault ra o is 8 out of 12 (approximately 66.67%).

Advantages of the LRU Algorithm

1. Efficiency: LRU effec vely minimizes page faults by keeping track of page usage pa erns.

2. Adaptability: The algorithm adapts well to varying access pa erns, making it suitable for a
wide range of applica ons.

3. Widely Used: Due to its efficiency, LRU is commonly implemented in many opera ng systems
and applica ons.

Disadvantages of the LRU Algorithm

1. Complexity: Implemen ng LRU can be more complex than simpler algorithms like FIFO, as it
requires addi onal bookkeeping to track page usage.

2. Overhead: The management of mestamps or counters can introduce some overhead,

which may impact performance in systems with a high number of page accesses.
Summary

The Least Recently Used (LRU) page replacement algorithm offers a prac cal and efficient approach
to managing virtual memory. By keeping track of page usage and replacing the least recently used
pages, LRU minimizes page faults and adapts well to varying access pa erns. While it is more
complex than simpler algorithms like FIFO, its performance benefits make it a popular choice in many
systems.

Thank you for watching this video! I hope this explana on has provided a clear understanding of the
LRU page replacement algorithm.
Week 10

Introduc on

Here’s a structured and enhanced transcript for your introductory session on Mass Storage
Management. This format emphasizes clarity, key points, and prac cal examples to help your
audience grasp the concepts be er.

Introduc on to Mass Storage Management

Opening

[MUSIC]
Hello everyone, welcome to an introductory session on Mass Storage Management.

Overview of Memory Types

As we all know, there are two types of memories used in compu ng systems: primary memory and
secondary memory.

 Primary Memory (or main memory) is the computer's short-term memory used to store data
and instruc ons that are ac vely being processed by the CPU.

 Secondary Memory, also known as auxiliary or mass storage, refers to storage devices such
as hard drives, solid-state drives, CDs, DVDs, and flash drives.

Mass storage is crucial for retaining large volumes of data, ensuring that users and applica ons have
access to the informa on they need over extended periods.

During this session, I’ll be presen ng an introduc on to mass storage, focusing on its role,
characteris cs, and types. Let’s get started!

What is Mass Storage?

Mass storage refers to high-capacity storage systems and devices designed to store large amounts of
data persistently and reliably. These systems are essen al for modern compu ng environments,
providing the necessary space to retain and retrieve vast quan es of informa on.

Key Characteris cs of Mass Storage Devices

Mass storage devices possess several key characteris cs:

1. High Capacity: They offer storage ranging from gigabytes to petabytes.

2. Data Persistence: Data is retained even when the power is switched off.

3. Reliability: Many devices incorporate error-checking mechanisms and redundancy to protect

data.
 4. Efficient Access Mechanisms: They allow for effec ve retrieval of stored data.

Types of Mass Storage Devices

Mass storage devices come in various forms:

1. Magne c Storage:

o Hard Disk Drives (HDDs): Use magne c fields on rota ng disks to store data.

o Tape Drives: Primarily used for large-scale archival storage. Known for being cost-
effec ve and offering high capacity.

2. Op cal Storage:

o U lizes laser technology to store data on disks.

o Common formats include CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs. Although not as common for
primary storage, op cal storage is o en used for media distribu on and archival
purposes.

3. Solid-State Storage:

o Solid-State Drives (SSDs) and Flash Drives: Use flash memory technology to store
data. SSDs are faster and more durable than HDDs, making them popular for high-
performance applica ons and mobile devices.

4. Network A ached Storage (NAS):

o Consists of dedicated file storage devices connected to a network, allowing mul ple
users and systems to access data. Ideal for shared storage in homes and small
businesses.

5. Cloud Storage:

o Involves storing data on remote servers accessed via the internet. Offers scalability,
flexibility, built-in redundancy, and backup features to ensure data safety and
accessibility from anywhere.

Applica ons of Mass Storage

Mass storage is u lized in various applica ons:

 Enterprise Use: For managing business-cri cal data, including databases and customer
records.

 Personal Use: For storing personal data such as documents, photos, and videos.

 Backups: Essen al for crea ng backups and ensuring data recovery in case of hardware
failure or disasters.

 Media Storage: Used for storing and distribu ng large media files and handling vast amounts
of data generated by scien fic research.
Conclusion

In conclusion, mass storage is a cri cal component of modern compu ng infrastructure. Its various
forms and technologies cater to different needs, ensuring data is stored securely, accessed efficiently,
and retained reliably. Understanding these storage solu ons helps us manage data effec vely and
an cipate future advancements in storage technology.

That's all for this session. Thank you!

Magne c Disk

Here’s a structured and enhanced transcript for your session on the Working Principles of Magne c
Disk Storage. This format organizes the content into clear sec ons, emphasizes key concepts, and
includes prac cal examples for be er understanding.

Working Principles of Magne c Disk Storage

Opening

Hello everyone, welcome to another session on Mass Storage Management. During this session, we
will explore the working principles of magne c disk storage units.

Overview of Magne c Disks

Magne c disks are non-vola le memories that provide bulk storage capability.

 The basic element of a magne c disk drive is a circular disk known as a pla er, typically
made of non-magne c material.

 Tradi onally, pla ers were made of aluminum, but nowadays, glass is used due to its
improved surface uniformity.

 Each pla er is coated with magne zable materials such as iron oxide, allowing informa on
to be stored magne cally.

Disk Specifica ons

 The diameter of the pla er typically ranges from 1.8 to 5.25 inches.

 These disks are mounted on a rotatable spindle, which rotates at speeds between 5,400 to
15,000 RPM (revolu ons per minute).

 An arm is mounted with a read/write head that is responsible for reading or recording
informa on.

Structure of a Hard Disk

If you consider a hard disk, it usually contains several disks or pla ers.

1. Pla er Surfaces: Each pla er has two surfaces.

2. Tracks: The concentric rings on each surface are called tracks.

o Aligned tracks form a cylinder. For example, track 0 on all surfaces forms cylinder 0,
track 1 forms cylinder 1, and so forth.

3. Sectors: Each track is divided into sectors, which are separated by gaps.

Why Gaps Are Necessary:

 Gaps between sectors allow the read/write head to recognize the end of a sector.
  Gaps between tracks help to minimize errors due to misalignment of the head and prevent
interference from the magne c field of adjacent tracks.

Example of Disk Characteris cs

 Seagate Cheetah 450GB Hard Disk:

o Sector Size: 512 bytes

o Number of Tracks: 595,848

o Rota on Speed: 15,000 RPM

 Toshiba 5 Terabyte Hard Disk:

o Sector Size: 4,096 bytes

o Number of Tracks: 3,279,583

o Rota on Speed: 7,199 RPM

Calcula ng Disk Capacity

The capacity of a disk refers to the number of bits it can store, typically expressed in gigabytes (GB)
or terabytes (TB).

Formula for Disk Capacity:

The total capacity can be calculated using the following formula:

Capacity=Bytes per Sector×Average Sectors per Track×Tracks per Surface×Surfaces per Pla er×Pla er
per Disk\text{Capacity} = \text{Bytes per Sector} \ mes \text{Average Sectors per Track} \ mes
\text{Tracks per Surface} \ mes \text{Surfaces per Pla er} \ mes \text{Pla er per
Disk}Capacity=Bytes per Sector×Average Sectors per Track×Tracks per Surface×Surfaces per Pla er×Pl
a er per Disk

Example Calcula on: Given the following parameters:

 Bytes per Sector: 512

 Average Sectors per Track: 300

 Tracks per Surface: 20,000

 Surfaces per Pla er: 2

 Pla ers per Disk: 5

Calcula ng:

Capacity=512×300×20,000×2×5=28.61 GB\text{Capacity} = 512 \ mes 300 \ mes 20,000 \ mes 2

\ mes 5 = 28.61 \text{ GB}Capacity=512×300×20,000×2×5=28.61 GB
Reading and Wri ng Process

Reading from or wri ng on a magne c surface is accomplished using a read/write head.

1. Seek Opera on: The head moves back and forth along the radial axis to posi on itself over
the desired track. This movement is known as seek.

2. Rota onal Movement: Once the desired track is under the read/write head, the pla er
rotates to bring the required bit in the sector to be read or wri en.

In disks with mul ple pla ers, there is a separate read/write head for each surface. All heads are
aligned to posi on themselves on the same cylinder.

Example Scenario:

 If a user wants to read a sector indicated in blue on track number one:

1. Move the read/write head to track number one (seek opera on).

2. Rotate the pla er counterclockwise to bring the required sector under the
read/write head.

3. Start reading the bytes in the sector by con nuing to rotate the pla er.

Seek Time and Rota onal Latency:

 The me required to move the read/write head to the required track is known as seek me.

 The me required to move the desired sector under the read/write head is known as
rota onal latency.

Summary

In this session, we discussed the following:

 The working principles of magne c disk storage.

 The components and construc on of a magne c disk drive, including the role of pla ers,
spindles, and read/write heads.

 The structure of hard disks with mul ple pla ers, tracks, sectors, and gaps for efficient data
management.

 How to calculate disk capacity using a formula based on sectors, tracks, surfaces, and
pla ers.

 The process of reading from and wri ng to a magne c disk, including seek me and
rota onal latency.

I hope you found this session informa ve and beneficial. Thank you!
Magne c Tapes

Here’s a structured and enhanced transcript for your session on the Role of Magne c Tapes as a
Secondary Storage Medium. This format organizes the content into sec ons, highlights key points,
and provides a clear understanding of the topic.

Role of Magne c Tapes as a Secondary Storage Medium

Opening

[MUSIC]
Hello, everyone. Welcome to another session on Mass Storage Management Systems. In this
session, we will discuss the role of magne c tapes as a secondary storage medium.

Overview of Magne c Tapes

 Magne c tapes were among the earliest forms of secondary storage.

 They are known for their rela vely permanent nature and capability to hold large quan es
of data.

 However, a major drawback is their slow access me compared to main memory and
magne c disks.

Key Characteris cs of Magne c Tapes

1. Permanent Storage:

o Magne c tapes provide permanent storage, making them ideal for long-term data
reten on.

2. Large Storage Capabili es:

o They offer large storage capaci es, o en several terabytes.

3. Sequen al Access:

o Accessing data on magne c tapes is slow due to their sequen al nature.

o Random access to data on a tape is about 1,000 mes slower than accessing data on
a magne c disk.

Primary Uses of Magne c Tapes

Given their characteris cs, magne c tapes are primarily used for:

 Data Backup: Ideal for storing informa on that is infrequently accessed.

 Data Transfer: A reliable medium for transferring data from one system to another.

Func onality of Magne c Tapes

 Data Storage: Data is stored on a spool, which moves past a read/write head.
  Access Time: Reaching the correct spot on the tape can take several minutes.

 Data Wri ng Speed: Once posi oned correctly, the drive can write data at speeds
comparable to disk drives.

Capacity and Compression

 Tape Capaci es: Modern tapes can exceed several terabytes in capacity.

 Built-in Compression: Some tapes feature built-in compression, which can more than double
their effec ve storage capacity.

Types of Magne c Tapes

Magne c tapes are categorized by:

1. Width: Common widths include 4 mm, 8 mm, 19 mm, as well as 1/4 inch and 1/2 inch.

2. Technology:

o Examples include LTO-5 (Linear Tape-Open) and SDLT (Super Digital Linear Tape).

o LTO Tapes: Can store up to 1.5 terabytes of uncompressed data and up to 3

terabytes with compression, with a transfer rate of up to 140 megabytes per
second.

o SDLT: Designed for high-capacity, reliable backup and archival solu ons.

Summary

In summary, magne c tapes have several advantages:

 High Capacity: Suitable for large amounts of data.

 Long-Term Storage: Ideal for archival purposes.

However, their main drawbacks include:

 Slow Access Time: Less efficient for random access, making them less suitable for secondary
storage.

 Current Usage: Today, tapes are mainly used for backup and archival purposes, as well as for
data transfer.

Despite their limita ons, magne c tapes remain a valuable tool in data storage.

Closing

That's all for this session. Thank you for watching!

Disk Structure

Here’s a structured and enhanced transcript for your session on Modern Magne c Disk Drives. This
format organizes the content into sec ons, highlights key points, and provides a clear understanding
of the topic.

Modern Magne c Disk Drives: Data Storage Management

Opening

Hello, everyone. Welcome to another session on Mass Storage Management Systems. Today, we will
discuss modern magne c disk drives and how they manage data storage.

Data Storage in Magne c Disk Drives

 Modern magne c disk drives store data as large one-dimensional arrays of logical blocks.

 Logical Blocks:

o Typically 512 bytes, these are the smallest units of data transfer.

o Some disks can be forma ed to have different block sizes, such as 1,024 bytes.

 Mapping of Logical Blocks:

o Logical blocks are mapped sequen ally onto the sectors of the disk.

o Mapping begins with sector 0, the first sector of the first track on the outermost
cylinder.

o The process proceeds through that track, con nues through the rest of the tracks in
the cylinder, and moves from the outermost cylinder to the innermost.

Address Transla on Challenges

 In theory, we can convert a logical block number into a physical address that includes:

o Cylinder number

o Track number

o Sector number

 Challenges:

o Disks o en have defec ve sectors that are remapped to spare sectors.

o The number of sectors per track is not constant on some drives.

Methods of Managing Data Density and Transfer Rate

 1. Constant Linear Velocity (CLV):

o Used in media like CD-ROM and DVD-ROM drives.

o Maintains a constant rate of data transfer.

o The bit density per track is uniform.

o Tracks farther from the center are longer and hold more sectors.

o As the read/write head moves inward, the number of sectors per track decreases,
while the rota on speed increases.

2. Constant Angular Velocity (CAV):

o Commonly employed in hard disks.

o Keeps the disk rota on speed constant.

o The bit density decreases from inner tracks to outer tracks, maintaining a constant
data rate.

Technological Advancements

 The number of sectors per track has increased significantly with advancements in
technology.

 Outer tracks generally have more sectors than inner tracks.

 Zones:

o Advanced disk technology employs the concept of zones.

o Tracks are divided into zones (e.g., zone 0, zone 1, etc.), with tracks within the zone
having a fixed number of sectors.

o Outer zones can have up to 40% more sectors than inner zones.

 The number of cylinders per disk has increased significantly, with large disks now having tens
of thousands of cylinders.

Summary

In summary, we learned:

 Modern magne c disk drives u lize logical blocks that are mapped to physical sectors.

 Challenges exist in address transla on due to defec ve sectors and variable sectors per track.

 CLV and CAV are two methods used to manage data density and transfer rates.

 Technological advances con nue to increase the number of sectors and cylinders, with zones
being a technique that enhances sector counts.
Disk A achment

Here’s a structured and enhanced transcript for your session on How Computers Access Disk
Storage. This format organizes the content into sec ons, highlights key points, and improves clarity.

How Computers Access Disk Storage

Opening

[MUSIC]
Hello everyone, welcome to another session on Mass Storage Management Systems. During this
session, we will discuss how computers access disk storage.

Methods of Accessing Disk Storage

There are two primary methods to access disk storage:

1. Host A ached Storage (HAS)

o Common on smaller computer systems.

o Accessed through local IO ports.

2. Network A ached Storage (NAS)

o Accessed via a remote host in a distributed file system.

o Also known as network a ached storage (NAS).

Host A ached Storage

 Access Method:

o Local IO ports using various technologies.

 Common Technologies:

o IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) or ATA (Advanced Technology A achment):

Supports a maximum of two drives per IO bus.

o SATA (Serial Advanced Technology A achment): Features simplified cabling and

higher performance.

o Fibre Channel (FC):

 High-speed serial architecture opera ng over op cal fiber or copper cable.

 Variants:

 Switched Fabric: Large 24-bit address space, forms the basis for
Storage Area Networks (SAN).
  Arbitrated Loop (FC-AL): Can address 126 devices.

 Storage Devices:

o A variety of devices can be used, including:

 Hard Disk Drives

 RAID Arrays

 CD/DVD and Tape Drives

 IO Commands:

o Necessary to ini ate data transfers involving read and write opera ons of logical
data blocks directed to specifically iden fied storage units (e.g., bus ID or target
logical unit).

Network A ached Storage (NAS)

 Defini on:

o Special purpose storage systems accessed remotely over a data network.

 Client Access:

o Uses remote procedure calls (RPC) interface, such as:

 NFS (Network File System) for UNIX systems.

 CIFS (Common Internet File System) for Windows machines.

 Transport Protocols:

o RPCs are carried via TCP or UDP over an IP network.

 Advantages of NAS:

o Convenient for all computers on a local area network (LAN) to share a pool of
storage.

o Provides similar naming and access as locally a ached storage.

o Disadvantages:

 Less efficient and lower performance compared to some direct-a ached

storage op ons.

iSCSI Protocol

 Defini on:

o Internet Small Computer Systems Interface (iSCSI) is the latest NAS protocol.

 Func onality:
 o Leverages the IP network protocol to encapsulate and transmit SCSI commands over
an IP network.

o Allows the use of exis ng network infrastructure to connect hosts to storage devices.

o Replaces tradi onal SCSI cables with more flexible and scalable network
connec ons.

 Benefits:

o Cost-effec ve and efficient management of storage resources.

o Easy expansion and centralized storage management.

o Access to storage devices from any loca on with network connec vity.

Storage Area Network (SAN)

 Defini on:

o A private network that uses storage protocols rather than network protocols.

 Mo va on for Development:

o Overcomes drawbacks of NAS:

 Storage IO opera ons consume bandwidth on the data network.

 Increased latency in network communica on in large client-server

installa ons.

 Advantages of SAN:

o Flexibility: Mul ple hosts and storage arrays can a ach to the same SAN.

o Dynamic alloca on of storage to hosts.

o Interconnects:

 Fibre Channel: Most common SAN interconnect.

 iSCSI: Gaining popularity due to its simplicity.

 InfiniBand: Special-purpose bus architecture for high-speed interconnec on

networks for servers and storage.

Summary

To summarize what we learned during the session:

 Storage disks can be a ached to a computer via local IO ports (Host A ached Storage) or
through a network connec on (Network A ached Storage).

 Storage Area Network (SAN) provides a private network using storage protocols to enhance
flexibility and manage storage resources efficiently.
Solid State Disks

Here’s a structured and enhanced transcript for your session on Mass Storage Management
Systems, focusing on the differences between magne c memories and semiconductor memories, as
well as the advantages of SSDs. This format includes headings, key points, and clear explana ons.

Mass Storage Management Systems

Opening

[MUSIC]
Hello everyone, let's dive into another informa ve session on Mass Storage Management Systems.
During this session, we will first explore the differences between magne c memories and
semiconductor memories. Then we will discuss how to improve memory access speed. Let's get
started!

Differences Between Magne c and Semiconductor Memories

Semiconductor Memories

 Speed: Designed to be faster.

 Capacity: Generally have lower storage capacity.

 Usage: Commonly used in:

o Cache memory

o Main memory

Magne c Memories

 Speed: Typically slower due to mechanical components.

 Performance: Inherent mechanical parts contribute to slower performance compared to

semiconductor memories.

Improving Memory Access Speed

The ques on arises: How can we improve the speed of access for high-capacity memory?

Solu on: Solid State Disks (SSDs)

 Defini on: SSDs are an alterna ve to tradi onal magne c disks.

 Technology: U lize flash memory technology, which is electrically programmable.

 Performance:

o High performance in input/output opera ons per second (IOPS).

 o Over ten mes faster than tradi onal spinning disks found in hard disk drives.

o Key Advantage: No seek or rota onal latency.

Addi onal Benefits of SSDs

 Opera on: Quieter and cooler opera on due to the absence of moving parts.

 Energy Efficiency:

o Lower energy consump on compared to magne c disks.

o Energy is conserved since SSDs do not have moving parts.

o Referred to as green devices due to their environmental benefits.

Connec vity Op ons

 SSDs can be connected to systems via:

o USB Ports

o SATA (Serial Advanced Technology A achment)

Internal Structure of SSDs

 A typical SSD consists of:

o Blocks: Ranging from Block 0 to Block B-1.

o Pages: Each block contains P pages (from Page 0 to Page P-1).

o Page Size: Typically ranges from 512 bytes to 4 KB.

o Pages per Block: Usually between 32 to 128 pages.

 Data Opera ons:

o Data is read and wri en in units of pages.

o A page can only be wri en a er its block has been erased.

o Wear Leveling: A block typically wears out a er about 100,000 (one lakh) repeated
writes.

Prac cal Issues

 Performance Slowdown: SSD performance may slow down as the device is used.

 Wearout: Memory can become unusable a er a certain number of writes.

Conclusion

Let us conclude this session with a summary:

 Advantages of SSDs:

o Significant performance and reliability advantages over magne c memories.

o Preferred for their speed, energy efficiency, and durability.

 Considera ons: Despite issues of performance slowdown and wearout, SSDs remain a
preferred choice for modern storage solu ons.
Introduc on

Here's a structured and enhanced transcript for your session on Mass Storage Management with a
focus on disk scheduling. This format includes headings, key points, and clear explana ons.

Mass Storage Management

Opening

[MUSIC]
Hello everyone! Welcome to another session on Mass Storage Management. During this session, we
will be discussing the importance of disk scheduling and how the opera ng system efficiently
manages disk drives.

Efficient Use of Disk Drives

To start, let us talk about the efficient use of disk drives. The main goals are:

 Fast access me

 Large disk bandwidth

Key Components of Disk Access Time

1. Seek Time:

o The me it takes for the disk arm to move the read/write heads to the correct
cylinder.

2. Rota onal Latency:

o The me it takes for the disk to rotate the desired sector under the disk head.

Disk Bandwidth

 Defini on: Disk bandwidth is the total number of bytes transferred divided by the total me
from the first request to the comple on of the last transfer.

 By managing the order of disk I/O requests, we can improve both access me and
bandwidth.

Sources of Disk I/O Requests

 Disk I/O may be ini ated by:

o The opera ng system

o System processes

o User processes
  When a process needs to perform I/O to or from the disk, it issues a system call to the
opera ng system. This request typically contains:

o Type of opera on (input or output)

o Disk address for the transfer

o Memory address for the transfer

o Number of sectors to be transferred

Handling Disk Requests

 If the disk drive and controller are available, the request can be served immediately.

 If the disk and controller are busy, new requests are placed in a queue of pending requests
for that drive.

 Opera ng System Management:

o Maintains a queue of requests per disk or device.

o An idle disk can immediately work on an I/O request.

o A busy disk means requests must queue.

Disk Scheduling Algorithms

In a mul programming system with many processes, the disk queue o en has several pending
requests. When one request is completed, the opera ng system must choose which pending request
to service next.

Goals of Disk Scheduling Algorithms

 Op mize both access me and bandwidth.

Summary

Let us summarize what we have learned in this session:

 Efficient use of disk drives involves minimizing seek me and rota onal latency.

 Disk bandwidth is crucial for performance.

 Proper management of disk I/O requests improves overall system efficiency.

 Various disk scheduling algorithms help in deciding the order of servicing requests.

In the upcoming sessions, we will delve into specific disk scheduling algorithms such as FCFS (First-
Come, First-Served), SSTF (Shortest Seek Time First), SCAN, and its variants.

Closing

That's all for this session. Thank you for watching!

FCFS Disk Scheduling Algorithm

Here's a structured and enhanced transcript for your session on FCFS Disk Scheduling. This format
includes headings, key points, and clear explana ons to improve understanding.

Mass Storage Management

Introduc on

Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on Mass Storage Management. During this session, we
will be discussing FCFS Disk Scheduling, which stands for First-Come, First-Served. We will explore
how it works and its performance characteris cs.

Understanding FCFS

First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) is the simplest form of disk scheduling. It processes disk I/O requests
in the exact order they arrive.

Key Characteris cs:

 Fairness: Treats all requests equally, ensuring that no request is priori zed over another.

 Simplicity: Easy to implement and understand.

Example of FCFS in Ac on

Let us consider an example to illustrate how FCFS works. Imagine a disk queue with requests for
cylinders in the following order:

 Requests: 98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, and 67.

Assume the disk head is ini ally posi oned at cylinder 53.

Sequence of Head Movements:

1. Move from 53 to 98

2. Move from 98 to 183

3. Move from 183 to 37

4. Move from 37 to 122

5. Move from 122 to 14

6. Move from 14 to 124

7. Move from 124 to 65

8. Move from 65 to 67

Calcula ng Total Head Movement

Now, let us calculate the total head movement:

 From 53 to 98: 98−53=4598 - 53 = 4598−53=45 cylinders

 From 98 to 183: 183−98=85183 - 98 = 85183−98=85 cylinders

 From 183 to 37: 183−37=146183 - 37 = 146183−37=146 cylinders

 From 37 to 122: 122−37=85122 - 37 = 85122−37=85 cylinders

  From 122 to 14: 122−14=108122 - 14 = 108122−14=108 cylinders

 From 14 to 124: 124−14=110124 - 14 = 110124−14=110 cylinders

 From 124 to 65: 124−65=59124 - 65 = 59124−65=59 cylinders

 From 65 to 67: 67−65=267 - 65 = 267−65=2 cylinders

Total Head Movement Calcula on:

 Total Head Movement = 45+85+146+85+108+110+59+2=64045 + 85 + 146 + 85 + 108 + 110

+ 59 + 2 = 64045+85+146+85+108+110+59+2=640 cylinders.

Performance Analysis of FCFS

Let us analyze the performance of the FCFS algorithm:

 Efficiency:

o FCFS does not always provide the fastest service.

o The significant swings in head movement, par cularly from cylinders 122 to 14 and
back to 124, increase total head movement.

 Improvement Opportunity:

o If we could service requests for nearby cylinders together, we could reduce total
head movement, thereby improving performance.

Summary

To summarize:

 The FCFS algorithm is simple and fair, trea ng all requests equally.

 However, it is not the most efficient method; total head movement can be substan al and
inefficient.

 More effec ve request rendering could improve performance by reducing the total head
movement.

Conclusion

That concludes our discussion for today. Thank you for watching!
SSTF Disk Scheduling Algorithm

Here's a structured and enhanced transcript for your session on SSTF Disk Scheduling. This format
includes headings, key points, and explana ons to improve understanding.

Mass Storage Management System

Introduc on

Hello everyone! Welcome to another session on Mass Storage Management System. In this session,
we will discuss the SSTF Disk Scheduling Algorithm, which stands for Shortest Seek Time First. We
will explore how this algorithm works, along with its performance benefits and drawbacks.

Understanding SSTF

The SSTF algorithm priori zes disk I/O requests based on their proximity to the current head
posi on. It services the request closest to the disk head to minimize seek me.

Key Characteris cs:

 Proximity-Based: Requests closer to the current head posi on are serviced first.

 Efficiency: Aims to reduce overall seek me compared to simpler algorithms.

Example of SSTF in Ac on

Let’s consider an example to illustrate how the SSTF algorithm works.

Disk Queue Requests:

 Requests: 98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, and 67.

 Ini al Head Posi on: 53.

Sequence of Head Movements Using SSTF:

1. From 53 to 65 (closest request)

o Distance: 65−53=1265 - 53 = 1265−53=12 cylinders

2. From 65 to 67

o Distance: 67−65=267 - 65 = 267−65=2 cylinders

3. From 67 to 37

o Distance: 67−37=3067 - 37 = 3067−37=30 cylinders

4. From 37 to 14

o Distance: 37−14=2337 - 14 = 2337−14=23 cylinders

 5. From 14 to 98

o Distance: 98−14=8498 - 14 = 8498−14=84 cylinders

6. From 98 to 122

o Distance: 122−98=24122 - 98 = 24122−98=24 cylinders

7. From 122 to 124

o Distance: 124−122=2124 - 122 = 2124−122=2 cylinders

8. From 124 to 183

o Distance: 183−124=59183 - 124 = 59183−124=59 cylinders

Calcula ng Total Head Movement

Now, let’s calculate the total head movement:

 Total Head Movement = 12+2+30+23+84+24+2+59=23612 + 2 + 30 + 23 + 84 + 24 + 2 + 59 =

23612+2+30+23+84+24+2+59=236 cylinders.

Performance Analysis of SSTF

Let’s analyze the performance of the SSTF algorithm:

 Total Head Movement: SSTF significantly reduces total head movement compared to FCFS
(First-Come, First-Served).

 Starva on Risk: SSTF can lead to starva on for certain requests. For instance, if many
requests keep arriving near the disk head, distant requests (like one at cylinder 186) could be
indefinitely delayed.

Summary of Performance:

 Advantages:

o Minimizes seek me.

o Reduces total head movement.

 Drawbacks:

o Risk of starva on for some requests, especially in high-traffic scenarios.

Conclusion

To summarize:

 The SSTF algorithm improves performance by minimizing seek me, resul ng in significantly
less total head movement compared to FCFS.

 However, there is a poten al risk of starva on for some requests.

 Further improvements can be made by strategically reordering requests to ensure fair

access.
SCAN Disk Scheduling Algorithm

Here's a structured and enhanced transcript for your session on the SCAN Disk Scheduling
Algorithm. This format includes headings, key points, and explana ons for clarity and be er
understanding.

Mass Storage Management System

Introduc on

Hello everyone! Welcome to another session on Mass Storage Management Systems. In this session,
we will explore the SCAN Disk Scheduling Algorithm, o en referred to as the elevator algorithm.

Overview of SCAN Algorithm

The SCAN algorithm operates by moving the disk arm from one end of the disk to the other, servicing
requests along the way.

Key Characteris cs:

 Scanning Mo on: The disk arm moves in one direc on, servicing requests un l it reaches the
end, then reverses direc on.

 Efficiency: By con nuously scanning back and forth across the disk, all requests are
eventually serviced.
Example of SCAN in Ac on

To be er understand how the SCAN algorithm works, let’s consider an example.

Disk Configura on:

 Total Cylinders: 200 (from 0 to 199).

 Ini al Head Posi on: 53.

 Requests: The queue has eight requests for the following cylinders: 37, 14, 65, 67, 98, 122,
124, and 183.

Sequence of Head Movements:

1. Move from 53 to 37.

o Distance: 37−53=1637 - 53 = 1637−53=16 cylinders.

2. Move from 37 to 14.

o Distance: 37−14=2337 - 14 = 2337−14=23 cylinders.

3. Move from 14 to 0.

o Distance: 14−0=1414 - 0 = 1414−0=14 cylinders.

4. Reverse direc on and move from 0 to 65.

o Distance: 65−0=6565 - 0 = 6565−0=65 cylinders.

5. Move from 65 to 67.

o Distance: 67−65=267 - 65 = 267−65=2 cylinders.

6. Move from 67 to 98.

o Distance: 98−67=3198 - 67 = 3198−67=31 cylinders.

 7. Move from 98 to 122.

o Distance: 122−98=24122 - 98 = 24122−98=24 cylinders.

8. Move from 122 to 124.

o Distance: 124−122=2124 - 122 = 2124−122=2 cylinders.

9. Move from 124 to 183.

o Distance: 183−124=59183 - 124 = 59183−124=59 cylinders.

Calcula ng Total Head Movement

Now, let’s calculate the total head movement:

 Total Head Movement = 16+23+14+65+2+31+24+2+59=23616 + 23 + 14 + 65 + 2 + 31 + 24 +

2 + 59 = 23616+23+14+65+2+31+24+2+59=236 cylinders.

Performance Analysis of SCAN

The SCAN algorithm is efficient as it handles all requests in one direc on before reversing, minimizing
seek me.

Advantages:

 Fairness: Every request will eventually be serviced, reducing the chance of starva on.

 Density of Requests: The density of requests is highest at the ends a er each full scan,
where requests have waited the longest.

Comparison with Other Algorithms

 FCFS (First-Come, First-Served): This can lead to high seek mes; SCAN op mizes seek me
systema cally.

 SSTF (Shortest Seek Time First): While SSTF minimizes seek me, it can cause starva on.
SCAN provides more balanced and predictable wait mes for requests.

Conclusion

In summary:

 The SCAN algorithm is a balanced approach to disk scheduling that effec vely reduces seek
me and prevents starva on.

 By servicing requests in a fair and systema c manner, SCAN enhances both efficiency and
fairness in disk opera ons.

 Understanding SCAN through examples highlights its effec veness in managing disk requests.

Thank you for your a en on, and I hope you enjoyed the session!
C-SCAN Disk Scheduling Algorithm

Here's a structured and enhanced transcript for your session on the C-SCAN Disk Scheduling
Algorithm. This format organizes the content with headings, key points, and explana ons to improve
clarity and understanding.

Mass Storage Management Systems

Introduc on

Hello everyone! Welcome to another session on Mass Storage Management Systems. In this session,
we will be exploring the Circular SCAN (C-SCAN) disk scheduling algorithm. C-SCAN is a variant of the
SCAN disk scheduling algorithm, aiming to provide a more uniform wait me for all disk requests.

Overview of C-SCAN Algorithm

The primary goal of C-SCAN is to treat the disk as a circular list, differing from the tradi onal SCAN
method.

Key Characteris cs:

 One-Direc onal Movement: The disk head moves from one end of the disk to the other
while servicing requests along the way.

 Jump Back: When the head reaches the end, it immediately jumps back to the beginning of
the disk without servicing any requests on the return trip.

 Servicing Requests: Requests are serviced only while the head is moving in one direc on.
Comparison with SCAN Algorithm

 SCAN: Moves back and forth across the disk, servicing requests in both direc ons.

 C-SCAN: Moves in one direc on only, services requests, and then jumps back to the
beginning of the disk to start servicing again.

This difference leads to a more uniform wait me in C-SCAN, making it more efficient in certain
situa ons.
Example of C-SCAN in Ac on

To be er understand how the C-SCAN algorithm works, let’s consider an example.

Disk Configura on:

 Total Cylinders: 200 (from 0 to 199).

 Ini al Head Posi on: 53.

 Requests: The queue has eight requests for the following cylinders: 65, 67, 98, 122, 124, 183,
14, and 37.

Sequence of Head Movements:

1. Move from 53 to 65.

o Distance: 65−53=1265 - 53 = 1265−53=12 cylinders.

2. Move from 65 to 67.

o Distance: 67−65=267 - 65 = 267−65=2 cylinders.

3. Move from 67 to 98.

o Distance: 98−67=3198 - 67 = 3198−67=31 cylinders.

4. Move from 98 to 122.

o Distance: 122−98=24122 - 98 = 24122−98=24 cylinders.

5. Move from 122 to 124.

o Distance: 124−122=2124 - 122 = 2124−122=2 cylinders.

6. Move from 124 to 183.

o Distance: 183−124=59183 - 124 = 59183−124=59 cylinders.

7. Move from 183 to 199.

 o Distance: 199−183=16199 - 183 = 16199−183=16 cylinders.

8. Jump back to 0.

o Distance: 199−0=199199 - 0 = 199199−0=199 cylinders.

9. Move from 0 to 14.

o Distance: 14−0=1414 - 0 = 1414−0=14 cylinders.

10. Move from 14 to 37.

o Distance: 37−14=2337 - 14 = 2337−14=23 cylinders.

Calcula ng Total Head Movement

Now, let’s calculate the total head movement:

 Total Head Movement = 12+2+31+24+2+59+16+199+14+23=38212 + 2 + 31 + 24 + 2 + 59 +

16 + 199 + 14 + 23 = 38212+2+31+24+2+59+16+199+14+23=382 cylinders.

Advantages of C-SCAN

 Uniform Wait Time: C-SCAN provides a more consistent wait me for disk requests
compared to SCAN.

 Predictable Scheduling: This predictability can enhance performance, especially in systems

with many requests.

 Simplicity of Implementa on: The head moving in only one direc on can make the
algorithm simpler to implement.

Disadvantages of C-SCAN

 Overhead: The head movement and wrap-around process can introduce some overhead.

 Efficiency with Sparse Requests: If requests are sparse or clustered at one end of the disk, C-
SCAN might be less efficient compared to other scheduling algorithms.

Conclusion

In summary:

 The Circular SCAN (C-SCAN) algorithm services requests in one direc on and jumps back to
the start to repeat the process.

 Its main advantage is providing a more uniform wait me, although it can introduce
overhead and may be less efficient with sparse requests.

 Overall, C-SCAN is a valuable algorithm for specific applica ons where consistent
performance is needed.
Introduc on to Disk Management

Here's a structured and enhanced transcript for your session on Disk Management. This format
organizes the content with headings, key points, and explana ons to improve clarity and
understanding.

Mass Storage Management Systems

Introduc on

Hello everyone! Welcome to another session on Mass Storage Management Systems. Today, we will
be discussing several crucial aspects of disk management, including disk ini aliza on, boo ng from
disk, and bad block recovery. Let’s dive into the details.

Disk Forma ng

Overview

When a disk is created, it contains no data. Before it can store informa on, it must be prepared
through a process called low-level forma ng or physical forma ng.

Key Points:

 Data Structure Setup: Low-level forma ng establishes a specific data structure on the disk
for each sector. Each sector generally includes:

o Header: Contains sector number.

o Data Area: Typically 512 bytes.

o Trailer: Contains error-correc ng code (ECC).

 Error-Correc ng Code (ECC):

o Ensures data integrity by detec ng and correc ng errors.

o When data is wri en to a sector, ECC is calculated and stored with the data.

o During reading, ECC is recalculated and compared with the stored value; a mismatch
indicates that the data has been corrected.

Factory Forma ng

Most hard disks are low-level forma ed at the factory, which prepares the disk for use, tests it, and
ini alizes the mapping of logical block numbers to defect-free sectors.

Sector Size Customiza on

Manufacturers may offer various sector sizes (e.g., 256, 512, and 1024 bytes):

 Larger Sector Sizes: Allow for fewer sectors on each track but reduce the number of headers
and trailers, freeing up more space for user data.
Disk Par oning and File System Crea on

Before the opera ng system can use a disk, it must set up its own data structures through two main
steps:

1. Par oning: The disk is divided into one or more groups of cylinders, allowing the opera ng
system to treat each par on like a separate disk. For example:

o One par on for the opera ng system's executable code.

o Another for user files.

2. File System Crea on: The opera ng system writes ini al file system data structures to the
disk, including:

o Maps of free and allocated space.

o An ini al empty directory.

Clusters

To increase efficiency, file systems group logical blocks into chunks called clusters. Some opera ng
systems allow special programs to use a disk par on as a large sequen al array of logical blocks
without file system structures, known as raw disks. I/O to this array is referred to as raw I/O.

Boot Block and Boot Process

Boot Block

To start a computer, it needs an ini al program called the bootstrap program, which ini alizes the
system and loads the opera ng system kernel from the disk.

 Storage Loca on: The ini al bootstrap program is usually stored in read-only memory
(ROM), which is non-vola le and executes immediately when the computer powers up. ROM
contains minimal code to load the full bootstrap program from the disk, stored in the boot
block.

Boot Process in Windows

 Master Boot Record (MBR): Located in the first sector of the hard disk, containing boot code
and a par on table.

 Boot Sequence:

1. The bootstrap code in ROM reads the MBR to iden fy the boot par on.

2. The boot par on contains the opera ng system and device drivers.

3. The system reads the boot sector from this par on to con nue the boot process
and eventually loads the opera ng system and its subsystems.

Bad Block Recovery

Disks are prone to defects, and handling bad blocks is crucial for disk management.

Bad Block Detec on

 During forma ng, detected bad blocks are flagged as unusable.

 Tools like the Linux bad blocks command can manually search for and lock away bad blocks
during normal opera on.

Automa c Management

More advanced disks manage bad blocks automa cally, maintaining a list of bad blocks and using
spare sectors for replacements.

Methods of Managing Bad Blocks:

1. Sector Sparing: A bad sector is replaced with a spare sector.

2. Sector Slipping: Involves moving sectors down to free up space for the defec ve sector,
though it can affect disk-scheduling op miza ons.

Data Recovery

 So Errors: O en corrected using ECC if only a few bits are bad.

 Hard Errors: Usually result in data loss and require manual interven on to restore files from
backups. Regular backups are essen al for recovery.

Summary

In conclusion:

 Disk management is vital for ensuring data integrity and system reliability.

 It involves careful handling of forma ng, boo ng processes, and bad block recovery.

 Understanding these processes helps maintain efficient and reliable storage systems.
Swap Space Management

Here’s a structured and enhanced transcript for your session on Swap Space Management in the
context of Mass Storage Management Systems. This format incorporates headings, key points, and
concise explana ons to improve clarity and engagement.

Mass Storage Management Systems

Introduc on

Hello everyone! Welcome to another session on Mass Storage Management Systems. Today, we will
explore swapping, a cri cal memory management method used in mul programming, allowing
mul ple processes to share the CPU. Our focus will be on swap space management, a technique
employed by opera ng systems to op mize memory usage during swapping and improve system
performance.

What is Swapping?

Swapping involves moving a process out of the main memory and storing it in secondary memory.
When needed again, the process is brought back to the main memory.

Key Concepts:

 Main Memory vs. Secondary Memory: Main memory (RAM) is faster but limited, while
secondary memory (like hard drives) offers more storage but is slower.

 Goal of Swapping: Op mize memory usage and improve system performance by managing
how processes are loaded and unloaded from memory.

Swap Space Management

Swap space management is a crucial low-level task of the opera ng system, ac ng as an extension of
main memory in virtual memory systems.

Key Points:

 Disk Access Speed: Disk access is significantly slower than memory access, which can affect
system performance.

 Types of Swap Space Usage:

o En re Processes: In systems that implement swapping, swap space may hold

complete processes, including image, code, and data segments.

o Paging Systems: Use swap space to store pages that have been pushed out of main
memory.

Swap Space Requirements:

  Size Varia on: Swap space can range from a few megabytes to several gigabytes, depending
on physical memory, virtual memory, and usage pa erns.

 Overes ma on for Stability: It's generally safer to overes mate swap space requirements to
avoid system crashes. Running out of swap space can lead to process abor on or system
crashes.

Alloca on of Swap Space

Different systems allocate swap space in various ways:

 Solaris: Sets swap space based on how much virtual memory exceeds pageable physical
memory.

 Linux: Historically recommended twice the amount of physical memory for swap space;
however, modern Linux systems typically use less.

Mul ple Swap Spaces:

 Some opera ng systems, including Linux, support mul ple swap spaces, u lizing both files
and dedicated par ons to spread the load across the system’s bandwidth.

Loca ons of Swap Space

Swap space can reside in two main loca ons:

1. Within the Normal File System:

o Advantages: Easy to implement.

o Disadvantages: Inefficient for large files due to the need to navigate directory
structures.

2. Separate Disk Par on:

o Advantages: Managed by a swap space manager for speed rather than storage
efficiency.

o Disadvantages: Poten al internal fragmenta on.

Comparison: File System vs. Raw Par on Swap Space

Aspect File System Swap Space Raw Par on Swap Space

Implementa on Large file within the file system Managed by a swap space manager

Slower due to directory

Access Speed Faster, bypassing the file system
naviga on

Prone to external
Fragmenta on Acceptable internal fragmenta on
fragmenta on

More flexible with fixed swap amount during

Flexibility Less flexible
par oning

Example of Swap Space Management

 Tradi onal UNIX: Ini ally copied en re processes between disk and main memory. Evolved
to use a combina on of swapping and paging as paging hardware became available.

 Linux: Uses swap space for anonymous memory (memory not backed by any file) and allows
mul ple swap areas. Each swap area consists of 4-KB page slots used to hold swapped pages.

Swap-Map:

 An array of integer counters associated with each swap area indicates the number of
mappings to the swapped page. For instance, a counter value of three means the swapped
page is mapped to three different processes.

Summary

In summary:

 Swap space management is vital for maintaining system performance and stability.

 Proper alloca on and management ensure efficient use of virtual memory.

 Understanding how swap space is used and managed allows us to op mize systems for
be er performance.

Thank you for your a en on! I hope you found this session informa ve.
RAID Structure

Here’s a structured and enhanced transcript for your session on RAID (Redundant Array of
Independent Disks), forma ed with headings, key points, and concise explana ons for be er clarity
and engagement.

Mass Storage Management Systems

Introduc on

Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on Mass Storage Management Systems. Today, we’ll
introduce a technique that u lizes mul ple disks for storage instead of a single disk. This technique is
known as RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks). Let’s get started!

What is RAID?

RAID is a technology that combines mul ple disk drives into a single logical unit to enhance
performance, redundancy, or both.

Key Concepts:

 Data Distribu on: Even though users may not realize it, the data stored is actually
distributed across several physical disk drives.

 Striping: This process divides data into blocks or stripes and writes them onto mul ple disks.

 Cost Efficiency: Some mes referred to as "Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks" because
the magne c disks used in RAID setups are o en inexpensive.

Importance of Redundancy

Redundant disks are used not only to store data but also to maintain error detec on and correc on
codes (such as parity informa on). This arrangement ensures data recoverability in case of a disk
failure.

RAID Levels Overview

There are several RAID levels, each with unique characteris cs and use cases. We’ll discuss each level
in detail.

RAID Level 0

 Descrip on: RAID 0 is not a true RAID configura on because it lacks redundancy. It requires a
minimum of two disks, with data striped across all disks.

 Advantages:
 o High performance due to mul ple drives working together, increasing read/write
speeds.

o Simple design and easy implementa on.

 Drawbacks:

o If one drive fails, all data in the array is lost.

 Applica ons: Video produc on and image edi ng.

RAID Level 1

 Descrip on: Also known as disk mirroring, RAID 1 duplicates all data, requiring n addi onal
disks for redundancy.

 Advantages:

o 100% redundancy of data.

o No rebuild needed a er a disk failure; just copy data from the redundant disk.

 Drawbacks:

o Storage capacity is halved, leading to high disk overhead and costs.

 Applica ons: Cri cal data storage (e.g., accoun ng, payroll, financial applica ons) where
fault tolerance is essen al.

RAID Level 2

 Descrip on: Uses bit-level striping with Hamming code error correc on, requiring addi onal
disks for error correc on.

 Advantages: Provides hardware-level error correc on.

 Drawbacks: Complex and expensive; rarely used in prac ce.

 Note: More of a historical footnote in RAID technology.

RAID Level 3

 Descrip on: Uses byte-level striping with a dedicated parity disk. This configura on is
suitable for large sequen al data transfers.

 Advantages: Provides fault tolerance through parity.

 Drawbacks: The dedicated parity disk can become a performance bo leneck. If the parity
disk fails, the system loses reliability.

 Applica ons: Large con nuous data stream processing.

RAID Level 4

 Descrip on: Similar to RAID 3 but uses block-level striping instead of byte-level.

 Advantages: Improved read performance due to block-level striping.

 Drawbacks: Like RAID 3, the dedicated parity disk can be a bo leneck, nega vely impac ng
write performance.

 Applica ons: Large, read-heavy databases.

RAID Level 5

 Descrip on: Features block-level striping with distributed parity, providing balanced
read/write performance.

 Advantages: Fault tolerance for one drive failure.

 Drawbacks: The rebuild process can be complex, and write performance may be slower.

 Applica ons: General-purpose servers and enterprise storage.

RAID Level 6

 Descrip on: Known as double parity RAID, it uses two types of parity (normal and RAID-
Solomon).

 Advantages: Can sustain two simultaneous disk failures and s ll func on.

 Drawbacks: Higher write overhead and increased complexity.

 Applica ons: High-availability systems and large-scale storage.

Summary of RAID Levels

RAID Storage Capacity

Descrip on Redundancy Applica ons
Level Impact

High performance, no Video and image

RAID 0 None Full capacity
redundancy edi ng

100%
RAID 1 Disk mirroring Halved Cri cal data storage
redundancy

Bit-level striping with error

RAID 2 Rarely used - Historical footnote
correc on

Byte-level striping with

RAID 3 Fault tolerance - Large data streams
dedicated parity

Block-level striping with Read-heavy

RAID 4 Fault tolerance -
dedicated parity databases

Block-level striping with General-purpose

RAID 5 Fault tolerance -
distributed parity servers

High fault High availability

RAID 6 Double parity -
tolerance systems

Conclusion

RAID provides various solu ons for improving data redundancy and performance. It’s essen al to
choose the appropriate RAID level based on specific needs and requirements. Understanding RAID is
crucial for designing robust and reliable storage systems.
Stable Storage Implementa on

Here’s a structured and enhanced transcript for your session on Stable Storage Implementa on,
forma ed with headings, key points, and concise explana ons for clarity.

Mass Storage Management Systems

Introduc on

Hello, everyone! Welcome to another session on Mass Storage Management Systems. Today, we will
discuss Stable Storage Implementa on.

What is Stable Storage?

Stable storage refers to informa on that resides in storage and is never lost, even in the event of
errors in the disk or CPU. This reliability is crucial for ensuring data integrity in various systems.

Achieving Reliable Storage

To implement stable storage, we need to replicate informa on across mul ple storage devices that
have independent failure modes. Coordina ng the wri ng of updates is essen al to prevent the loss
of all copies of the data.

Key Considera ons:

 Consistent State During Recovery: During recovery from a failure, we must ensure all copies
are forced into a consistent and correct state, even if addi onal failures occur during the
recovery process.

Types of Failures

There are three main failure scenarios to consider:

1. Successful Comple on:

o Data is wri en correctly on the disk without any issues.

2. Par al Failure:

o A failure occurs during the data transfer, resul ng in only some sectors being wri en,
which may corrupt the data.

3. Total Failure:

o This occurs before the disk write starts, leaving previous data values on the disk
intact.
Recovery from Errors

When a failure occurs during the wri ng process, the system’s first task is to detect the failure and
ini ate a recovery process to restore a consistent state.

Recovery Strategy:

 Redundancy: The system must contain two physical blocks for each logical block of data. If
there is an error in one physical block, the other block can be used for recovery.

Steps for Output Opera on:

1. Write the informa on to the first physical block.

2. A er the first write is successfully completed, perform the same opera on on the second
physical block.

3. The opera on is only declared complete when both writes are successful.

Recovery Procedure

During recovery, the following steps are followed:

1. Examine Each Physical Block:

o If both blocks are iden cal and no errors are detected, no further ac on is necessary.

2. Detectable Errors:

o If one block has detectable errors, replace its content with the value of the other
block.

3. Content Differences:

o If neither block has detectable errors but their contents differ, replace the first
block's content with that of the second block.

This ensures that wri ng to stable storage either succeeds completely or results in no change.

Extending Recovery Procedures

The recovery procedure can be extended if more copies of each block are needed. The more copies
available, the lower the chances of failure. However, using two copies is generally sufficient to
simulate stable storage and maintain data integrity, unless all copies are destroyed.

Enhancing Stable Storage with NVRAM

Many storage arrays u lize Non-Vola le RAM (NVRAM) as a cache to enhance stable storage.
NVRAM can reliably store data on its way to the disks because it is non-vola le, making wri ng to
stable storage much faster than wri ng directly to disk. This significantly improves performance.
Summary

In this session, we learned the following:

 Importance of Stable Storage: It is crucial for ensuring data integrity even in the case of
failures.

 Data Replica on and Coordinated Updates: Achieved through redundancy and coordinated
updates.

 Recovery Process: Ensures consistent states during failures.

 Performance Enhancement: Using NVRAM can speed up write opera ons to stable storage.

I hope you found this presenta on engaging. Thank you for watching!