CHAPTERl

INTRODUCTION
T O E N G IN E E R IN
G DRAWING
1.1 Evolution o fTechnic
al Drawing
Drawing is considered
a universal language
using to express the v that human beings h
isual images they con av e b ee n
old practice that its ce iv e in their minds; it is such
recorded history cou an
origins o f technical d ld b e as o ld as humanity. T h
rawing, referred to en e
to era o f developmen g in ee ri n g d ra wing, is traceable
t o f non-n1athematical
drawing to share idea approaches, where peo
s , even before words ple u se d
ancient civilizations . This was prominen
in Mesopotamia, Eg t during
engineers and architec y p t, an d Greece, where ea
ts used rudimentary rly
monumental structure d ra w in g s to plan and construct
s like pyramids and te
rich history that dates mples. Technical dra
back centuries, evolv wing has a
science, engineering ing alongside advance
, and architecture. A ments in
were drawn with han t in ce ption, technical draw
ds b y using tools that ings
versions o f the prese ca n b e regarded as primitiv
nt-day tnanual (tradit e
set square, ruler, protr ional) technical draw
actor, and compass; ing tools:
5,000 years before it remained this way
the beginning o f en for ab o u t
drawing/drafting and g ineering and archit
invention o f modem d ectural
rawing tools.
During the Renaissan
ce period, artists an
William Farish , Gasp d inventors like Bru
ard Monge and Leon nelleschi,
o f detailed technic ar do da Vinci pioneere
al sketches to exp d th e u se
engineering concep lo re sc ientific principles
ts, using mathemat an d
notebooks are renow ic al ap p ro aches. D a Vinci's
ned for their intricat
showcasing his visio e diagrams and illu
nary ideas and inno strations,
anatomy to aeronauti vations in fields ran
cs .19th century witn ging fr o m
brought about signific es sed an industrial re
ant advancements in volution
drawing tools and tech d es cr ip tive geometry, techn
niques. T h e inventio ical
pens, and precision n o f m ec h anical pencils, ruling
instruments enabled
engineers an d draug
htsman to

01
 CHAPTERl
INTRODUCTION
T O E N G IN E E R IN
G DRAWING
1.1 Evolution o fTechnic
al Drawing
Drawing is considered
a universal language
using to express the v that human beings h
isual images they con av e b ee n
old practice that its ce iv e in their minds; it is such
recorded history cou an
origins o f technical d ld b e as o ld as humanity. T h
rawing, referred to en e
to era o f developmen g in ee ri n g d ra wing, is traceable
t o f non-n1athematical
drawing to share idea approaches, where peo
s , even before words ple u se d
ancient civilizations . This was prominen
in Mesopotamia, Eg t during
engineers and architec y p t, an d Greece, where ea
ts used rudimentary rly
monumental structure d ra w in g s to plan and construct
s like pyramids and te
rich history that dates mples. Technical dra
back centuries, evolv wing has a
science, engineering ing alongside advance
, and architecture. A ments in
were drawn with han t in ce ption, technical draw
ds b y using tools that ings
versions o f the prese ca n b e regarded as primitiv
nt-day tnanual (tradit e
set square, ruler, protr ional) technical draw
actor, and compass; ing tools:
5,000 years before it remained this way
the beginning o f en for ab o u t
drawing/drafting and g ineering and archit
invention o f modem d ectural
rawing tools.
During the Renaissan
ce period, artists an
William Farish , Gasp d inventors like Bru
ard Monge and Leon nelleschi,
o f detailed technic ar do da Vinci pioneere
al sketches to exp d th e u se
engineering concep lo re sc ientific principles
ts, using mathemat an d
notebooks are renow ic al ap p ro aches. D a Vinci's
ned for their intricat
showcasing his visio e diagrams and illu
nary ideas and inno strations,
anatomy to aeronauti vations in fields ran
cs .19th century witn ging fr o m
brought about signific es sed an industrial re
ant advancements in volution
drawing tools and tech d es cr ip tive geometry, techn
niques. T h e inventio ical
pens, and precision n o f m ec h anical pencils, ruling
instruments enabled
engineers an d draug
htsman to

01
 2 .5 S ta n d a r d P a p e r

S O ) d et er m in ed v ar io u s si ze s o f
(I
n d a rd O rg a n iz a ti o n
T h e In te rn a ti o n a l S ta
p u rp o se s as in d ic at ed o n T ab le 2 -2 .
r e n g in e e ri n g
d ra w in g p a p e rs fo
fD r a w in g P a p e r
T a b le 2 -2 : S iz e s o
)
I
S iz e (i n c h e s)
D e s ig n a ti o n
I S h e e t si z e s (m m
3 3 1 /8 X 4 6 3 /4
841 X 1189
AO
2 3 3 /8 X 3 3 1 /8
594 X 841
Al
1 6 1 /2 X 2 3 3 /8
420 X 694
A2
1 1 3 /4 X 161/2
297 X 420
A3 --
8 1 /4 X 1 1 3 /4
210 X 297
A4
ss 1s d es ig n at ed as
e n t·io n s : A w e ld in g p ro c e
2 .6 W e ld in g C o n v
in d ic a te d in F ig .2 3
L IL
~
~~
FOR n. u: ; HE lD
S
Hras
a:rn oC RHS1 »E
S 1N 90C
1 m Pm o r FD
..L DG IZ NQ IB o , NE ID
11DCYr OF Da NG S
sz .a r NE lD
Ea t ~ N m I
sp.
A ,u :J ,D WEED ftMICC.
N flO I ~
M fla f1
m :P 1f l OR nE PA Cf fll
SI U OR sm EN
WS
i R !!ff;; } L - Jc E l~ L IJ C
w
f'0 R a: Rr JU 1f NE l fl ~Of'"°D f f
SH X. D lC M 'ID f,"
J» R X Z S S ,~
~ RD-
"'
T 1:
8 iD }

-
TA XI . (N)
rA ll, a, ar n: z, MtrN fr O R
M .le !J lO ,a t: Ul S
~ ZS ,o r DSl:l>J TI ON NE
PKI.JD:

_ n , ff lI S
. , ...
D~ -- -. ~
fJASIC W I L~ - -- ---a
Oil~- ~ ~m M fT A IL
J- -- S II C N fMN O t~
NO A
.A!M!:RSU>

4
Table 2• 1: Im po rta ntA bb rev iat ion s
Dia me ter DIA or cl)

Raediu» RA D orR
MB Um ete r Mm
Ce nti me ter Cm
Ce ntr e Un e CL

Ou tsid e Dia me ter 01D

Ins ide Dia me ter J/D

He xag on HE X
Ac ros s Fla t NF

Sq uar e SQ

Ch am fl're d CHAM
Co unt ers unk CSK
Co unt er- bor e C'B OR E

Ro und l'<I H cu d RD HD
FJG.
Fig ure
1)1{ (i
Dra win g
Ac cep tab le Qu alit y Lev el
AQL
AR
As Re qui red
ASY
Ass em bly
CE RT
Ct: r1if ica tion
DIM
Dim ens ion ing
l\ff D
Ma nuf act ure d
NTS
No t to Sca le
R
Ra diu s
RE F
Re fer enc e
REV
l{evl11lon
RTP
Re lea se to Pro duc tio n
SH CS
So cke t He ad Ca p Scr ew
SPE C
Spe cif ica tio n
STD
Sta nd ard
TB orT IB
Tit le Blo ck
TH D
Th rea d
THRU
Th rou gh TO L
To lcr nnc c UN C
Un ifie d Na tio nol Co a rsc
X
Nu mb er of Places

13
2.3 Standard Lettering

increasingly
The American Standard Vertical letters Figure 2 is becoming
Roman and
acceptable style of lettering, in addition to, already established
Gothic sans
Gothic styles. The American vertical letters are referred to as
d style, the
serif script, formed by a series of short strokes. In any selecte
Students
characters appear in uppercase (CAPITAL), weight and darkness.
should practice these characters regularly.

. Title and drawing sizes =6 mm {1/4"}

A B C D E F G H IJ K L
MNOPQRSTUVW
XYZ0123456789
Figure 2-3: Gothic Sans Serif Lettering

2.4 Abbreviations Standard

. . .
Engineering drawing pennits the
permissible if it dh . us~ of abbrev1attons. The use 1s
. . a eres to international standards. Mo st common
abbrev1attons are provided on Table 1.
 ltolienNnt 6'kwltllftd lho rt~ 10 lhc,wN ddefl
MldlUM ••••• ••••• ••••• •• ob}«.I Untl not.,._ IO lht ~ .
ltolwnllMof thartd ashftt olhow .,..,,..
Phantomllne
·-·· -··- ··-· · poshlo nt 0t fflOlllfMnl ot • ptrt.

SectlonllM

~htt Mt.._ _,,w r,lro ffltM objlc tOI

Prol«tton •n• UQht fH(u,e for tm~ S.
l,obn In. of tong and lho,t C,..,... co I.how IN
C..-itNIIIW l'9ht
--- --- --- --· Cffllr• of an obf«t.

Extens ion lne/

,. nmm ., btenlk NI llnet ate lffld llnn rNt ntand OUIWatd
from ~obje (to, fNCur.. ~lln ess .,.n
Dimension 11,w
ll9h1 tMtWNn the e,r'-nlk NI IIMI and IOM"I dlnMnliOn.
-{ ,i
i
Unbfo bn IIM USW,ly drawn at an ang'-a ,h-, wtltl

I.NcMr IIN light /~ a •do9199" and an •rowh eed. A doc It UMd In pl«.
of an a,rowt i.ad wh«e a Wtfau I s ~
Usu.lly KCom pan~ by a w.t.
Broken In. of on• big and lWO shclrt dashes to
A A 1how an lmagtnary uosH« Uon. n. M10WhMch
Cuttln g~M
IIM
twavy t ___________ j show the dltKtlo n from whetw the CIOSH «lion ..
vtew.d . TM arrowh ffd ~ wfl vwy

IIINkl lnnfor --- - Unbro bn fl'fthM ld Ot itr•!Qht ztg,ug Ines 110 ....,.._
VYt• IC>f9W tpans ol wood o, nwt.111.
wood- ,ldmet .a
twavy
'v Curied llrws to .t,t,,..,, 11,. a ~ 1PM ol ptpe.

l )
( (
BINlll lnesfo r t,w.-,y
piping
6 9

Figure 2-1: Line Types and techniques

11
 cstablishedISO 128 and ISO 1101 for general principles of
presentation and the specification of dimensional and geometrical
tolerances respectively.
• ANSI/ IEEE STD 260-1978.· Standard letter symbols of units of
measurement.
• ASME YI.I 1990.· Abbreviations foruseondrawinga ndintext.
• MIL - STD - 12: Abbreviations for use on drawings and in
specifications,
Adhering to these international dimensioning standards ensures
conformity of drawing to a universally accepted protocol, thereby
facilitating seamless coordination and communication across different
engineering and allied domains globally.

2.2 Standard Line: Styles and Types

Standard lines have been developed so that every drawing or sketch
conveys the same meaning to everyone. Therefore, the lines used in
technical drawings are definitive in pattern and thickness, else dis-infonn
the end user. Figure 1 shows different types of line
 CHA PTE R2

ENG INE ERI NG DRAWING STANDARDS AND

CON VEN TIO NS

2.1 Inter natio nal Dime nsion ing Stand ards

In design engineering, dimensioning refers to a process of specifying
physical parameters of an object, in order to provide comprehensive details
of size, shape, and position. It communicates an object clearly and
conci sely to all stakeholders, and is essential part of creating graphics,
models, and blueprints in engineering and other fields.In any engineering
context, dime nsion ing is vital for conveying precise specifications.
Dimensioning consists of a set of units, symbols, and notation rules
followed unive rsally to expre ss measurements consi stentl y and
unambiguously.
Dimensioning standards establish defined rules and guidelines that
facilitate the accurate recording of an object's size and geometry, as a
communication language, that can be interpreted accurately across the
globe, there by promoting global interoperability. These established norms
ensure consistency, efficiency, and clarity in the representation of design
concepts, or examination of object to foster effective communication of
complex design specifications or system universally.
International standards offer a uniform platform for maintaining the quality
and consi stenc y of engineering blueprints on a global level. Specific
international organizations that established these standards, included:
• ANS I (A1nerican National Standards Institute) through ANSI
y 14.5 provided a common standard that specifies all symbolic
definitions, rules, and conventions related to dimensioning and
tolerancing.
• ISO (Inte rnati onal Orga nisat ion for Stan dard isatio n)

09
vi. Sections and Details: Section views cut the object to reveal its
internal structure and features. Detail views focus on specific areas
ofthe design to provide a closer look at intricate or complex
components.
vii. Bill of materials (BOM): BOM lists all the individual components,
materials, and quantities required to build the mechanical assembly
or system.
v111. Assembly Drawings: Assembly drawings show how individual
components fit together to form a complete mechanical system.
These drawings provide a step-by-step guide for assembly.
1x. Exploded Views: Exploded views illustrate how the individual
components of an assembly come together by showing them
separated and positioned in space.
x. Sectional and Auxiliary Views: Sectional views cut away part of an
object to reveal internal details, while auxiliary views provide
additional angles or information that cannot be fully understood
from the main views.
x1. Schematic diagrams
Mechanical drawings embodies various tools and equipment aimed
at representation of the object more precisely. Typical of the tools are
drawing board and T-square, scale rule, drawing set, pencils, curves
and templates among others.
c. Digital drawing. When mechanical drawings are created using
computer software and tools, it is referred to as digital drawing. It
exploits the high-side of computer to edit, modify, and share drawing
files, and supports array of drawings, including architectural,
mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, structural
engineering, civil engineering and Mechanical, electrical and
plumbing (MEP) drawings. Digital drawings can be easily
converted to different formats, 2-D and 3-D, and scaled. Quite a
number of CAD Software (Computer-Aided Design) is commonly

05
 freehand sketch is usually less structured and less finished, or
incomplete. Good freehand sketches and the lines they consist of are
not expected to be precisely straight or uniform as traditional
instruments or CAD or drawing lines. Usually, the tools used for
freehand sketching include pencil, paper, and eraser.
b. Mechanical drawing. Mechanical drawing. Britannica Dictionary
defined mechanical drawing as drawing done by using special
instruments that allow you draw a machine, building etc in a very
precise and accurate way. Engineering drawings or mechanical
engineering drawings, are graphical representations that convey
detailed information about the design or working drawing. Primary
features of mechanical drawings include:
.1. Views: Mechanical drawings typically include multiple views of the
object, such as front, side, top, and isometric views, to provide a
comprehensive understanding of its shape and geometry.
11. Dimensions: Di1nensions are provided to specify the size, length,
width, height, and other measurements of the object. These
dimensions ensure that the component is manufactured to precise
specifications.
111. Tolerances: Tolerances indicate the allowable variations in
dimensions. They ensure that components can be assembled without
interference or excessive clearance and that the final product meets
quality standards.
1v. Geometric Symbols: Geometric symbols, such as concentric circles,
parallel lines, and positional tolerances, convey information about
the relationship between features and how they should be machined
or assembled.
v. Notes and Annotations: Notes and annotations provide additional
information, clarifications, and instructions to the reader. These
annotations help ensure that the design intent is properly understood
and followed. ·

04
 3. Advancement s in 3D Printing: The rapid advancement of 3-D
printing offers new possibilities for prototyping, manufacturing, and
product development. Drawings now play a crucial role in 3D
printing workflows, providing the blueprint for creating intricate
and functional objects layer by layer, that could mainstream
prosthetics, dentistry, biomedical engineering among others. As 3D
printing evolves, its standards and practices will adapt to
accommodate this disruptive technology.
4. Incorporation of Virtual and Augmented Reality: Virtual reality
(VR) and augmented reality (AR) technologies are revolutionizing
the way designers visualise and interact with VR and AR
applications allow users to immerse themselves in virtual
environments, manipulate 3D models, and simulate real-world
scenarios, enhancing design comprehension and user experience.
This can actually be a turning point in healthcare.
5. Sustainability and Green Design: Green technology concepts of
techno economic analysis (TEA) and life cycle assessment (LCA),
cradle-to-cr adle design, and biomimicry are fuelling
conceptualization and execution of technical drawings, promoting
responsible innovation and resource conservation.
1.3 Forms of Drawings and Resources
Technical drawing, which is the graphical representation of an object or
entity, can be done using any one of three methods: freehand drawing,
mechanical drawing, or computer/digital drawing (i.e., CAD). Freehand
sketching (also cal led technical sketching) is the process of creating a rough
or "brief'-and usually preliminary-d rawing without the aid of drawing
tools/equipment or instruments to illustrate a summary of at least the main
points ( if not more) of an idea, object, product, feature, or structure.
a. Freehand sketching. Freehand sketching is easy and convenient
because it involves only the use of pencil, eraser, and paper. A

03
r ·

ighly accurate and detaile d · drawin gs with unprecedented

create h
efficiency.
The 20m century herald emerge nce of _computer-aided design (CAD)
software, revolutionizing th~ way compu ting leverage techni9al drawings
to create, edit and share draw1~g fi~es. CA? tec~ol ogy, which was adopted
for aerospace and automotive tndust nes, quickly proliferated across
various sectors, offering technologists, design ers and engineers powerful
tools for digital drafting and modelling. Today, CAD continues to evolve in
tandem with digital technologies, with innovations in 3-D modelling,
virtual reality (VR), and augme nted reality (AR) reshaping the landscape of

' design and visualisation. Despit e these advancements, the principles of

technical drawing has remain ed fixated in precision, clarity,
communication, serving as a timeless foundation for innovation and
and
creativity.
1.2 Future Trends in Technical Drawi ng
Foreword looking, several trends and developments are poised to shape the
future of technical drawing.
I. Integration of AI and Machine Learning: Artificial intelligence{AD
and machi ne learnin g algori thms are increasingly ~eing
incorporated into CAD software, enabling automated tasks such as
· ·
· on1ng, ·· · optimization· These
and design
d1mens1 pattern recogn1tton,
nd
intelligent features stream line the drafting workflow a enhanced
. . . . h' her level tasks an
producttv1ty, allowi ng designers to focus on 1g -
creative problem-solving. _ .
. d collaboration
ms: Clou d -b ase . fon
2. Cloud-Based Collab oration Platfor . d communica t
platforms facilitate real-time collaboration an h Iders
• · and stake o ·
among dispersed teams of designers, engineers, . drawing ,
h · of techn1ca1 l
Th ese platforms enable seamle ss s anng ffi . t project
feedback exchange, and version control, fostering e icien
management and decision-making.

02
fig~re 3-8:~ngul~r Dim~ion . ·ons measure the P_eTJ>en~:tJlar
Ordinate d1mens1o~s.. Or~matc d•mrdatum. These dimensions m1t1 gate
distances from an ~ngm pom t call~ ~..e. ng accurate offsets of the featuni
associated escalallng errors by mamtami -
from the datum

60-++-t"I
EB

,.._
-
0 0 0

- -
0 0
V ,-- 0 (")

Figure 3-9: Ordinate Dimension

sure the
a. Arc length dimensions. Arc length dimensions mea
of the angle
distance along an arc or polyline arc segment~instead
which the arc subtends.

Figure 3- J0: Arc Length Dimension

34
~lgure 3-6: Arrow less Dimen sioning
J.4 Types of Dimen sions
Autodesk identified types of d" •
. . tmens1ons commonly applied on graphics
1nclud1ng:

a. Linear dimens ions L ·

. • tnear d.1mens1. ons apphes
. .
to a hnear parameter
that appears honzontal, vertical, or aligned as displayed on Figure 3-7.

Figure 3-7: Linear Ditnension

a. Radial Dimen sions. A radial dimension provides radial or

diametral descriptions. When part of the dimension is located within
the dimensioned arc or circle, the non-associative centerline or
center mark is automatically suppressed.

b. Angul ar Dimen sions. Angular dimensions measure the angle

between two or more selected geometric objects or points.
l....-- -~ 30° -------..J
 e
,...
~~---
_____ ...
---U1---
....---.__ .,. ____
---- --"' ___
;.--- ----u ,---- -----
Figure 3-5: Base Line Method
Arrowless dimensioning.To avoid having many dimensio ns extending
away from the part, arrowless dimensio ning may be used.
- --- ---- ·- ---· - ·----···--- ------mi- ••-···---·--- --··-·----····-----· •·----·- --- ·-·
Q ~ ~ i ~ i! g a
~-rr -r--- --t-- -4-- 4--- --!.. .'
I

t- .--r ---- ---- ---'

 .....--3.0 0---- :
~ 1.50 :

0
"'•
Figure 3-4: Aligned Dimensioning
Base line Method. In this dimensioning method, the baseline is used to
write the dimensions of the different parts of the drawing. Then all
dimensions are written parallel to the baseline.

31
 Unidirectional Method. This method is mostly used in dimensioning. In
this method, the entire dimension is written in one direction throughout the
drawing. This direction is usually perpendicular.

....__3.00-..-...
..-1.so---

3.00

1.50

Figure 3-3: Unidirectional Dimensioning

Align Method. This method of dimensioning is written in two directions
throughout the drawing. It is written on the top and right side and read from
the bottom and right side of a drawing. This has the advantage that the
dimensions can be written in the horizontal direction, which is very easy to
write.

30
 865

865
PoOl'l•
F i g u r e 3-2 r ade
: Leader R lln• pos
epresenta i t i on
1. Limits o tion
f size -
acceptab\e t h e \a rgest a c c e
s i z e o f a fe ptable s i z
2. a ture. e and the
Plus a n d minimum
minus dim
variance fr ension -
om the spe the a \ \ o w a
c ified dime ble p o s i t i v
3. Diameter nsion. e and neg
symbol - ative
the diamet a symbol i n
er o f a c i r c dica\\ng t h
l e . T h e s at the dim
4. Radius sy y m b o l used is th e n s i o n s\~
mbol- a s e Greek \e ows
radius o f a y m bol indica t t e r phi 0 .
circle. T h e ting t h a t t h
5. radius s y m e dimensi
Toleranc bo\ u s e d i s on shows
e - the a t the capita the
3.3
n o u n t that a par \ \ e t t er R.
Systems o ticu\ar d i m
f Dimens
ioning: ension ma
Engineerin y vary.
g c
representin o n v e n t i o n s p r o v i d
g dimensio e d for t h
ns. T h e s e ree syste
include: ms of w
riting an
d
1. Dimension - the numerical value that defines the size, shape,
location, surface texture, or geometric characteristic ofa feature.
2. Basic dimension - a numerical value defining the theoretically
exact size, location, or orientation relative to a coordinate system.
Basic dimensions are enclosed in a rectangular box & have no
tolerance.
3. Reference dimension - a numerical value enclosed in parentheses,
provided for infonnation only.
4. Dimension line - a thin, solid line that shows the extent and
direction ofa dimension.
5. Arrows - symbols at the ends of dimension lines showing the
limits of the dimension, leaders, and cutting plane lines and usually
drawn freehand. As far as possible, arrowheads must be identical in
shapes and sizes. it must touch the line it relates with.
Extension line - a thin, solid line perpendicular to a dimension
line, indicating which feature is associated with the dimension. The
extension line must emerge 1mm from precise position of object and
3mm in length, depending other related dimension lines introduced
on the extension line. it may cross each other without break and
perpendicular to the dimension line.
6. Visible gap - there should be a visible gap of 1 mm between the
feature's comers and the end of the extension line.
7. Leader line- a thin, solid line with arrow drawn under an angle &
indicating the feature with which a dimension or note is associated.
A leader is usually presented at 60deg or 45 deg, as a line with
arrowhead. The line emerges from the arc but appears to radiate from
center of the arc, and bent horizontally to a length of3mm and end
with a dot. Leaders should not cross each other. All notes,
abbreviations and dimension are provided on the horizontal
component of the leader.

28
24. Dimension figures should be a .
arrowheads, except that . pproxunately centered between the
in a "sta k"
should be "staggered". c of dimensions, the figures

25. Dimension figures should be 118,, .

high for fractions. high for whole numbers, and 1/4"

26. .
Notes should always be lettered h onzontally .
on the drawtng.
27. Extension lines .
should not touch obJect lines, and should extend
,,
roughly 1/8 beyond dimension lines.
28. •
· d'1mens1oned .
. diameter, .
. , a cylinde
In. general · r ts by its an arc 1s
d1mens1oned by its radius.
29. A diameter dimension figure should be followed by DIA except
when it is obviously a diameter.
30. The letter R should always follow a radius dimension figure. The
radial dimension line should have only one arrowhead, and it should
touch the arc.
31. Dimensionin g in engineering graphics represents the ways and
means ofproviding size and description ofan object precisely.

3.2 Dimensionin g Elements

These are the features of a standard dimensioned graphic or model. The
whole elements may not be provided, depending on the drawing, but must
be sufficiently available. These elements are shown in Figure 3-1.

Extemion t,eyand °'""""'°" foltQn(eS

dimenS'°" lne
lrw [)lmemion
'\. .au/ Ai,owheld
15.lSO- &tllldlbl 11ne

\1sible91P ~'::::!:..:! ----~-,~

c.nw,u,k

Figure3-l

27
 The longer dimensions sh ou ld
10. be ~l ac e~ outsi_de all intermed
iate Or .
. ·o
sh orter d1mens1 , ns so th at di m en sio n hn es w ill no t cr os s ex
tension
lines.
11. In machine drawings, omit all
inch m ar ks , ex ce pt w he n nece
ssary
for clearness; for example, 1" VA
LVE.
12. A dimension should be attach
ed to on ly on e view: extensio
n lines
should not connect two views.
13. Detail dimensions should "line up
" in chain fashion.
14. Avoid a complete chain of detai
l dimensions; be tte r to omit
Otherwise, add REF (reference) one.
to one detail dimension, or to
overall dimension. the
15. Dimension lines should be sp
aced uniformly throughout
drawing. They should be spaced the
at least 3/ 8" from the object,
1/4" apart. and
16. No line ofthe drawing should be
used as a dimension line or coin
with a dimension line. cide
17. Dimension line should never cros
s other di mension lines.
18. Dimension lines should not cros
s extension lines; extension lin
may cross each other. es
19.
When extension lines cross other
made in either line. extension lines no break should
be
'
20.
A ~enter line may be extende
d and
which case, it is still drawn as a cent used as an extension line in
er line. '
21. Center lines should not extend fr
22. Leaders for notes sh om vi.ew to vie. w.
. . ould b . ht
e straig . t1n
, not curved, an d po1n . g
Clfcular views ofholes when everposs1'bl to the
e.
23. Leaders shou
ld slope at 45 , 30 , or 60 degrees
with horizontal text,
but may be made at any angle exce
pt vertical or horizontal.

26
 D IM E N S IO N IN G S
YSTEM
_1 Principles o f D im
3 en si on in g in E n gi n ee
ri n g D ra w in g
The following are the
m os t co m m on principl
es o f di m en si on in g a
object: d ra ft ed
1. Each dimension should
b e given clearly, ac cu
th at it ca n b e interprete ra te ly an d re ad ab ly , so
d in only on e way.
2. Dimensions should n
o t b e om it te d o r du
information given in pl ic at ed , o r th e sa m
tw o different w ay s e
dimensions sh ou ld b (r ed un da nc y) , an d n o
e given ex ce pt th os e
inspect the part. n ee d ed to p ro d u ce
or
3. D im en si on s sh ou ld b
e given be tw ee n vi ew
However, it is sometim s w h en ev er p o ss ib le
es necessary to pl ac e .
be lo w a view. a d im en si o n ab o v e o r
4. D im en si on s sh ou ld b
e given so th at it w il l
m ac hi ni st to calculate, n o t b e n ec es sa ry fo r
scale, o r es ti m at e an y th e
5.
di m en si on .
D im en si on s sh ou ld b
e attached to th e vi ew
sh ow n. T h is is m o st fr w h er e th e sh ap e is b
equently th e fr on t view e st
.
6. D im en si on s sh ou ld
b e pl ac ed in th e
di m en si on ed are sh v ie w s w h er e fe at u
o w n tr ue shape. T re s
di m en si on in g an auxi h is so m et im es m ea
liary view. ns
7. A vo id di m en si on in g to
h id d en li ne s w h er ev er
8. p o ss ib le .
D im en si on s sh o u ld n
o t b e p la ce d u p o n a
pr om ot ed , an d lo n g ex v ie w u n le ss cl ea rn es
te ns io n li ne s ar e av oi s is
9. de d.
D im en si on s ap pl yi ng
to tw o ad ja ce n t v ie
b et w ee n v ie w s, u n le w s sh o u ld b e p la ce
ss cl ea rn es s w il l b e p d
ou ts id e th e vi ew . ro m o te d b y p la ci n g th e m
·

25
 . . .:,- · .- _~·-::\:-~~:~)?i:~~1

-
!
cHAPTER9 ·
,

PERSPECTIVE DRAWING
9.1 Introduction . .
. · t chnique to create .the linear '1ilus1on of depth As
· drawmg
Perspective 1s a e · :~ . .. ·. ·
objects get further away from the viewer they appear to ~ecrea_se1n size ata
constant rate. This phenomenon is common dunng diagnostic or
therapeutic procedures in medical and allied sciences.
9.2 The Basic Elements of Perspective Drawing
In order to understand human perception, there are three important tools for
perspective drawing: The horizon line, vanishing points, and vanishing
lines.
The horizon line
lthough the earth is round, the horizon line appears to us as a clear
eparation between the ground and the sky. Usually it is covered by trees,
hills, or buildings and we don't consciously notice it. Only looking at the
ocean clearly shows us the horizon line. The horizon line plays an important
role in drawings. It demarcates the ground, which represents the foundation
for us. If we want to convey three-dimensionalit y, we always need to use
this foundation as a reference. Perspective lines are also called orthogonal
lines. You can use them as guidelines to draw other subjects in your drawing
so they're also in one-point perspective.
The horizon line is always at the eye level of the viewer. However, viewers
Ii,
can have different heights, which means the height of the horizo~ line will
shift. ~~tis why_a distinction is made among three different perspectives:
The bird s-eye view, the normal perspective (based on ourselves), and
worm's-eye view. -=~~~~= ·
Figure 9-1: Horizon Line·

84
4. Pro po rtio ns an d Perspective:
a) Pr op ort ion s: Pa y clo se att ent·ton to the r I r . es and positions of
. e a ive siz
dif fer ent pa rts of the object.
b} Pe rsp ect ive : Un der sta nd b as ic.
perspecti ve pnn · ·
. . c1ples to create a
sen se of de pth an d three-dim ens1onahty.
..
5. Comp t1on an d Layout:
os1
.
a) Th e 70 /30 rule: While the sketch occupies reasonable portion
0 f pa pe r , th e remainin
.. . g space should create a balanced
compos1tton
. ·
b) An no tat ion and no tafion.. Ann otatton s sho uld explicitly be
.. . • .
uti hz.ed 1n communicat·1ng d"1mens1on s, materials and other
.
vit al inf orm ati on .
cture and mechanism
c) Dr aw ing through the object: Detail stru
are sup po rte d in drawing through.
6. Tools an d Ma ter ial s
des (e.g., HB, 3B, 4B) to create
a) Pe nci ls: Us e a var iet y of pencil gra
dif fer ent line we igh ts and shades.
making corrections.
b) Er ase r: A go od era ser is essential for
for sketching and can handle the
c) Pa per : Ch oo se pa pe r that is suitable
pre ssu re ofyo ur pencil.
d) Ab sol ute lyfre eh an d sketched.
8.4 Medical De vic e Sketching
End of Ch ap ter Questions
pital bed.
Ch 8-1: Ma ke a ske tch of a mo dem hos
al syringe. .
Ch 8-2: Sk etc h a 5ml disposable medic
axi llar y first premolar distal surface
f
Ch 8-3: Pre pa re a s k etc h o m
· p· 141
in Fig ure 10-1. 1
a stretc 1er in igure -
Ch 8-4: Dr aw a ske tch of a bracket of

83
 ve lo p tec hn ica l sk ill s th at su pp or ts visualization
awareness and de
designs.
an d understanding ofco1nplex
sig n: Sk et ch in g ca n he lp de sig ne rs better
7. User-centered de
th e ne ed s an d ex pe ct at io ns of users by al lo w in g them to
understand
.
visualize the "experience to-be"
8.3 Techniques of Sketching gical pu rp os es may
ng in sc ie nt ifi c an d te ch no lo
Th e application of sketchi
s.
require the following technique
1. Shape Technique
ob se rv at io n: Be fo re sk etc hing, take tim e to ob se rv e the
a) Thorough
th or ou gh ly , pa yi ng at ten tion to its shapes,
object or scene
proportions, and relationships.
: Br ea k do wn co tn pl ex sh ap es into sim pl er forms
b) Simpfifj, shapes
es , cir cle s, an d sq ua re s to 1n ake them ea sie r to sketch.
like lin
e: Pa y att en tio n to th e sp ac e ar ou nd the object, as it can
c) Negative spac
.
i
.J help define the shape and form
2. Line Techniques:
ar t wi th lig ht , lo os e lin es to es ta bl ish th e basic
a) Li gh t lines: St
re an d pr op or tio ns , all ow in g for ea sy corrections.
structu
: Va ry lin e th ick ne ss an d darkness to co nv ey depth,
b) Li ne quality
texture, and form.
aw in g: Pr ac tic e qu ic k, ex pr essive lines to capture the
c) Gesture dr
.
essence ofmovement and form
r dr aw in g: Fo cu s on ou tli ni ng the edges an d defining the
d) Contou
shape of the object.
3. Shading and Rendering:
pl y sh ad in g to cr ea te a th re e ditnensional effect.
a) Shading: Ap
s-h at ch in g: Us e pa ra lle l or intersecting lines to
b) Hatching an d cros
create shading and texture.
bl in g an d cir cli ng : ap ply different shading
c) Stripping, scrib
and effects.
techniques for various textures

82