INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION SYSTEMS

This course demonstrates how information is used by organizations to conduct

business and solve problems. This course presents information systems principles
amd demonstrates how they form an integral part of modern organisations. Topics
include system concepts; organizational processes; technological aspects of
information systems; the Internet; information technology security and ethical issues;
database management; and systems development life cycle.

Introduction to computer software, hardware, and networking technologies.

Information technology systems model. A brief introduction to information
technologies – human computer interaction, information management; networking,
platform technologies, programming, and web systems and technologies. Data versus
information. History of information technology and the internet. Information
technology application domains. Security, privacy, policy, and other social issues
inherent in Information technology development and use. Future trends in information
technology, problems on mining, visualisation, natural language processing, and
Blockchain.

System Concept

What is an Information System?

An Information system is a combination of hardware and software
and telecommunication networks that people build to collect, create, and distribute
useful data, typically in an organization. It defines the flow of information within
the system. The objective of an information system is to provide appropriate
information to the user, gather the data, process the data, and communicate
information to the user of the system.
Components of Information System

1. Computer Hardware

Physical equipment used for input, output and processing. The hardware structure
depends upon the type and size of the organization. It consists of an input and an
output device, operating system, processor, and media devices. This also includes
computer peripheral devices.

2. Computer Software

The application program used to control and coordinate the hardware components. It
is used for analysing and processing of the data. These programs include a set of
instruction used for processing information. Software is further classified into three
types:
 System Software
 Application Software
 Procedures

3. Databases

Data are the raw facts and figures that are unorganized that are later processed to
generate information. Softwares are used for organizing and serving data to the user,
managing physical storage of media and virtual resources. As the hardware can’t
work without software the same as software needs data for processing. Data are
managed using Database management system. Database software is used for
efficient access for required data, and to manage knowledge bases.

4. Network

 Networks resources refer to the telecommunication networks like the intranet,

extranet and the internet.
 These resources facilitate the flow of information in the organization.
 Networks consists of both the physical devices such as networks cards, routers,
hubs and cables and software such as operating systems, web servers, data
servers and application servers.
 Telecommunications networks consist of computers, communications
processors, and other devices interconnected by communications media and
controlled by software.
 Networks include communication media, and Network Support.

5. Human Resources

It is associated with the manpower required to run and manage the system. People
are the end user of the information system, end-user use information produced for
their own purpose, the main purpose of the information system is to benefit the end
user. The end user can be accountants, engineers, salespersons, customers, clerks, or
managers etc. People are also responsible to develop and operate information
systems. They include systems analysts, computer operators, programmers, and
other clerical IS personnel, and managerial techniques.
Important/Function:

1. Data Storage and Management: Information systems provide a centralized and

organized way to store vast amounts of data. This data can be anything from customer
details and sales figures to inventory records and financial transactions.

 They also offer tools and processes to manage this data effectively, ensuring
its accuracy, consistency, and accessibility.

2. Information Processing and Analysis:

 Raw data is often meaningless on its own. Information systems transform this
data into useful information through various processing techniques.
 They can perform calculations, sort and filter data, and generate reports that
provide insights into business operations, trends, and performance.

3. Decision-Making Support:

 By providing timely and relevant information, information systems support

informed decision-making at all levels of an organization.
 Managers can use the information to identify problems, evaluate options, and
make strategic choices that drive the business forward.

4. Communication and Collaboration:

 Information systems facilitate communication and collaboration within an

organization and with external stakeholders.
 They provide tools for email, messaging, video conferencing, and document
sharing, enabling seamless interaction and knowledge sharing.

5. Business Process Automation:

 Many information systems are designed to automate repetitive tasks and

streamline business processes.
 This can lead to increased efficiency, reduced costs, and improved
productivity.

6. Competitive Advantage:

 In today's competitive landscape, information systems can be a source of

competitive advantage.
  Companies can use them to develop innovative products and services, improve
customer service, and optimize their operations.

7. Knowledge Management:

 Information systems can help organizations capture, store, and share

knowledge.
 This can be valuable for training new employees, developing best practices,
and fostering innovation.

8. Monitoring and Control:

 Information systems enable organizations to monitor their performance and

identify areas for improvement.
 They can track key metrics, generate alerts, and provide insights into
operational efficiency and effectiveness.

Characteristics of information System:

1. Relevance:

 The information provided by the system should be relevant to the needs of the
users and the tasks at hand. It should answer the specific questions being asked
and support the decision-making process.

2. Accuracy:

 The data and information within the system must be accurate and reliable.
Errors and inconsistencies can lead to poor decisions and operational
inefficiencies.

3. Timeliness:

 Information should be available when it is needed. Outdated information can

be as bad as no information at all. Systems should provide up-to-date and real-
time information whenever possible.

4. Completeness:

 The system should provide a complete picture of the situation. It should

include all the necessary data and information to make informed decisions.

5. Conciseness:
  While completeness is important, the information should also be concise and
easy to understand. Too much information can be overwhelming and lead to
confusion.

6. Accessibility:

 The information should be easily accessible to authorized users. This means

having the right tools and interfaces to retrieve and view the data.

7. Security:

 The system should protect sensitive data from unauthorized access,

modification, or disclosure. This includes implementing security measures like
passwords, encryption, and access controls.

8. Cost-effectiveness:

 The system should be cost-effective to develop, implement, and maintain. The

benefits of the system should outweigh the costs.

9. Flexibility:

 The system should be flexible enough to adapt to changing needs and

requirements. It should be able to accommodate new data, processes, and
technologies.

10. User-friendliness:

 The system should be easy to use and understand, even for non-technical
users. This means having a user-friendly interface and providing adequate
training.

11. Integration:

 The system should be able to integrate with other systems within the
organization, allowing for seamless data flow and information sharing.

12. Scalability:

 The system should be scalable to accommodate growth in data volume, users,

and transactions.

Types of Information Systems

 Operations Support Systems: This type of information system is primarily
designed to assist a certain business process.
 Management Information Systems: Management information systems
(MIS) are computerized systems that gather, store, process and display data that
help in making decisions for management.
 Decision Support Systems: Decision support systems enable an organization to
make decisions with regard to its operations. It can be employed in both fully
automated and human-operated systems. However, for optimal efficiency, a
combination of human and computer-operated devices is advised.
 Executive Information Systems: The final type of management support system
is the executive support system (EIS). They assist in making senior-level choices
for an organization.
How does an Information System Work?
 Input: The system takes data and information from a variety of sources,
including sensors, keyboards, scanners, and databases.
 Processing: The system converts raw data into useful information using a
variety of techniques such as sorting, classifying, calculating, analyzing, and
synthesizing.
 Storage: The system stores the processed data in a structured and safe manner,
such as in a database, file system, or cloud storage.
 Output: The system displays information to users such as reports, graphs,
charts, or dashboards.
 Feedback: The system requests feedback from users and other stakeholders to
assess its effectiveness and enhance its design and functioning.

ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESSES OF INFORMATION SYSTEM

Organizational processes within information systems are the structured and

coordinated activities that transform data into valuable information to support
decision-making and operations. These processes are essential for the effective use of
information systems in any organization.

Key Organizational Processes in Information Systems:

Data Management: This involves collecting, storing, organizing, and

maintaining data. It includes processes like data entry, validation, cleansing,
and backup. Effective data management ensures data quality, accessibility, and
security.

Information Processing: This process transforms raw data into meaningful

information. It includes activities like data analysis, summarization, and
reporting. Information processing enables users to understand data and extract
insights.

Decision Support: Information systems support decision-making processes

by providing relevant information and analytical tools. This includes processes
like data modeling, simulation, and forecasting. Decision support systems help
managers make informed choices.
 Communication and Collaboration: Information systems facilitate
communication and collaboration within and across organizations. This
includes processes like email, messaging, video conferencing, and document
sharing. Effective communication and collaboration enhance teamwork and
productivity.

Business Process Management: Information systems support the automation

and optimization of business processes. This includes processes like workflow
management, task assignment, and process monitoring. Business process
management improves efficiency and reduces costs.

Security Management: Protecting information assets is crucial. This includes

processes like access control, authentication, encryption, and intrusion
detection. Security management ensures data confidentiality, integrity, and
availability.

Examples of Organizational Processes Supported by Information Systems:

 Order processing: Receiving, processing, and fulfilling customer orders.

 Inventory management: Tracking and managing inventory levels.
 Financial management: Managing accounts payable, accounts receivable,
and general ledger.
 Human resources management: Managing employee data, payroll, and
benefits.
 Customer relationship management: Managing customer interactions and
relationships.

Benefits of Effective Organizational Processes in Information Systems:

 Improved efficiency: Streamlined processes reduce manual effort and errors.

 Better decision-making: Access to timely and accurate information supports

informed choices.
 Enhanced communication: Collaboration and information sharing are
facilitated.
 Increased productivity: Automation and optimization of processes improve
productivity.
 Competitive advantage: Organizations can leverage information systems to
gain a competitive edge.

Technological aspects of information systems

The technological aspects of information systems primarily include the hardware

(physical devices like computers and servers), software (programs that run on the
hardware), networks (connections between devices), databases (organized data
storage), and telecommunications systems used to transmit information within an
information system; essentially encompassing the underlying technology that allows
data to be processed, stored, and accessed within an organization.

Key technological components of an information system:

Hardware: Computers, servers, storage devices, peripherals like printers and
scanners, network devices like routers and switches.

Software: Operating systems (like Windows, Linux), application software (like

word processors, spreadsheets, databases), programming languages.

Networks: Local Area Networks (LANs), Wide Area Networks (WANs), wireless
networks, network protocols (like TCP/IP) enabling data transmission between
devices.

Databases: Database Management Systems (DBMS) for storing, retrieving, and

managing large amounts of structured data.

Telecommunications: Systems for transmitting data over long distances, including

phone lines, fiber optic cables, satellite communication.

THE INTERNET

The internet is a global network of connected devices that allows people to

communicate and share information. It's made up of many smaller networks that are
connected together.

Brief History of the Internet

Early Days (1960s-1970s):

 ARPANET: The internet's origins can be traced back to the late 1960s with
the creation of ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) by
the U.S. Department of Defense. It was designed as a decentralized network to
ensure communication could continue even in the event of a nuclear attack.
 Packet Switching: ARPANET pioneered the concept of "packet switching,"
where data is broken down into smaller packets and sent across the network
independently, then reassembled at the destination. This made the network
more efficient and resilient.
 TCP/IP: In the 1970s, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn developed TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), a set of communication
protocols that became the standard for the internet. This allowed different
 networks to connect and communicate with each other, leading to the
"network of networks" we know today.

Expansion and Growth (1980s-1990s):

 NSFNET: In the 1980s, the National Science Foundation (NSF) in the U.S.
established NSFNET, a high-speed backbone network that further expanded
the internet's reach and accessibility.
 World Wide Web: In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web
(WWW) at CERN, introducing hypertext and the concept of web pages linked
together by hyperlinks. This made the internet much more user-friendly and
accessible to the general public.
 Commercialization: The 1990s saw the commercialization of the internet,
with the development of web browsers like Mosaic and Netscape, and the rise
of internet service providers (ISPs). This led to an explosion in internet usage
and the dot-com boom.

Modern Internet (2000s-present):

 Broadband: The widespread adoption of broadband internet access in the

2000s enabled faster speeds and richer online experiences, fueling the growth
of online video streaming, social media, and other bandwidth-intensive
applications.
 Mobile Internet: The rise of smartphones and mobile devices has made the
internet even more accessible, with mobile internet usage now surpassing
desktop usage in many parts of the world.
 Social Media: Social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram
have transformed the way people communicate and share information,
creating new online communities and social networks.

How the internet works

The process of transferring information over the internet from one device to another
relies on packet switching. The internet is a packet-routing network that uses IP and
TCP protocols for communication. When a person visits a website, their computer or
mobile device sends a request to the server over one of these protocols.

The following examines how the process works:

 Every device attempting to access the internet is initially linked either physically
through cables or wirelessly. For instance, a computer can establish a physical
connection to a modem using an Ethernet cable or connect wirelessly through Wi-
Fi or Bluetooth signals.
 Each computer connected to the internet is also assigned a unique IP address that
enables the device to be recognized.

 When one device attempts to send a message to another device, the data is sent
over the internet in the form of packets and each packet is assigned a port
number that will connect it to its endpoint.

 A packet that has both a unique IP address and port number can be translated from
alphabetic text into electronic signals by traveling through the layers of the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model from the top application layer to the
bottom physical layer.

 The message is then sent over the internet where it's received by the internet
service provider's (ISP) router.

 The router examines the destination address assigned to each packet and
determines where to send it.

 Eventually, the packet reaches the client and travels in reverse from the bottom
physical layer of the OSI model to the top application layer. During this process,
the routing data -- the port number and IP address -- is stripped from the packet,
thus enabling the data to be translated back into alphabetic text and completing
the transmission process.

 Cloud Computing: Cloud computing has revolutionized the way data is

stored and accessed, with businesses and individuals increasingly relying on
cloud-based services for storage, computing, and applications.

The main components of the internet

The internet is comprised of hardware, software and various protocols. The following
are the primary components of the internet:

 Client or endpoint devices. These are the multitude of interconnected

components or clients that access and contribute to the internet. These can include
computers, smartphones, tablets, routers, web servers and IoT devices.

 Servers. Servers are the computers that provide services or share stored resources
with the client devices. Their main job is to comply with client requests by
providing the requested information or performing the requested tasks.

 Internet protocols. To retrieve the required data on the internet, a set of

guidelines and procedures known as protocols must be adhered to as they
 guarantee accurate and effective data transmission. Common internet protocols
include IP, TCP/IP, HTTP, HTTP Secure (HTTPS) and file transfer protocol.
Other protocols, such as Session Initiation Protocol for voice-over IP, Post Office
Protocol 3 (POP3) and Internet Message Access Protocol for email are also used.

 IP addresses. IP addresses are used to identify devices on the internet. These can
include IPv4 addresses such as 192.168.1.1, which is the default IP address
many router manufacturers use to access a router's interface. IPv4 addresses are
shorter than IPv6 addresses, which are designed to handle the increasing number
of connected devices.

 Routers. Routers forward data packets between computer networks. By

using routing tables, routers determine the best routes or paths for data transfer
between devices.

 Domain name system. DNS converts human-readable domain names, such as

www.example.com, into machine-readable IP addresses. It also acts as a
decentralized directory that helps users navigate the internet.

 Web browsers. Web browsers or search engines -- including Apple

Safari, Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge and Mozilla Firefox -- let users access
and engage with material on the internet and also decipher and present web pages
to them.

 ISPs. ISPs are companies that provide users with internet connectivity. They
operate the infrastructure, including the cables and routers needed to connect
users to the global network.

 Social media platforms. Social media platforms, such as Facebook, X (formerly

known as Twitter) and Instagram, let users connect, share content and
communicate with people all over the world.

 Firewalls and security measures. Incoming and outgoing network traffic on the
internet is monitored and controlled by different types of security firewalls and
security measures. Firewalls safeguard networks and devices against unauthorized
internet access, cyber threats and malicious activities.
Difference between the World Wide Web and the internet
The key difference between the internet and the World Wide Web (WWW or web) is
that the internet is a global connection of networks, while the web is a collection of
information or websites that can be accessed using the internet. In other words, the
internet is the infrastructure and the web is a service on top of it.
Here's a table highlighting the differences between the World Wide Web (WWW) and
the Internet:

Aspect Internet World Wide Web (WWW)

A global network of A system of interlinked hypertext
interconnected computers and documents, accessed via the
Definition
servers that communicate using internet, using web browsers and
standardized protocols. hyperlinks.
Enables communication, data Facilitates access to and sharing of
Purpose exchange, and information information through web pages,
sharing between devices. websites, and online applications.
Comprises physical infrastructure Built on top of the internet
Infrastructure (cables, routers, servers) and infrastructure, using protocols like
protocols (TCP/IP, DNS). HTTP, HTTPS, and HTML.
Global network of devices, Focuses on web-based content and
Scope including computers, servers, services, accessible through web
smartphones, and IoT devices. browsers.
Primarily used for accessing and
Supports various services, such as
sharing web-based content,
Functionality email, file transfer (FTP), online
including text, images, videos, and
gaming, and more.
interactive applications.
Requires internet service Accessible through web browsers,
Accessibility providers (ISPs) and compatible search engines, and online
devices. platforms.
Email, online gaming, file Websites, web applications, online
Examples
transfer (FTP), VoIP. shopping, social media, blogs.

The web is the most widely used part of the internet. Its outstanding feature is
hypertext, a method of instantly cross-referencing text. Used in blog posts, Hypertext
Markup Language (HTML) web pages, social media posts and online shopping
websites, hypertext appears in a different color than the rest of the text and is often
also underlined. When a user clicks on one of these words or phrases, they're
transferred to the related site or webpage. Buttons, images or portions of images are
also used as hyperlinks.
The web provides access to billions of pages of information. Web browsing is done
through a web browser, such as Chrome, Edge or Firefox. The appearance of a
particular website can vary slightly, depending on the browser used. Newer versions
of a particular browser can render more complex features, such as animation, virtual
reality, sound and music files.

What are the key features of the internet?

The internet has certain features that make it a powerful and versatile tool for
communication, information sharing and diverse online activities. Some key features
of the internet include the following:

 Worldwide availability. The internet is a global resource that's accessible to

everyone. Today, most people can use the internet even if they live in the most
remote and deserted parts of the world.

 Compatibility with other media types. Due to the standardized protocols and
formats that it offers, the internet facilitates compatibility with various media
types. This enables seamless integration and interaction across diverse multimedia
such as photos, videos and audio files.

 Easy accessibility. Web browsers such as Chrome or Firefox are used to access
the internet. For end users and developers, these programs are simple to use,
comprehend and easy to develop.

 Affordability. The expenses associated with developing and maintaining internet

services are low. However, the costs vary depending on the type of services and
providers being used.
Uses of the internet
In general, the internet can be used to communicate across large or small distances,
share information from any place in the world, and access information or answers to
almost any question in moments.

Some specific examples of how the internet is used include the following:

 Social media and content sharing.

 Email and other forms of communication, such as Internet Relay Chat, internet
telephony, instant messaging and video conferencing.

 Education and self-improvement through access to online degree programs,

courses and workshops.
 Searching for jobs -- both employers and applicants use the internet to post open
positions, apply for jobs and recruit individuals found on social networking sites
such as LinkedIn.

 Entertainment such as streaming TV shows, movies, videos and music.

 Remote working using online collaboration platforms and messaging apps.

Security and the internet
Large amounts of information, both public and private, are collected across the
internet, opening users up to the risk of data breaches and other security threats such
as malware infections, ransomware attacks
and phishing attempts. Hackers and crackers can break into networks and systems and
steal login information or bank and credit card account records.

Internet security refers to a set of techniques and methods targeted at safeguarding

online activities and transactions. Users can take the following steps to protect their
online privacy:

 Install antivirus and antimalware software on devices and endpoints.

 Create difficult, varied passwords that are impossible to guess.

 Use a virtual private network or, at least, a private browsing mode, such as
Google Chrome's Incognito window.

 Use secure protocols, such as HTTPS, instead of HTTP for online transactions.

 Make all social media accounts private.

 Deactivate autofill.

 Turn off the device's Global Positioning System (GPS).

 Update cookies so an alert is sent anytime a cookie is installed.

 Log out of accounts instead of just closing the tab or window.

 Use caution with spam emails and never open or download content from unknown
sources.

 Use caution when accessing public Wi-Fi or hotspots.

 Regularly back up important data both offsite and on the cloud.

Additionally, there's an element of the internet called the dark web. The dark web is
hidden and inaccessible through standard browsers. Instead, it uses the Tor and I2P
browsers which let users remain completely anonymous. While this anonymity can be
a great way to protect an online user's security and free speech, or for the government
to keep classified data hidden, the dark web also creates an environment that
facilitates cybercrime, the transfer of illegal goods and terrorism.

Social impact of the internet

The internet has both positive and negative social effects. On one side, people argue
that the internet has increased the risk of isolation, alienation and withdrawal from
society, pointing to increases in an emotional response called FOMO, or the fear of
missing out. Also, there are major differences in terms of access to the internet,
bandwidth, efficiency and cost. This digital divide results in unequal access to
information and opportunities among individuals based on their backgrounds and
other socio-economic factors.

On the other side, people believe the internet increases civic engagement, sociability
and the intensity of relationships.

Whether the effects are good or bad, the internet has changed the way society
interacts and connects. People are constructing social relationships based on
individual interests, projects and values. Communities are being formed by like-
minded individuals not only offline and in person, but through the internet and the
multitude of online environments it creates and offers. Social networking sites -- like
Facebook and LinkedIn -- have become the preferred platforms for both businesses
and individuals looking to perform all kinds of tasks and communicate with others.

Benefits of the internet

The internet offers numerous advantages that have transformed people's lives in the
following ways:

 Provides access to endless information, knowledge and education.

 Increases users' ability to communicate, connect and share.

 Allows users to work remotely, collaborate and access a global workforce.

 Gives businesses or individuals an avenue to sell and make money.

 Provides access to an unlimited supply of entertainment sources, such as movies,

music, videos and games.

 Amplifies the influence of a message, enabling charities and other organizations

to reach a wider audience and increase the amount of donations.
 Provides access to the IoT, which enables home appliances and devices to connect
to and be controlled from a computer or smartphone.

 Provides access to health-related information and resources, letting people make

informed decisions regarding their well-being.

 Allows users to save data and easily share files with cloud storage on cloud
computing platforms.

 Enables users to monitor and control personal accounts instantly, such as bank
accounts or credit card bills.

What Is HCI?

Human-computer interaction (HCI) is the field of study that focuses on

optimizing how users and computers interact by designing interactive computer
interfaces that satisfy users’ needs. It is a multidisciplinary subject covering
computer science, behavioral sciences, cognitive science, ergonomics, psychology,
and design principles.

The emergence of HCI dates back to the 1980s, when personal computing was on the
rise. It was when desktop computers started appearing in households and corporate
offices. HCI’s journey began with video games, word processors, and numerical units.

However, with the advent of the internet and the explosion of mobile and diversified
technologies such as voice-based and Internet of Things (IoT), computing became
omnipresent and omnipotent. Technological competence further led to the evolution
of user interactions. Consequently, the need for developing a tool that would make
such man-machine interactions more human-like grew significantly. This established
HCI as a technology, bringing different fields such as cognitive engineering,
linguistics, neuroscience, and others under its realm.
Today, HCI focuses on designing, implementing, and evaluating interactive
interfaces that enhance user experience using computing devices. This includes
user interface design, user-centered design, and user experience design.

Human-Computer Interaction

Key components of HCI

Fundamentally, HCI is made up of four key components:

1. The user
The user component refers to an individual or a group of individuals that participate in
a common task. HCI studies users’ needs, goals, and interaction patterns. It analyzes
various parameters such as users’ cognitive capabilities, emotions, and experiences to
provide them with a seamless experience while interacting with computing systems.

2. The goal-oriented task

A user operates a computer system with an objective or goal in mind. The computer
provides a digital representation of objects to accomplish this goal. For example,
booking an airline for a destination could be a task for an aviation website. In such
goal-oriented scenarios, one should consider the following aspects for a better user
experience:

 The complexity of the task that the user intends to accomplish

 Knowledge and skills necessary to interact with the digital object

 Time required to carry out the task

3. The interface

The interface is a crucial HCI component that can enhance the overall user interaction
experience. Various interface-related aspects must be considered, such as interaction
type (touch, click, gesture, or voice), screen resolution, display size, or even color
contrast. Users can adjust these depending on the user’s needs and requirements.

For example, consider a user visiting a website on a smartphone. In such a case, the
mobile version of the website should only display important information that allows
the user to navigate through the site easily. Moreover, the text size should be
appropriately adjusted so that the user is in a position to read it on the mobile device.
Such design optimization boosts user experience as it makes them feel comfortable
while accessing the site on a mobile phone.

4. The context

HCI is not only about providing better communication between users and computers
but also about factoring in the context and environment in which the system is
accessed. For example, while designing a smartphone app, designers need to evaluate
how the app will visually appear in different lighting conditions (during day or night)
or how it will perform when there is a poor network connection. Such aspects can
have a significant impact on the end-user experience.

Thus, HCI is a result of continuous testing and refinement of interface designs that
can affect the context of use for the users.

Importance of HCI

HCI is crucial in designing intuitive interfaces that people with different abilities and
expertise usually access. Most importantly, human-computer interaction is helpful for
communities lacking knowledge and formal training on interacting with specific
computing systems.

With efficient HCI designs, users need not consider the intricacies and complexities
of using the computing system. User-friendly interfaces ensure that user interactions
are clear, precise, and natural.

Let’s understand the importance of HCI in our day-to-day lives:

1. HCI in daily lives

Today, technology has penetrated our routine lives and has impacted our daily
activities. To experience HCI technology, one need not own or use a smartphone or
computer. When people use an ATM, food dispensing machine, or snack vending
machine, they inevitably come in contact with HCI. This is because HCI plays a vital
role in designing the interfaces of such systems that make them usable and efficient.

2. Industry

Industries that use computing technology for day-to-day activities tend to consider
HCI a necessary business-driving force. Efficiently designed systems ensure that
employees are comfortable using the systems for their everyday work. With HCI,
systems are easy to handle, even for untrained staff.

HCI is critical for designing safety systems such as those used in air traffic control
(ATC) or power plants. The aim of HCI, in such cases, is to make sure that the system
is accessible to any non-expert individual who can handle safety-critical situations if
the need arises.

3. Accessible to disabled

The primary objective of HCI is to design systems that make them accessible, usable,
efficient, and safe for anyone and everyone. This implies that people with a wide
range of capabilities, expertise, and knowledge can easily use HCI-designed systems.
It also encompasses people with disabilities. HCI tends to rely on user-centered
techniques and methods to make systems usable for people with disabilities.
4. An integral part of software success

HCI is an integral part of software development companies that develop software for
end-users. Such companies use HCI techniques to develop software products to make
them usable. Since the product is finally consumed by the end-user, following HCI
methods is crucial as the product’s sales depend on its usability.

5. Useful for untrained communities

Today, user manuals for general computer systems are a rarity. Very few advanced
and complex computing systems provide user manuals. In general, users expect the
systems to be user-friendly and enable them to access the system within a few minutes
of interacting with it. Here, HCI is an effective tool that designers can use to
design easy-to-use interfaces. HCI principles also ensure that the systems have
obvious interfaces and do not require special training to be used. Hence, HCI makes
computing systems suitable for an untrained community.

Examples of HCI

Technological development has brought to light several tools, gadgets, and devices
such as wearable systems, voice assistants, health trackers, and smart TVs that have
advanced human-computer interaction technology.

Let’s look at some prominent examples of HCI that have accelerated its evolution.

1. IoT technology
IoT devices and applications have significantly impacted our daily lives. According to
a May 2022 report by IoT Analytics, global IoT endpoints are expected to reach 14.4
billion in 2022 and grow to 27 billion (approx.) by 2025. As users interact with such
devices, they tend to collect their data, which helps understand different user
interaction patterns. IoT companies can make critical business decisions that can
eventually drive their future revenues and profits.

A recent development in the field of HCI introduced the concept of ‘pre-touch

sensing’ through pre-touch phones. This means the phone can detect how the user
holds the phone or which finger approaches the screen first for operation. Upon
detecting the user’s hand movements, the device immediately predicts the user’s
intentions and performs the task before the user gives any instructions.

Another HCI-related development is that of ‘Paper ID’. The paper acts as a

touchscreen, senses the environment, detects gestures, and connects to other IoT
devices. Fundamentally, it digitizes the paper and executes tasks based on gestures by
focusing on man-machine interaction variables.

2. Eye-tracking technology

Eye-tracking is about detecting where a person is looking based on the gaze point.
Eye-tracking devices use cameras to capture the user’s gaze along with some
embedded light sources for clarity. Moreover, these devices use machine learning
algorithms and image processing capabilities for accurate gaze detection.

Businesses can use such eye-tracking systems to monitor their personnel’s visual
attention. It can help companies manage distractions that tend to trouble their
employees, enhancing their focus on the task. In this manner, eye-tracking
technology, along with HCI-enabled interactions, can help industries monitor the
daily operations of their employees or workers.

Other applications include driver monitoring systems that ensure road security.
Moreover, in the future, HCI-enabled eye-tracking systems may allow users to scroll
through a computer screen just by rolling their eyeballs.

3. Speech recognition technology

Speech recognition technology interprets human language, derives meaning from it,
and performs the task for the user. Recently, this technology has gained significant
popularity with the emergence of chatbots and virtual assistants.

For example, products such as Amazon’s Alexa, Microsoft’s Cortana, Google’s

Google Assistant, and Apple’s Siri employ speech recognition to enable user
interaction with their devices, cars, etc. The combination of HCI and speech
recognition further fine-tune man-machine interactions that allow the devices to
interpret and respond to users’ commands and questions with maximum accuracy. It
has various applications, such as transcribing conference calls, training sessions, and
interviews.

4. AR/VR technology

AR and VR are immersive technologies that allow humans to interact with the digital
world and increase the productivity of their daily tasks. For example, smart glasses
enable hands-free and seamless user interaction with computing systems. Consider an
example of a chef who intends to learn a new recipe. With smart glass technology, the
chef can learn and prepare the target dish simultaneously.
Moreover, the technology also reduces system downtime significantly. This implies
that as smart AR/VR glasses such as ‘Oculus Quest 2’ are supported by apps, the
faults or problems in the system can be resolved by maintenance teams in real-time.
This enhances user experience in a minimum time span. Also, the glasses can detect
the user’s response to the interface and further optimize the interaction based on the
user’s personality, needs, and preferences.

Thus, AR/VR technology with the blend of HCI ensures that the task is accomplished
with minimal errors and also achieves greater accuracy and quality. Currently, HCI
research is targeting other fields of study, such as brain-computer
interfaces and sentiment analysis, to boost the user’s AR/VR experience.

A recent development in this regard has been enabled via Dexta Haptic Gloves. These
VR gloves can sense and process touch parameters such as surface hardness, softness,
etc. These gloves can memorize a user’s finger movements by locking and unlocking
the finger joints as they interact in the VR environment. Later, the gloves can replicate
the recorded data of feelings across various degrees in real life.

5. Cloud computing

Today, companies across different fields are embracing remote task forces. According
to a ‘Breaking Barriers 2020’ survey by Fuze (An 8×8 Company), around 83% of
employees feel more productive working remotely. Considering the current trend,
conventional workplaces will witness a massive rejig and transform entirely in a
couple of decades. Thanks to cloud computing and human-computer interaction, such
flexible offices have become a reality.

Moreover, an employee can access data on the cloud from any physical location by
using cloud-based SaaS services. Such virtual settings streamline workflows and
support seamless collaboration with remote teams across industry verticals without
impacting productivity. Thus, with time, the idea of traditional offices may cease to
exist, mainly because of SaaS and HCI.

Goals of HCI

The principal objective of HCI is to develop functional systems that are usable, safe,
and efficient for end-users. The developer community can achieve this goal by
fulfilling the following criteria:

 Have sound knowledge of how users use computing systems

 Design methods, techniques, and tools that allow users to access systems based

on their needs

 Adjust, test, refine, validate, and ensure that users achieve effective

communication or interaction with the systems

 Always give priority to end-users and lay the robust foundation of HCI

To realize the above points, developers must focus on two relevant

areas: usability and user experience. Let’s look at each category in detail:

1. Usability

Usability is key to HCI as it ensures that users of all types can quickly learn and use
computing systems. A practical and usable HCI system has the following
characteristics:
  How to use it: This should be easy to learn and remember for new and

infrequent users to learn and remember. For example, operating systems with a

user-friendly interface are easier to understand than DOS operating systems that

use a command-line interface.

 Safe: A safe system safeguards users from undesirable and dangerous

situations. This may refer to users making mistakes and errors while using the

system that may lead to severe consequences. Users can resolve this through

HCI practices. For example, systems can be designed to prevent users from

activating specific keys or buttons accidentally. Another example could be to

provide recovery plans once the user commits mistakes. This may give users

the confidence to explore the system or interface further.

 Efficient: An efficient system defines how good the system is and whether it

accomplishes the tasks that it is supposed to. Moreover, it illustrates how the

system provides the necessary support to users to complete their tasks.

 Effective: A practical system provides high-quality performance. It describes

whether the system can achieve the desired goals.

 Utility: Utility refers to the various functionalities and tools provided by the

system to complete the intended task. For example, a sound utility system offers

an integrated development environment (IDE) that provides intermittent help to

programmers or users through suggestions.

 Enjoyable: Users find the computing system enjoyable to use when the

interface is less complex to interpret and understand.

2. User experience
 User experience is a subjective trait that focuses on how users feel about the
computing system when interacting with it. Here, user feelings are studied
individually so that developers and support teams can target particular users to evoke
positive feelings while using the system.

HCI systems classify user interaction patterns into the following categories and
further refine the system based on the detected pattern:

 Desirable traits – satisfying, enjoyable, motivating, or surprising

 Undesirable traits – Frustrating, unpleasant, or annoying.

INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
Information management is the process of acquiring, using, and sharing information
within an organization. It involves managing information to help a business meet its
goals.

Components of information management

 Technology: Includes systems like database management systems and content
management systems
 Processes: Includes management processes and services
 Policies: Includes policies that ensure information is used effectively

Information management goals:

 Improve processes
 Transform customer interactions
 Redefine products and business models
 Optimize information flows
 Arrive at concrete solutions
 Accomplish tasks

Information management principles:

 Recognize and manage complexity
 Focus on adoption
 Deliver tangible benefits
 Prioritize according to business needs
 Provide strong leadership
 Mitigate risks
 Communicate extensively
 Strive for a seamless digital employee experience
Information management tools:
 Content management: Helps maintain consistency, improves accessibility, and
ensures information is up-to-date
 Document management systems: Stores, manages, and tracks electronic documents
and images

Application domain areas of information Technology

Information technology (IT) has permeated virtually every aspect of modern life,
leading to a wide array of application domains. Here are some of the key areas where
IT plays a crucial role:

1. Healthcare:

 Electronic Health Records (EHRs): Digitizing patient records for efficient

management and access.
 Telemedicine: Providing remote healthcare services through video
conferencing and online consultations.
 Medical Imaging: Utilizing IT for advanced diagnostic techniques like MRI
and CT scans.
 Healthcare Management: Streamlining administrative tasks, appointment
scheduling, and billing.

2. Education:

 E-learning Platforms: Delivering online courses and educational resources.

 Learning Management Systems (LMS): Managing student records,
assignments, and grades.
 Interactive Learning: Using technology to create engaging and interactive
educational experiences.
 Online Research: Providing access to vast online libraries and research
databases.

3. Business and Finance:

 E-commerce: Facilitating online transactions and sales.

  Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP): Integrating business processes like
accounting, inventory, and human resources.
 Data Analytics: Analyzing business data to identify trends and make
informed decisions.
 Online Banking and Financial Services: Providing digital banking,
investment, and payment solutions.

4. Government and Public Sector:

 E-governance: Providing online government services to citizens.

 Data Management: Managing public records, databases, and information
systems.
 Cybersecurity: Protecting government networks and critical infrastructure.
 Public Safety: Using IT for emergency response, law enforcement, and
surveillance.

5. Communication and Media:

 Social Media: Connecting people and sharing information through online

platforms.
 Digital Media: Creating and distributing digital content like videos, music,
and online publications.
 Telecommunications: Providing voice, data, and internet services.
 Video Conferencing: Enabling remote communication and collaboration.

6. Entertainment:

 Video Games: Developing and playing interactive entertainment.

 Streaming Services: Providing on-demand access to movies, TV shows, and
music.
 Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR): Creating immersive
entertainment experiences.

7. Security:

 Cybersecurity: Protecting computer systems and networks from cyber

threats.
 Data Security: Implementing measures to protect sensitive data.
 Surveillance Systems: Using technology for security monitoring and
surveillance

Security issues inherent in Information technology development

Information technology (IT) development and use introduce a wide range of security
issues. These issues can compromise data, systems, and even entire organizations.
Common Security Threats:

 Malware: This includes viruses, worms, ransomware, and Trojan horses,

which can damage or steal data, disrupt systems, or hold them hostage.
 Phishing: This involves deceptive tactics, such as fraudulent emails or
websites, to trick individuals into revealing sensitive information like
passwords or credit card details.
 Data Breaches: These occur when unauthorized individuals gain access to
sensitive data, leading to potential identity theft, financial loss, and
reputational damage.
 Ransomware Attacks: A type of malware that encrypts data and demands a
ransom payment for its release. These attacks can cripple businesses and
organizations.
 Denial-of-Service (DoS) and Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS)
Attacks: These attacks flood systems with traffic, making them unavailable to
legitimate users.
 SQL Injection: This involves inserting malicious code into database queries
to gain unauthorized access to data.
 Zero-Day Exploits: These attacks target vulnerabilities that are unknown to
software vendors, making them particularly dangerous.
 Insider Threats: These threats come from individuals within an organization
who have authorized access to systems and data, but misuse that access.
 Supply Chain Attacks: These attacks target vulnerabilities in the software
and hardware supply chain, allowing attackers to compromise systems through
trusted vendors.
 Social Engineering: This is the manipulation of people into performing
actions or divulging confidential information.

Underlying Security Issues:

 Vulnerabilities in Software and Hardware: Software and hardware often

contain flaws that can be exploited by attackers.
 Weak Passwords and Access Controls: Inadequate password policies and
access controls can make it easy for unauthorized individuals to gain access to
systems.
 Lack of Security Awareness: Many security breaches are caused by human
error, such as clicking on malicious links or opening infected attachments.
 Inadequate Security Measures: Organizations may fail to implement
appropriate security measures, such as firewalls, intrusion detection systems,
and data encryption.
 Cloud Computing Security Risks: While cloud computing offers many
benefits, it also introduces new security risks, such as data breaches and
unauthorized access.
  IoT (Internet of Things) Security Risks: The proliferation of IoT devices
has increased the attack surface for cybercriminals, as many of these devices
have weak security.

Future trends in information technology

Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML): AI is becoming increasingly

integrated into various sectors, driving automation, data analysis, and decision-making.

 Generative AI, like that powering large language models (LLMs), is transforming
content creation and interactive experiences.
 ML algorithms are becoming more sophisticated, leading to improved predictions
and personalized experiences.

Cybersecurity: With the rise of digital data and interconnected systems, cybersecurity is
paramount.

 AI-driven threat detection and response systems are crucial for safeguarding digital
assets.
 Emphasis on cybersecurity resilience, including securing remote work environments.

Internet of Things (IoT):

 The proliferation of IoT devices is creating interconnected networks, enabling

seamless communication and data exchange.
 Applications range from smart homes and cities to industrial IoT, optimizing
resource utilization and enhancing efficiency.

Cloud Computing:

 Cloud computing continues to be a foundational technology, providing scalable and

flexible access to computing resources.
 Edge computing, which brings processing power closer to the data source, is gaining
prominence.

5G and Connectivity:

 The expansion of 5G networks is enabling faster and more reliable connectivity,

supporting emerging technologies like IoT and AR/VR.
 This enhanced connectivity facilitates real-time data processing and low-latency
communication.

Quantum Computing:
 Quantum computing holds the potential to revolutionize computation, enabling
solutions to complex problems that are beyond the reach of classical computers.
 Applications are emerging in areas like cryptography, drug discovery, and financial
modeling
