Introduction To

IoT – Unit 3
 What is IoT
• IoT stands for Internet of Things.
• It refers to the interconnectedness of physical devices,
such as appliances and vehicles, that are embedded
with software, sensors, and connectivity which enables
these objects to connect and exchange data.
• This technology allows for the collection and sharing of
data from a vast network of devices, creating
opportunities for more efficient and automated
systems.
IoT is network of interconnected computing devices which
are embedded in everyday objects, enabling them to send
and receive data.
 What is IoT
• Connecting everyday things embedded with electronics,
software, and sensors to internet enabling to collect and
exchange data without human interaction called as the
Internet of Things (IoT).
 Thing?
A “Thing” in the context of IOT, is a entity or physical object that has
unique identifier, an embedded system and ability to transfer data
over the network.

These devices collect useful data with the help of various existing
technologies and then autonomously flow the data between other
devices
 Embedded Systems in IoT

An embedded device system generally runs as a single application. these devices can
connect through the internet connection, and able communicate through other
network devices
 Building Blocks of IoT
Four things form the basic building blocks of the IoT
system –sensors, processors, gateways, and
applications.
• Sensors
• These form the front end of the IoT devices.
These are the so-called “Things” of the system.
Their main purpose is to collect data from its
surroundings (sensors) or give out data to their
surroundings (actuators).
• These have to be uniquely identifiable devices
with a unique IP address so that they can be
easily identifiable over a large network.
• These have to be active in nature which means
that they should be able to collect real-time data.
These can either work on their own (autonomous
in nature) or can be made to work by the user
depending on their needs (user-controlled).
• Examples of sensors are gas sensor, water quality
sensor, moisture sensor, etc.
 Building Blocks of IoT
• Processors
• Processors are the brain of the IoT system.
Their main function is to process the data
captured by the sensors and process them so
as to extract valuable data from the enormous
amount of raw data collected. In a word, we
can say that it gives intelligence to the data.
• Processors mostly work on a real-time basis
and can be easily controlled by applications.
These are also responsible for securing the
data – that is performing encryption and
decryption of data.
• Embedded hardware devices,
microcontrollers, etc are the ones that process
the data because they have processors
attached to it.
 Building Blocks of IoT
• Gateways
• Gateways are responsible for routing the
processed data and sending it to proper
locations for its (data) proper utilization.
• In other words, we can say that the gateway
helps in to and fro communication of the data.
It provides network connectivity to the data.
Network connectivity is essential for any IoT
system to communicate.
• LAN, WAN, PAN, etc are examples of network
gateways.
 Building Blocks of IoT
• Applications
• Applications form another end of an IoT
system. Applications are essential for the
proper utilization of all the data collected.
• These cloud-based applications are
responsible for rendering effective meaning to
the data collected. Applications are controlled
by users and are a delivery point of particular
services.
• Examples of applications are home
automation apps, security systems, industrial
control hubs, etc.
 Characteristics of IoT
1. Connectivity
Connectivity is an important requirement of the IoT infrastructure. Things of IoT should be connected to
the IoT infrastructure. Anyone, anywhere, anytime can connect, this should be guaranteed at all times. For
example, the connection between people through Internet devices like mobile phones, and other gadgets,
also a connection between Internet devices such as routers, gateways, sensors, etc.
2. Intelligence and Identity
The extraction of knowledge from the generated data is very important. For example, a sensor generates
data, but that data will only be useful if it is interpreted properly. Each IoT device has a unique identity.
This identification is helpful in tracking the equipment and at times for querying its status.
3. Scalability
The number of elements connected to the IoT zone is increasing day by day. Hence, an IoT setup should be
capable of handling the massive expansion. The data generated as an outcome is enormous, and it should
be handled appropriately.
4. Dynamic and Self-Adapting (Complexity)
IoT devices should dynamically adapt themselves to changing contexts and scenarios. Assume a camera
meant for surveillance. It should be adaptable to work in different conditions and different light situations
(morning, afternoon, and night).
 Characteristics of IoT
5. Architecture
IoT Architecture cannot be homogeneous in nature. It should be hybrid, supporting different manufacturers
‘ products to function in the IoT network. IoT is not owned by anyone engineering branch. IoT is a reality
when multiple domains come together.
6. Safety
There is a danger of the sensitive personal details of the users getting compromised when all his/her
devices are connected to the internet. This can cause a loss to the user. Hence, data security is the major
challenge. Besides, the equipment involved is huge. IoT networks may also be at risk. Therefore,
equipment safety is also critical.
7. Self Configuring
This is one of the most important characteristics of IoT. IoT devices are able to upgrade their software in
accordance with requirements with a minimum of user participation. Additionally, they can set up the
network, allowing for the addition of new devices to an already-existing network.
8. Interoperability
IoT devices use standardized protocols and technologies to ensure they can communicate with each other
and other systems. Interoperability is one of the key characteristics of the Internet of Things (IoT). It refers
to the ability of different IoT devices and systems to communicate and exchange data with each other,
regardless of the underlying technology or manufacturer.
 Case Studies and Applications

• Example 1: Smart Cities

– Real-time traffic management
– Environmental monitoring
• Example 2: Healthcare
– Remote patient monitoring
– Real-time diagnostics
• Example 3: Industrial IoT
– Predictive maintenance
– Real-time quality control
IoT in Health
IoT in Agriculture
IoT in Education
IoT in Traffic Control
IoT in Smart Home
IoT in Pollution Tracking
 Industrial IoT (IIOT)
• Industrial IoT (IIoT) focusses on the use of cyber-physical systems to monitor
the physical factory processes and make data-based automated decisions.
• While the physical systems are made the intelligent using IoT, the real-time
communication, and cooperation both with each other and with humans is
established via the wireless web
• IIoT brings in the concept of ‘a connected factory leads to a smart factory’.
 IIOT in Manufacturing
1. Digital/connected factory: IoT enabled machinery can transmit operational
information to the partners like original equipment manufacturers and to field
engineers.
2. Facility management: The use of IoT sensors in manufacturing equipment
enables condition-based maintenance alerts.
3. Production flow monitoring: IoT in manufacturing can enable the monitoring of
production lines starting from the refining process down to the packaging of final
products.
4. Inventory management: IoT applications permit the monitoring of events across
a supply chain.
 IIOT in Manufacturing
5. Plant Safety and Security: IoT combined big data analysis can improve the
overall workers’ safety and security in the plant. .
6. Quality control: IoT sensors collect aggregate product data and other third-party
syndicated data from various stages of a product cycle.
7. Packaging Optimization: By using IoT sensors in products and/or packaging,
manufacturers can gain insights into the usage patterns and handling of product
from multiple customers.
8. Logistics and Supply Chain Optimization: The Industrial IoT (IIoT) can
provide access to real-time supply chain information by tracking materials,
equipment, and products as they move through the supply chain.
Real-Time Analytics in IoT
and Fog Computing
Layered Architecture, SOA, and API-Oriented Architecture
 Fog Computing
• What is IoT: Network of physical devices
embedded with electronics, software's and
sensors which enable these objects to
connect and exchange data.
• Fog Computing: Distributed computing
infrastructure that brings computation,
storage and networking closer to the
source of data, at the edge of the network.
• Challenge: Traditional cloud-based IoT
solutions struggle with latency, bandwidth,
and security.
• Solution: Fog computing addresses these
challenges by processing data closer to the
source.
 Fog Computing
Edge Computing Fog Computing
Computation takes place at the edge of a device’s Fog computing is an extension of cloud
network, which is known as edge computing. That computing. It is a layer in between the edge and
means a computer is connected with the network the cloud. When edge computers send huge
of the device, which processes the data and sends amounts of data to the cloud, fog nodes
the data to the cloud in real-time. That computer is receive the data and analyze what’s
known as “edge computer” or “edge node”. important. Then the fog nodes transfer the
important data to the cloud to be stored and
Example of Edge computing: delete the unimportant data or keep them
with themselves for further analysis. In this
• Autonomous vehicle edge computing devices way, fog computing saves a lot of space in the
collect data from cameras and sensors on the cloud and transfers important data quickly.
vehicle, process it, and make decisions in
milliseconds, such as self-parking cars.
• In order to accurately assess a patient’s
condition and foresee treatments, data is
processed from a variety of edge devices
connected to sensors and monitors.
 Fog Computing
Why is Fog Computing Used?
•To improve latency and performance: Because fog nodes are often
deployed at the network edge, closer to the IoT devices themselves, they can
substantially reduce the processing time and enhance performance for
applications that demand low latency.

•To improve decision-making: It can help improve decision-making in real-

time as fog computing allows for real-time data collection and analysis from IoT
devices.

•To reduce costs: Fog computing can also help reduce costs associated with
data storage and analysis. This is because, by bringing computation and data
storage closer to the network edge, fog computing reduces the amount of data
that needs to be transmitted back to a central location for processing.
 Fog Computing
Components of Fog Computing:
Some of the key components of Fog computing

Edge devices: These are the devices located at the edge of the network,
closest to the data source. Edge devices include sensors, PLCs (programmable
logic controllers), and gateway routers.
Data processing: Data processing is done locally on edge devices rather than
sent to a central location for processing. The result is improved performance and
reduced latency.
Data storage: Edge devices can store data locally rather than sending it to a
central location for storage. This improves security and privacy, as well as
reduces latency.
Connectivity: Fog computing requires high-speed connectivity between edge
devices and the rest of the network. This is achieved through wired or wireless
means.
 Fog Computing
Why Is Fog Computing Beneficial for IoT?

The internet of things (IoT) is a system of interconnected devices, sensors, and

software components that share data and information. The power of the IoT comes
from its ability to collect and analyze massive volumes of data from various sources.
This data can be used to improve efficiency, optimize operations and make better
decisions.

• Fog computing in IoT is a decentralized computing model that brings

computation and data storage closer to the edge of the network.

• In other words, fog computing moves processing power and data storage
away from centralized server farms and into local networks where IoT
devices are located.
 Real time analytics
• Real-time analytics in IoT refers to the
process of analysing data generated by
connected devices as it arrives, without
any delay.
• IoT systems collect vast amounts of
streaming data from millions of devices
(sensors, wearables, industrial
machines, etc.).
• Through Real-time analytics process
this data instantly, allows for timely
insights and actions.
• It’s crucial for applications where
immediate decisions impact safety,
efficiency, or performance.
 The Need for Real-Time Analytics

• Data Volume: IoT generates massive amounts of data.

• Data Velocity: Data needs to be processed immediately to
derive insights.
• Data Variety: Data comes in various formats and structures.
• Benefits of Real time analytics:
a) Improved decision-making.
b) Enhanced operational efficiency.
c) Predictive maintenance
d) Fraud detection
e) Personalized experiences
 IoT Layered Architecture
• Perception Layer: Sensors,
actuators, and devices collect
data from the physical world.
• Transport Layer: Connectivity
infrastructure (Wi-Fi, cellular,
Bluetooth) for data
transmission.
• Processing Layer: Data
aggregation, processing, and
storage (fog and cloud).
• Application Layer: Value-
added services and
applications based on
processed data.
 IoT Layered Architecture
• Perception Layer (Sensing
Layer): Sensors, actuators, and
devices collect data from the
physical world.
• Transport Layer (Network
Layer): Connectivity
infrastructure (Wi-Fi, cellular,
Bluetooth) for data
transmission.
• Processing Layer (Data
Processing Layer): Data
aggregation, processing, and
storage (fog and cloud).
• Application Layer: Value-added
services and applications based
on processed data.
 IoT Layered Architecture

A five-layer IoT architecture can also be used

1. Perception Layer
2. Transport layer
3. Processing layer
4. Application layer
5. Business layer
 Service Oriented Architecture (SOA)
Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) is a stage in the evolution of application development
and/or integration. It defines a way to make software components reusable using the
interfaces.
Formally, SOA is an architectural approach in which applications make use of services
available in the network. In this architecture, services are provided to form applications,
through a network call over the internet. It uses common communication standards to
speed up and streamline the service integrations in applications. Each service in SOA is a
complete business function in itself. The services are published in such a way that it
makes it easy for the developers to assemble their apps using those services.
• SOA allows users to combine a large number of facilities from existing services to
form applications.
• SOA encompasses a set of design principles that structure system development and
provide means for integrating components into a coherent and decentralized system.
• SOA-based computing packages functionalities into a set of interoperable services,
which can be integrated into different software systems belonging to separate
business domains.
 SOA-Based Architecture
1. Definition:
1. SOA(Service oriented Architecture) defines
a way to make software components
reusable using interfaces.
2. It allows applications to use services
available in the network.
2. Key Points:
1. Services: A service is a discrete unit of
functionality that can be accessed remotely
and acted upon independently. For example,
retrieving a credit card statement online.
2. Independence: SOA aims to be
independent of vendors, products, and
technologies.
3. Integration: SOA is commonly used for
system integration.
 SOA-Based Architecture in IoT
• Sensing layer is integrated
with available hardware
objects to sense the status of
things

• Network layer is the

infrastructure to support over
wireless or wired connections
among things.

• Service layer is to create and

manage services required by
users or applications

• Interfaces layer consists of the

interaction methods with users
or applications
 SOA-Based Architecture
There are two major roles within Service-oriented Architecture:
1. Service provider
2. Service consumer

Service provider: The service provider is the maintainer of the service and the
organization that makes available one or more services for others to use. To advertise
services, the provider can publish them in a registry, together with a service contract
that specifies the nature of the service, how to use it, the requirements for the
service, and the fees charged.

Service consumer: The service consumer can locate the service metadata in the registry
and develop the required client components to bind and use the service.
 SOA-Based Architecture
A good example of a SOA-based system is a set of Software as a service (SaaS) allows users to
customer services, like CRM, ERP, Product connect to and use cloud-based apps over the
Information Management System (PIM). Internet.
CRM: Customer Relationship Management refers
to the process of tracking and handling all interactions HubSpot
between a business and its customers. You can HubSpot is a popular CRM platform that combines a
track forms, emails, text messages, social posts, variety of hubs and integrations for a customized
quotes, and even purchases in one location using experience.
the platform. e.g. Semrush, Saleforce, Hubspot
Semrush CRM ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) system is a
Semrush CRM enables you to: comprehensive software platform that integrates
•Track and manage new and existing customers various business processes and functions into a
•Maintain and organize key customer information single, unified system.
•Set and manage client tasks e.g. For example, when a customer contacts support
•Track multiple Semrush projects for a specific client with a query about an order, the representative can
•Create Client Portals for closer client collaboration instantly access the order's status, including any
Salesforce delays or issues in the supply chain, and
Salesforce is one of the original SaaS CRM tool and communicate this information accurately to the
is a common choice for enterprise companies with customer.
large customer bases.
 Benefits of SOA Architecture
Faster Time to Market:
Developers can reuse services across different business processes, saving time and costs.
Assembling applications becomes faster with SOA compared to building everything from scratch.
Efficient Maintenance:
SOA promotes smaller, modular services.
Updating, debugging, and modifying individual services is easier than dealing with large monolithic code
blocks.
Changes to one service do not impact the overall functionality of the entire business process.
Greater Adaptability:
SOA is adaptable to technological advancements.
You can modernize applications efficiently and cost-effectively.
For example, older electronic health record systems can be integrated into newer cloud-based
applications.
Interoperability:
Each service in SOA includes description documents specifying functionality and terms.
Any client system can run a service, regardless of the underlying platform or programming language.
Loose coupling ensures changes in one service do not affect others.
Reduced Redundancy:
SOA reduces redundancy by reusing services.
It increases usability, maintainability, and overall value.
 Advantages of SOA Architecture
Advantages of SOA

Service reusability: In SOA, applications are made from existing services. Thus, services can
be reused to make many applications.
Easy maintenance: As services are independent of each other they can be updated and
modified easily without affecting other services.
Platform independent: SOA allows making a complex application by combining services
picked from different sources, independent of the platform.
Availability: SOA facilities are easily available to anyone on request.
Reliability: SOA applications are more reliable because it is easy to debug small services
rather than huge codes
Scalability: Services can run on different servers within an environment, this increases
scalability of messages.
 Disadvantages of SOA Architecture

Disadvantages of SOA:
High overhead: A validation of input parameters of services is done
whenever services interact, this decreases performance as it increases load
and response time.
High investment: A huge initial investment is required for SOA.
Complex service management: When services interact they exchange
messages to tasks. The number of messages may go in millions. It becomes
a cumbersome task to handle a large number of messages.
 Practical Application of SOA Architecture

Practical applications of SOA: SOA is used in many ways around us

whether it is mentioned or not.

1. SOA infrastructure is used by many armies and air forces to deploy

situational awareness systems.
2. SOA is used to improve healthcare delivery.
3. Nowadays many apps are games and they use inbuilt functions to run.
For example, an app might need GPS so it uses the inbuilt GPS
functions of the device. This is SOA in mobile solutions.
 API-Oriented Architecture
What Is API Architecture ?

API architecture refers to the process of developing a software interface that exposes backend data and
application functionality for use in new applications.
4 Layers of API Architecture

Information Management Layer: Modern digital organizations run

on giant data repositories. You need a steady diet of advanced
database systems to store and manage all of it. All of your
applications need a reliable, high-performance data layer. And you
find yourself needing increasingly advanced (or simplified) data
storage systems.
Application Layer: This speaks for itself. It’s where the
applications that run your organization live. You might want
to replace these applications with more modern alternatives built
in microservices. But this is likely not realistic in many cases.
Integration Layer: The integration layer enhances
interoperability by managing the integration of various
systems and services.
Interaction Layer: The interaction layer is where the applications
and services used by your customers, partners, and employees
interact with your business applications and data.
 API-Oriented Architecture
• API (Application Programming Interface) is a
tool that software developers use to gather
and transfer data between different
applications or computers
• Role in IoT:
– Gathering Data: APIs allow communication
between connected devices and
applications, enabling data collection from
the device.
– Instructing Devices: APIs can instruct a
connected device to perform specific
actions remotely.
• Since IoT devices can be located anywhere
globally, APIs make it possible to access and
utilize device data from a distance.
 How API and IoT work together
• APIs enable users to
programmatically access
information about their devices
and make decisions based on that
data.
• Examples of API use in IoT:
– Fleet Management: Activating
devices, billing, and reporting are
all done via APIs.
– Fraud Prevention: Users can
create alerts if a device is moved
or if a SIM card is stolen.
– Custom Applications: Developers
leverage APIs to integrate IoT
data into their own tools or
applications.
 Types of API Architectures
APIs in IoT are highly diverse to support IoT development by all means. The key API types are as
mentioned next.
SOAP: (Simple Object Access Protocol)
SOAP APIs are crucial for IoT devices development as they make a communication bridge between
the servers and the clients. The API supports only XML-based data transfer. SOAP is mostly used
for applications that require a high level of security – like payments.
REST: (Representational State Transfer)
IoT REST APIs useful for HTTP (Hypertext transfer protocol) data transmission and for empowering
IoT devices to stay associated with the rest of the world. These APIs are driven by architectural
principles and boast features like interface simplicity, instant resources identification during the
request, and manipulation of particular interfaces.
JSON and XML: (JavaScript Object Notation) and (Extensible Markup Language)
A bit older than SOAP APIs, JSON and XML IoT APIs are based on a simple approach and consume
limited bandwidth. JSON and XML are two of the formats in which data is delivered. JSON is a
lightweight, human-readable format that can be used with any programming language. Most public
web services use REST APIs with JSON.
Extensible Markup Language (XML) lets you define and store data in a shareable manner. XML supports information exchange between computer systems
such as websites, databases, and third-party applications. Predefined rules make it easy to transmit data as XML files over any network because the recipient
can use those rules to read the data accurately and efficiently.
 The important role of APIs in the IoT
What makes API crucial for IoT and any other device/software:
• The fact that they support effective utilization of pre-existing functions to ensure smooth
software processing while keeping developers free from the need of reprogramming
again and again.

• The world of IoT is too complex demanding continual contact between multiple agents
involved. API usage makes the task achievable.

• IoT APIs serve as amazing technical development resources as unmatched flexibility is

granted.

• Speaking of cyber security, APIs are essential as developers can use them to gain control
over access requests.
 IoT Challenges
1. IoT Security:
1.Connecting numerous devices to the internet introduces security risks. Each connected device becomes a potential entry point for hackers.
2.Challenges include managing device updates, securing communication (especially over unsecured Wi-Fi networks), and detecting vulnerabilities.
2. Device Compatibility:
1.IoT ecosystems involve diverse devices from various manufacturers. Ensuring seamless compatibility between them can be challenging.
2.Interoperability standards are crucial to enable devices to work together effectively.
3. Bandwidth Constraints:
1.As the number of connected devices grows, network bandwidth becomes a limitation.
2.Efficient data transmission and load balancing are necessary to prevent congestion.
 IoT Challenges
Security, privacy and data sharing issues
• Because IoT devices are closely connected, all a hacker has to do
is exploit one vulnerability to manipulate all the data, rendering it
unusable. And manufacturers that don't update their devices
regularly -- or at all -- leave them vulnerable to cybercriminals.
• However, hackers aren't the only threat to the internet of things;
privacy is another major concern for IoT users. For instance,
companies that make and distribute consumer IoT devices could
use those devices to obtain and sell users' personal data.
 IoT Challenges
Interoperability
Because IoT encompasses a wide array of devices, sensors, and
platforms from various manufacturers and platform providers.
Ensuring these devices can communicate and work together
seamlessly is a significant challenge and can be costly for device
certification. Interoperability standards such as MQTT and CoAP help,
but organizations must still plan for integration, compatibility testing,
and potential vendor lock-in.
 IoT Challenges
Interoperability
Interoperability refers to the ability of different systems, devices, or
components to work together seamlessly and exchange data
effectively.
Because IoT encompasses a wide array of devices, sensors, and
platforms from various manufacturers and platform providers.
Ensuring these devices can communicate and work together
seamlessly is a significant challenge and can be costly for device
certification. Interoperability standards such as MQTT and CoAP help,
but organizations must still plan for integration, compatibility testing,
and potential vendor lock-in.
 IoT Challenges
Scalability
Scalability refers to the ability of a system to handle increasing
workloads or numbers of users without a significant decline in
performance.
IoT deployments are typically expected to scale from a handful of
devices to thousands or even millions. Verifying the infrastructure can
handle this scalability without compromising performance is a
significant challenge. Issues such as data overload, network
congestion, and efficient data processing and storage solutions need
to be addressed early in the deployment process.
 IoT Challenges
Reliability
Reliability refers to the ability of a system to perform its intended
function consistently and without failure over time.
Ensuring 24/7 uptime, especially for IoT devices stationed in remote or
challenging environments, presents unique challenges in IoT.
Organizations must develop robust maintenance and remote
monitoring strategies to address issues promptly and minimize
downtime.
 IoT Challenges
Power Management
Battery powered and low-power IoT devices require effective power
management to provide long-lasting operation and minimize
maintenance needs. This challenge is even more significant in remote
or inaccessible locations, where power conservation becomes
essential for optimal device performance and reliability.
Cost Management
While IoT promises efficiency gains, the initial investment can be
significant. Balancing the cost of deployment with the expected
benefits requires careful planning and cost analysis. Organizations
must consider hardware, software, connectivity, and ongoing
operational expenses
 IOT Communication
• The main goal of IoT is to enable communication
between devices that are not traditional computers.
• To interact with gateways, programs, servers and
cloud platforms, IoT devices need to have connections
as it allows devices to transmit and receive data across
a network.
• IoT allows these objects to send and receive data over
a network. There are various protocols in IOT
established to offer this communication.
• There are mainly two types of protocols: network and
data.
56
 IOT Communication (Data) Protocols

Some of the different IoT data protocols, namely:

• Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT)

• HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
• Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)
• Data Distribution Service (DDS)
• WebSocket
• Advanced Message Queue Protocol (AMQP)
• Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP)
• OPC Unified Architecture (OPC UA)

57
 Message Queue Telemetry Transport(MQTT)
Designed to be lightweight, so it can work in very low bandwidth networks, MQTT allows
communication between nodes in both reliable and unreliable networks.

Figure: MQTT's publish/subscribe architecture.

A use case of MQTT is in a smart factory where there are temperature sensors installed along with the
production plant. The installed sensors will connect to the MQTT broker and will publish the data within
sensor topics, as follows: sensors/temperature

Afterward, the MQTT clients, which can be of several types and quantities, will subscribe to the same
topic in order to read the temperature data. 58
 HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

This protocol has been the origin of data communication for the World Wide Web (WWW),
so logically it is being used in the IoT world. However, it is not optimized for it, because of
the following:

• The HTTP is made for two systems communicating to each other at a time, not more, so
it is time and energy-consuming to connect several sensors to get information.

• The HTTP is unidirectional, made for one system (client) to be sending one message to
another one (server). This makes it quite hard to escalate an IoT solution.

• Power consumption: HTTP relies on Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which requires
a lot of computing resources, so it is not suitable for battery-powered applications.

59
 Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)

Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)

• CoAP is a web transfer protocol to be used with limited networks with low
bandwidth and low availability. It follows a client/server architecture and is
built similarly to HTTP, supporting the REST model: servers make resources
available with an URL, and clients can make requests of types GET, POST, PUT
and DELETE.

• The CoAP communication links are 1:1 and UDP-based, so the delivery is not
guaranteed. CoAP is made to work in highly congested networks, where nodes
do not have a lot of intelligence and are not always working.

• URL: Uniform Resource Locator

• UDP: User Datagram Protocol 60
 Data Distribution Service (DDS)
Data Distribution Service (DDS):
• It is similar to MQTT.
• It follows a publish-subscribe methodology, with the main difference being that there are no
brokers.
• It means that all publishers (i.e., temperature sensors) and subscribers (i.e., mobile phones) are all
connected to the same network.
• This network is known as Global Data Space (GDS) and it interconnects each node with all the other
ones to avoid bottlenecks.

Figure: A DDS Global Data Space.

• Furthermore, any node can leave or join the network, since they are dynamically discovered. 61
 WebSocket

WebSocket:
• Linked to the HTTP protocol, the WebSocket technology establishes a TCP connection between a
browser and a server, and then both of them exchange information until the connection is closed.

Figure: Comparison between HTTP and WebSocket.

• Although this protocol can be seen as an improvement of the HTTP connection, the WebSocket is
still very overloaded and heavy for IoT applications.
62
 Advanced Message Queue Protocol (AMQP)
Advanced Message Queue Protocol (AMQP):

In the beginning, AMQP was not initially created for IoT applications, but for banking
environments. AMQP accepts publish/subscribe architectures, as well as request/response
types. It is TCP-based, so delivery is guaranteed, as well as acknowledgment, which makes
this protocol reliable, with the consequent overhead message reliability.
Compared to MQTT, AMQP offers two Quality of Service levels:

• At most once: the sender does not wait until having an acknowledgment from the
receiver to delete a message.
• At least once: for each message, the sender will receive an acknowledgment from the
receiver before deleting the message. In a case where the acknowledgment is lost, the
message is re-sent.
• Exactly once: the messages are sent only once. It requires special coordination between
the sender and the receiver.
63
 Extensible Messaging and Presence
Protocol (XMPP)

Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP):

• It is based on Extensible Markup Language (XML) and in the past, it was known as
Jabber. It is an open-source, decentralized, secure protocol to exchange XML messages.

• A characteristic factor of XMPP is its addressing method and how nodes are identified. It
uses a Jabber ID with the format [email protected], which allows two nodes to
interchange information regardless of the distance between them.

64
 OPC Unified Architecture (OPC UA)

OPC Unified Architecture (OPC UA):

• It is a standard made for industrial communication, strongly oriented to

guarantee interoperability between manufacturers, operating systems, and
programming languages. The OPC foundation reported that many industrial
vendors are currently (as of 2022) adopting the OPC UA as the open standard.

• All in all, the OPC UA is a transport-agnostic protocol, so it supports both of the

previously used architectures: request/response (such as WebSocket or HTTP),
as well as the publish/subscribe (such as the MQTT).

• OPC: Open Platform Communications

65
 IOT Communication (Network)
Protocols
Bluetooth Low
Bluetooth Zigbee Wi-Fi
Energy

Z-Wave Cellular Sigfox RFID

Near Field
Ethernet Communication LPWAN LoRaWAN
(NFC)
66
 IOT Communication Protocols

Bluetooth
• It’s effective for sending high-speed data for distances of up to 10 meters. Small amounts
of data from wearables or sensors can be transmitted effectively using Bluetooth.
• More than one third of IoT devices contain Bluetooth connectivity.
• Bluetooth is a form of wireless technology used for device communication and to make
personal area networks(PANs).
• Bluetooth technology uses the 2.4 GHz ISM (industrial, scientific, and medical) band
• The latest version is the bluetooth5 and it has features such as high range, speed and data
broadcasting.
• It has some empowering features that support IoT devices. Bluetooth low energy (BLE)
supports devices that require less power and ideal for IoT enabled projects.

67
 IOT Communication Protocols

Zigbee
• Zigbee is a WLAN and a wireless technology that aims to support extremely low power
devices.
• It supports these kinds of devices and makes it possible to connect them to the internet.
• It is an open global standard and works on IEEE 802.15.4 physical radio standards.
• IoT devices do not require extra functionality and Zigbee is an ideal protocol for
transferring data from one communication point to another.
• Zigbee makes data flow easy. It is used to send small amounts of data using very less
power which is why it is used in machine to machine communication(M2M) and IoT.
• Zigbee devices operate in the 2.4 GHz spectrum, although some can use 784 MHz (China),
868 MHz (Europe), and 915 MHz (US)

68
 IOT Communication Protocols

Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE)

• BLE is a Bluetooth that uses less power.
• It is designed to support the internet of things.
• BLE is energy efficient and offers better connectivity compared
to other forms of technology such as Zigbee or LoRa.
• BLE fits the need of data transfers as that is the only function
that takes place in IoT sensors.
• BLE is used in the making of smartwatches, medical devices,
fitness trackers, beacons and home automation devices.
• BLE consumes less power and has less bandwidth.

69
 IOT Communication Protocols

Wi-Fi
• Wi-fi is a form of local area network for wireless communication.
• It is a better option for data transfers as it easily fits into a variety of
standards.
• It plays an important role in IoT communication and
intercommunication with other cellular networks such as Bluetooth.
• Wi-fi supports high bandwidth and low latency.
• It’s common in households and workplaces due to its low operating
costs and works in the frequency of 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz.

70
 IOT Communication Protocols
Z-Wave
• Z-wave is a wireless messaging protocol to communicate between various IoT
devices.
• It is useful especially in home automation to connect appliances in smart homes.
Z-wave offers a two-way mode of communication empowered with mesh
networking and message received acknowledgment.
• Z-wave is a low-cost technology that eliminates issues caused by Wi-fi and
Bluetooth. Z-Wave operates on a lower radio frequency than Wi-Fi and Zigbee,
which reduces the likelihood of interference from other wireless devices and
directly improves device reliability. It uses 865 MHz to 926 MHz bands.
• The network of Z-wave includes the internet of things devices and control called
the primary hub.
• When z-hub receives a message via a smartphone or tablet, it sends this message
to the relevant smart home appliance. 71
 IOT Communication Protocols
RFID
• Radio frequency identification system is a technology that supports the identification
of objects via radio waves.
• By connecting the RFID reader to the terminal of the internet, users can identify,
monitor and track the object with tags.
• RFID is fast, dependent and does not require physical interaction between the user
and the tagged item.
• It identifies IoT objects by tagging and labelling them. The tag or label replaces the
object.
• RFID is useful to identify, track and monitor remote IoT objects with time and
location.
• Low Frequency (LF) 125-135 KHz, High Frequency (HF) 13.56 MHz, Ultra High
Frequency (UHF) 868-930 MHz
72
 IOT Communication Protocols
Cellular
• Cellular connects the devices to anything and everything without the need for
smartphones or gateway.
• This means it connects devices directly to the base station without any
intermediaries.
• These connections are always present even in remote areas.
• Cellular IoT makes it possible to construct less power-consuming devices that
connect to the internet which was not possible before.
• There are cellular communication subtypes like Long-Term Evolution Machine
Type Communication (LTE-M) and NarrowBand-Internet of Things (NB-IoT) that
offer more data capacity and less power consumption. These subtypes are
designed to enable IoT devices that require a long battery life or are used in
places where conventional 4G technology is challenging to access.
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 IOT Communication Protocols
Sigfox
• Sigfox was the first to introduce Low-Power WAN (LPWAN) technologies in the
development of IoT projects. It uses a low-power wide area network to
intercommunicate between IoT devices via the internet. It supports long-distance
communication for sending and receiving small messages.
• For machine-to-machine (M2M) applications, Sigfox is the best long-range network
since it uses less power than other long-range networks. This makes it an excellent
option for connecting remote devices that must operate on batteries for extended
periods without being charged.
• Sigfox operates in the industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) bands using an ultra-
narrow band (UNB) technology, with a specialized infrastructure.

74
 IOT Communication Protocols
Ethernet
• Ethernet is a communication standard that was developed in the early 80s to
network between local devices and computers.
• The local environment is labeled as a local area network(LAN).
• LAN creates a common environment for devices to receive and share information
among one another.
• Ethernet however offers a wired form of communication. Since it does not offer
wireless communication, the set becomes a bit costly and is not the ideal option for
IoT communication.

75
 IOT Communication Protocols
Near Field Communication (NFC)
• NFC stands for near-field communication.
• It is a wireless technology for short-distance communication.
• However, the NFC-enabled devices must be in close proximity to each other so
that they can communicate via radio waves.
• One of the devices should be an active device such as a smartphone or tablet
and the other device can be passive such as an NFC tag.
• The active devices require an external power supply while the passive devices do
not.
• NFC is only limited to the frequency band of 13.56 MHz
• Effective working distance: NFC (less than 10 cm, so it has high security)

76
 IOT Communication Protocols
LPWAN
• LPWAN stands for low power wide area network.
• It offers wireless communication between devices that consume less amounts of
power.
• It connects these devices to the internet to send and receive messages from
devices within the same network.
• Some examples of LPWAN are Sigfox and LoRa.
• LPWAN allows communication across a minimum of 500 meters, consumes little
power and enables long-distance connectivity.

77
 IOT Communication Protocols
LoRaWAN
• Low Range Wide Area Network or LoRaWAN is a wide area network
protocol.
• It was constructed to connect objects to the internet and to act as a mode of
communication between these objects.
• These objects could be home automation devices, smart cars, thermostats
and so on.
• Millions of low-power, low-memory devices are used in smart cities, where
this communication protocol is mostly employed.

78
 Cloud Computing
What is Cloud Computing?
• Cloud Computing means storing and accessing the data and programs on remote
servers that are hosted on the internet instead of the computer’s hard drive or local
server.
• Cloud computing is also referred to as Internet-based computing, it is a technology
where the resource is provided as a service through the Internet to the user.
• The data that is stored can be files, images, documents, or any other storable
document.
The following are some of the Operations that can be performed with Cloud Computing
• Storage, backup, and recovery of data
• Delivery of software on demand
• Development of new applications and services
• Streaming videos and audio
79
 Cloud Computing
What is Cloud Computing?
• Cloud computing helps users in easily accessing computing resources like storage,
and processing over internet rather than local hardware. How cloud computing
works, explained as:

• Infrastructure: Cloud computing depends on remote network servers hosted on

internet for store, manage, and process the data.
• On-Demand Acess: Users can access cloud services and resources based on-
demand. They can scale up or down, without having to invest for physical
hardware.
• Types of Services: Cloud computing offers various benefits such as cost saving,
scalability, reliability and accessibility. It reduces capital expenditures, improves
efficiency. 80
 Cloud Computing
Architecture of Cloud Computing
Cloud computing architecture refers to the components and sub-components required
for cloud computing. These components typically refer to:
⁖ Front end ( Fat client, Thin client)
⁖ Back-end platforms ( Servers, Storage )
⁖ Cloud-based delivery and a network ( Internet, Intranet, Intercloud )

81
 Cloud Computing
Architecture of Cloud Computing
.

82
 Cloud Computing
Architecture of Cloud Computing
1. Front End ( User Interaction Enhancement ):
The User Interface of Cloud Computing consists of 2 sections of clients. The Thin clients are the ones that use web browsers
facilitating portable and lightweight accessibilities and others are known as Fat Clients that use many functionalities for
offering a strong user experience.
e.g. Microsoft Office tools such as Word, Excel, and PowerPoint are other examples of fat client applications. A common
thin client definition is a computer that uses resources housed inside a central server as opposed to a hard drive.
2. Back-end Platforms (Cloud Computing Engine)
The core of cloud computing is made at back-end platforms with several servers for storage and processing computing.
Management of Applications logic is managed through servers and effective data handling is provided by storage. The
combination of these platforms at the backend offers the processing power, and capacity to manage and store data behind
the cloud.
3. Cloud-Based Delivery and Network
On-demand access to the computer and resources is provided over the Internet, Intranet, and Intercloud. The Internet comes
with global accessibility, the Intranet helps in internal communications of the services within the organization and the
Intercloud enables interoperability across various cloud services. This dynamic network connectivity ensures an essential
component of cloud computing architecture on guaranteeing easy access and data transfer. 83
 Cloud Computing
Cloud Computing Services
1. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
2. Platform as a Service (PaaS)
3. Software as a Service (SaaS)
4. Function as a Service (FaaS)

84
 Cloud Computing
Cloud Computing Services
1. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): Typically IaaS is a service where infrastructure is
provided as outsourcing to enterprises such as networking equipment, devices, database,
and web servers. It is also known as Hardware as a Service (HaaS).
2. Platform as a Service (PaaS): PaaS is a category of cloud computing that provides a
platform and environment to allow developers to build applications and services over the
internet. PaaS services are hosted in the cloud and accessed by users simply via their web
browser.

85
 Cloud Computing
Cloud Computing Services
3. Software as a Service (SaaS): Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) is a way of delivering services and
applications over the Internet. Instead of installing and maintaining software, we simply
access it via the Internet, freeing ourselves from the complex software and hardware
management. It removes the need to install and run applications on our own computers. The
various companies providing Software as a service are Cloud9 Analytics, Salesforce.com, Cloud
Switch, Microsoft Office 365, Big Commerce, Eloqua, dropBox, and Cloud Tran.
4. Function as as Service (FaaS): It provides a platform for its users or customers to develop,
compute, run and deploy the code or entire application as functions. It allows the user to
entirely develop the code and update it at any time without worrying about the maintenance of
the underlying infrastructure. The developed code can be executed with response to the
specific event. It is also as same as PaaS.

86
 Cloud Computing
Cloud Computing Characteristics
The following are the characteristics of Cloud Computing:
Scalability: With Cloud hosting, it is easy to grow and shrink the number and size of servers based on the need. This is
done by either increasing or decreasing the resources in the cloud. This ability to alter plans due to fluctuations in business
size and needs is a superb benefit of cloud computing, especially when experiencing a sudden growth in demand.
Save Money: An advantage of cloud computing is the reduction in hardware costs. Instead of purchasing in-house
equipment, hardware needs are left to the vendor. For companies that are growing rapidly, new hardware can be large,
expensive, and inconvenient. Cloud computing alleviates these issues because resources can be acquired quickly and
easily.
Reliability: Rather than being hosted on one single instance of a physical server, hosting is delivered on a virtual partition
that draws its resource, such as disk space, from an extensive network of underlying physical servers. If one server goes
offline it will have no effect on availability, as the virtual servers will continue to pull resources from the remaining network
of servers.
Physical Security: The underlying physical servers are still housed within data centers and so benefit from
the security measures that those facilities implement to prevent people from accessing or disrupting them on-site.

87
 Cloud Computing

Advantages Disadvantages
• Cost Efficiency • Security Concerns
• Flexibility and Scalability • Server Down Problems
• Collaboration and Accessibility • Dependency on Internet Connectivity
• Automatic Maintenance and Updates • Cost Management Complexity

88
 Big Data

Big Data
• Big data refers to the data which is huge in size and also increasing rapidly with respect to
time.
• Big data includes structured data, unstructured data as well as semi-structured data. Big
data can not be stored and processed in traditional data management tools, it needs
specialized big data management tools.
• It refers to complex and large data sets having 5 V’s volume, velocity, veracity, value and
variety information assets. It includes data storage, data analysis, data mining and data
visualization.

Examples of the sources where big data is generated includes social media data, e-commerce
data, weather station data, IoT Sensor data etc.
89
 Big Data

Big Data
Characteristics of Big Data :
• Variety of Big data – Structured, unstructured, and semi structured data
• Velocity of Big data – Speed of data generation
• Volume of Big data – Huge volumes of data that is being generated
• Value of Big data – Extracting useful information and making it valuable
• Variability of Big data – Inconsistency which can be shown by the data at times.

90
 Big Data
Types of Big Data
1. Structured
Structured data are defined as the data which can be stored, processed and accessed in a fixed format. Structured
data has a fixed schema and thus can be processed easily. We can use SQL to manage structured data.
Example of Structured Data: Data stored in RDBMS.
2. Semi-Structured
Semi-Structured data are the data that do not have any formal structure like table definition in RDBMS, but they
have some organizational properties like markers and tags to separate semantic elements thus, making it easier
for analysis.
Example of Semi-Structured Data: XML (Extensible Markup Language) files or JSON (JavaScript Object Notation)
documents.
3. Unstructured:
Unstructured data have unknown form or structure and cannot be stored in RDBMS. We cannot analyze
unstructured data until they are transformed into a structured format. 80 % of the data generated by the
organizations are unstructured.
Example of Unstructured Data: Text files, multimedia contents like audio, video, images, etc.
 Big Data
Big Data Examples
• The New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) produces one terabyte of new trade data every day.
• Each day 500 million tweets are sent.
• Amazon, in order to recommend products, on average, handles more than 15 million+ customer clickstreams
per day.
• Walmart an American Multinational Retail Corporation handle about 1 million+ customer transactions per
hour.
• 65 billion+ messages are sent on Whatsapp every day.
• A single Jet engine generates more than 10 terabytes of data in-flight time of 30 minutes.
• On average, everyday 294 billion+ emails are sent.
• Modern cars have close to 100 sensors for monitoring tire pressure, fuel level, etc. , thus generating a lot of
sensor data.
• Facebook stores and analyzes more than 30 Petabytes of data generated by the users each day.
• YouTube users upload about 48 hours of video every minute of the day.
 Big Data
Big Data Applications
Big Data finds applications in many domains in various industries. The article enlisted some of the
applications in brief.
1. Bank and Finance: In the banking and Finance sectors, it helps in detecting frauds, managing risks,
and analyzing abnormal trading.
2. Agriculture: In agriculture sectors, it is used to increase crop efficiency. It can be done by planting
test crops to store and record the data about crops’ reaction to different environmental changes and
then using that stored data for planning crop plantation accordingly.
3. Advertising and Marketing: Advertising agencies use Big Data to understand the pattern of user
behavior and collect information about customers’ interests.
4. Media and Entertainment: Media and Entertainment industries are using big data analysis to target
the interested audience. They now understand the kind of advertisements that attract a customer as
well as the most appropriate time for broadcasting the advertisements to seek maximum attention.
IoT Threats

There are three broad categories of threats: Capture, Disrupt, and Manipulate.

• Capture threats are related to capturing the system or information.

• Disrupt threats are related to denying, destroying, and disrupting the system.

• Manipulate threats are related to manipulating the data, identity, time-series

data, etc.
IoT Threats
Active and Passive Threats
• Some of the well-known active threats are as follows:
• Masquerading: an entity pretends to be a different entity. This includes masquerading other
objects, sensors, and users.
• Man-in-the-middle: when the attacker secretly relays and possibly alters the communication
between two entities that believe that they are directly communicating with each other.
• Replay attacks: when an intruder sends some old (authentic) messages to the receiver. In the
case of a broadcast link or beacon, access to previous transmitted data is easy.
• Denial-of-Service (DoS) attacks: when an entity fails to perform its proper function or acts in
a way that prevents other entities from performing their proper functions.

• Active threats such as masquerading, replay attacks, DoS attacks are, in general, comparatively
easy in an IoT environment.
IoT Threats
Active and Passive Threats

• The simplest type of passive threats in the IoT is that of eavesdropping or monitoring of
transmissions with a goal to obtain information that is being transmitted. It is also referred
to as capture attacks. Capture attacks are designed to gain control of physical or logical
systems or to gain access to information or data items from these systems.
• The physical distribution of the IoT objects and systems provide attackers with great
opportunity to gain control of these systems.
• The distribution of smart objects, sensors, and systems results in self-advertisements, beacons,
and mesh communications, providing attackers greater opportunity to intercept or intercede in
information transmission within the environment.
Vulnerabilities in IoT Systems
1. Weak, guessable, or hardcoded passwords

• Weak, default, and hardcoded passwords are the easiest way for attackers to compromise IoT devices
and launch large-scale botnets, and other malware.
• Managing passwords in a distributed IoT ecosystem is a time-consuming and difficult responsibility,
especially since IoT devices are managed over-the-air.

2. Insecure network services

Unneeded or insecure network services running on the device itself, especially those exposed to the internet,
that compromise the
• confidentiality
• integrity/authenticity
• availability of information
• allow unauthorized remote control.
Vulnerabilities in IoT Systems
3. Insecure ecosystem interfaces

Insecure web, backend API, cloud, or mobile interfaces in the ecosystem outside of the device that allows
compromise of the device or its related components. Common issues include
• a lack of authentication/authorization
• weak encryption
• a lack of input and output filtering.

4. Lack of secure update mechanism: This includes

• lack of firmware validation on device

• lack of secure delivery (un-encrypted in transit)
• lack of anti-rollback mechanisms
• lack of notifications of security changes due to updates.
Vulnerabilities in IoT Systems
5. Use of insecure or outdated components
Use of insecure software components/libraries that could allow the device to be compromised. This includes
• insecure customization of operating system platforms
• use of third-party software or hardware components from a compromised supply chain.

6. Insufficient privacy protection: User’s personal information stored on the device or in the ecosystem that
is used insecurely, improperly, or without permission.

7. Insecure data transfer and storage: Lack of encryption or access control of sensitive data anywhere
within the ecosystem, including at rest, in transit, or during processing.

8. Lack of device management: Lack of security support on devices deployed in production, including asset
management, update management, systems monitoring, and response capabilities.
Vulnerabilities in IoT Systems

9. Insecure default settings: Devices or systems shipped with insecure default settings lack the
ability to make the system more secure by restricting operators from modifying configurations.

10. Lack of physical hardening: Lack of physical hardening measures, allowing potential attackers to
gain sensitive information that can help in a future remote attack or take local control of the device.

Botnet: a network of private computers infected with malicious software and controlled as a group without the owners' knowledge, e.g. to send
spam.
Anti-rollback mechanisms: Prevents the execution of previous versions of authenticated firmware that might have security flaws.
 Network and Transport Layer Challenges
• The IPSec uses the concept of a Security Association (SA), defined as the set of algorithms and
parameters (such as keys) used to encrypt and authenticate a particular flow in one direction.
• To establish a SA, IPSec can be preconfigured (specifying a preshared key, hash function, and
encryption algorithm) by the IPSec Internet Key Exchange (IKE) protocol.
• The IKE protocol uses asymmetric cryptography, which is computationally heavy for
resource-constrained devices.
• To address this issue, IKE extensions using lighter algorithms should be used.
• Data overhead is another problem for IPSec implementations in IoT environments. This is
introduced by the extra header encapsulation of IPSec AH (Authentication Header) and/or
Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP), and can be mitigated by using header compression.

• Cryptography is a technique of securing communication by converting plain text into ciphertext

• An Authentication Header (AH) is a security protocol in IPSec that ensures the integrity of packet headers and data, provides user authentication,
and offers optional replay protection and access protection. It does not encrypt any part of the packets.
• The difference between ESP and the Authentication Header (AH) protocol is that ESP provides encryption, while both protocols provide
authentication, integrity checking, and replay protection.
• CoAP proposes to use the DTLS protocol to provide end-to-end security in IoT systems.
• The DTLS protocol provides a security service similar to TLS, but on top of UDP. This is highly
suitable for IoT environments due to its usage of UDP as transport protocol.
• This results in avoidance of problems from the use of TCP in network-constrained scenarios that are
caused due to the extremely variable transmission delay and loss links.
• DTLS headers are too long to fit in a single IEEE 802.15.4 MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit).
• 6LoWPAN provides header compression mechanisms to reduce the size of upper layer headers.
6LoWPAN header compression mechanisms can be used to compress the security headers as well.

• Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS) is a communications protocol providing security to datagram-based applications.
• CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol) is an application-layer protocol that is intended for use in resource-constrained Internet devices
• Transport Layer Security, or TLS, is a widely adopted security protocol designed to facilitate privacy and data security for communications over the
Internet. A primary use case of TLS is encrypting the communication between web applications and servers, such as web browsers loading a website.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a communications protocol for time-sensitive applications like gaming, playing videos, or Domain Name System (DNS)
lookups.
• Transmission Control Protocol, is a communications standard for delivering data and messages through networks
IoT GATEWAYS AND SECURITY
• Gateway acts as a medium to open up
connections between the cloud and
controller(sensors/devices) in Internet of Things
(IoT).
• Gateway serves as the connection point
between the cloud and IoT devices, such as
controllers, sensors and smart devices.
• With the help of gateways, it is possible to
establish device-to-device or device-to-cloud
communication.
• A gateway can be a typical hardware device or
software program.
• IoT gateways act as a central hub, connecting
IoT devices to the cloud.
 IoT GATEW AYS
• Organizations can use gateways to connect IoT devices for data processing as well as to monitor and
manage IoT devices.
• An IoT gateway acts as a network router, routing data between IoT devices and the cloud. Early on, most
gateway devices only sent traffic in one direction: from the IoT device to the cloud. Now it's common for
gateway devices to handle both inbound and outbound traffic. Outbound traffic streams are used to
send IoT data to the cloud, while inbound traffic is used for device management tasks, such as updating
firmware.
• Some IoT gateways do more than just route traffic, they can also preprocess data locally at the edge
before sending it to the cloud. In doing so, the device might duplicate, summarize or aggregate data as a
way of reducing the volume of data that must be forwarded to the cloud. This can improve response
times and reduce network transmission costs.
 Key functionalities of IoT Gateway
• Establishing communication bridge
• Provides additional security.
• Performs data aggregation.
• Pre processing and filtering of data.
• Provides local storage as a cache/ buffer.
• Data computing at edge level.
• Ability to manage entire device.
• Device diagnostics.
• Adding more functional capability.
• Verifying protocols.
Working of IoT Gateway
• Receives data from sensor network.

• Performs Pre processing, filtering and cleaning on unfiltered data.

• Transports into standard protocols for communication.

• Sends data to cloud.

IoT GATEWAYS & SECURITY
• A simple IoT gateway functions similarly to a Wi-Fi router. More often, though, IoT gateways are far
more complex.
• IoT also comes with some security risks, as it increases an organization's attack surface.
• IoT gateways should sit between IoT devices and the internet as well as have integrated security functions.
These functions, such as tamper detection, encryption and hardware random number generation,
should protect the IoT devices from being attacked.
• Likewise, gateway filtering technology can monitor, manage and secure data transfers through
authenticated traffic using packet filtering or physical network signal filtering.
• To further improve IoT gateway security, organizations can do the following:
• Use only authenticated IoT gateways.
• Perform security assessments before implementation.
• Keep gateway software updated.
• Regularly review gateway access.
• Include gateways in security audits.
• Use a separate network for IoT gateways and devices.
 IoT ROUTING ATTACKS

❑ Threats arising due to the physical nature of IoT devices can be mitigated by appropriate
physical security safeguards, whereas secure communication protocols and
cryptographic algorithms are the only way of coping with the fact that they arise due to IoT
devices communicating with each other and the external world.
❑ IoT devices can either run the standard TCP/IP protocol stack, if their computational and
power resources allow, or can run adaptions which are optimized for lower
computational and power consumption.
❑ Some examples of routing attacks include: Sinkhole attacks, Selective forwarding attacks,
Blackhole attacks, Sybil attacks, and DDoS/DoS attacks.
❑ Some techniques for detecting routing attacks include: Intrusion detection systems (IDS),
Hybrid IDS, and One-class SVM.
Sinkhole Attack
❑ An attacker launches an attack on a network by adding bogus nodes.
❑ A Sinkhole Attack is an internal assault in which an impacted node (sinkhole) attempts to attract network traffic by
propagating bogus routing updates.
❑ The objective of this attack is to reroute traffic from a certain region across a malicious node that appears to be
highly appealing to the surrounding nodes.

Selective Forwarding Attack

❑ A Selective Forwarding Attack is a security threat wherein an attacker manipulates network traffic by selectively
forwarding or dropping packets.
❑ The attacker gains control over one or more nodes in the network and selectively forwards packets to some
nodes while dropping or delaying packets to others. This disrupts the communication between the nodes and can
compromise the security of the network.
❑ The attacker can selectively drop packets containing critical information, leading to data loss and the
disruption of the communication between nodes. This type of attack can be particularly harmful in WSNs and
IoT networks where nodes have limited resources and rely on efficient and reliable communication. To ensure
network security and reliability, effective defense mechanisms must be developed to detect and prevent selective
forwarding attacks.
Sybil Attack
❑ A Sybil Attack is a type of attack in which a malicious attacker creates multiple fake identities or nodes in a network to gain
control and manipulate the network.
❑ In the context of RPL, a Sybil attack involves a malicious node creating multiple fake identities or nodes that can participate in the
network and influence the routing process. These fake nodes can cause routing loops, interfere with routing decisions, and
lead to network congestion, which can ultimately result in denial of service (DoS) attacks.
❑ This type of attack is particularly dangerous in peer-to-peer networks and distributed systems where trust is critical.

Blackhole Attack
❑ A Blackhole Attack is a security threat that disrupts the routing process by selectively forwarding or dropping network
packets.
❑ The attacker pretends to have the shortest path to the destination node, causing legitimate nodes to forward packets to
the attacker instead of the actual destination.
❑ Once the attacker has control over the packets, they can be selectively dropped or forwarded to other nodes, resulting in
severe damage to the network. The consequences of a Blackhole Attack can be significant, including communication
disruption, data loss, and network failures.
❑ In RPL, which is commonly used in IoT networks, a blackhole attack can be particularly damaging since many IoT devices
have limited resources and rely on reliable and efficient communication to function properly.
Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks (RPL)
Wormhole Attacks

❑ A wormhole is an out-of-band connection between two nodes using wired or wireless links.

❑ Wormholes can be used to forward packets faster than via normal paths. A wormhole created by
an attacker and combined with another attacks, such as sinkhole, is a serious security threat.
AUTHORIZATION MECHANISMS

❑ The present day services that run over the Internet, such as popular social media applications, have faced and
handled privacy-related problems when dealing with personal and protected data that might be made accessible
to third parties.

❑ In the future, the IoT applications will face similar issues, and others that may be unique to the domain.
❑ The OAuth (Open Authorization) protocol has been defined to solve the problem of allowing authorized
third parties to access personal user data.

❑ OAuth2.0 is an authorization framework that allows a third party to access a resource owned by a resource
owner without giving unencrypted credentials to the third party.

❑ For example, assume that a healthcare sensor or mobile app wants to access a Facebook profile to post status
updates. There is no need to provide the Facebook credentials to the app; instead, the user logs into Facebook,
and as a result the app is authorized to use Facebook on the user’s behalf. The user can also revoke this
authorization any time by deleting the privilege in the Facebook settings.
AUTHORIZATION MECHANISMS
The OAuth 2.0 protocol defines the following four roles:

❑ Resource Owner: It is an entity capable of granting access to a protected resource. When the resource
owner is a person, it is referred to as an end user. In the above example, this could be the end user of the
healthcare device.
❑ Resource Server (Service Provider, SP): It is the server hosting the protected resources, capable of accepting
and responding to protected resource requests using access tokens. In the example, this is the Facebook
server.
❑ Client (Service Consumer, SC): It is the application making protected resource requests on behalf of the
resource owner and with its authorization. In this case, it is the healthcare sensor or mobile application.
❑ Authorization Server: It is the server issuing access tokens to the client after successfully authenticating the
resource owner and obtaining authorization. In this example, it would be the Facebook authorization server
 Lightweight Cryptography

❑ The Internet of Things (IoT) will soon penetrate every aspect of human life.
❑ Several threats and vulnerabilities are present due to the different devices and protocols

used in an IoT system.

❑ Conventional cryptographic algorithms cannot run efficiently and are unsuitable for
resource-constrained devices in IoT.

❑ Hence, a recently developed area of cryptography, known as lightweight cryptography, has

been introduced, and over the years, numerous lightweight algorithms have been suggested.
 Lightweight Cryptography

❑ The LWC algorithms: categorized into two groups, based on the number of keys being used.
❑ Algorithms using the same key (secret key or private key) for encryption and decryption are called
symmetric algorithms.
❑ Algorithms using different keys (private and public keys), one for encryption and the other for
decryption, are called asymmetric algorithms.
❑ Any LWC algorithm should satisfy four conditions: confidentiality, integrity, authentication, and
non-repudiation for accepting it as a perfectly secure algorithm.
❑ Symmetric algorithms provide confidentiality, integrity, and authentication security services.
❑ In contrast, asymmetric algorithms provide confidentiality and integrity by using the receiver’s public
key and authentication (in the form of a digital signature) and non-repudiation by using the sender’s
private key.
❑ The downside of symmetric algorithms is the key distribution, and for asymmetric algorithms, it
is the usage of large keys (number of bits) for encryption and decryption.
Lightweight Cryptography
 Symmetric Key LWC Algorithms

❑ The symmetric algorithms can be further divided into

block and stream ciphers based on how the plaintext
is processed.

❑ A block cipher processes the plaintext as fixed-size

blocks and generates the ciphertext.

❑ On the other hand, a stream cipher takes the plaintext

as bits and performs operations on the bits to
generate ciphertext.

❑ Another category of symmetric algorithms is a hash

function, which takes a variable length text and
generates a fixed size output, also called hash or
digest. A hash is a one-way function; the generated
hash cannot be used to get the original plaintext. A hash
is generally used for enforcing integrity.
 Symmetric Key LWC Algorithms

Block Cipher & Stream Cipher

❑ The two fundamental operations performed by a block cipher are confusion and
diffusion.
❑ The confusion operation removes the dependencies between the key and
the generated ciphertext to prevent statistical analysis attacks.
❑ The diffusion operation removes the dependencies between the plaintext
and ciphertext to prevent statistical analysis and guessing attacks.
❑ Block cipher uses both confusion and diffusion operations.
❑ Stream cipher only uses confusion operations. So, the security of a block
cipher is more than a stream cipher.
 Symmetric Key LWC Algorithms

❑ A block cipher internally uses a specific structure for achieving security.

❑ Different structures used: Substitution-Permutation Network (SPN), Feistel Network (FN),
General Feistel Network (GFN), Add-RotateXOR (ARX), Non-Linear Feedback Shift Register
(NLFSR), and Hybrid structure
❑ SPN: Processes the data by performing different operations using S-boxes (Substitution Boxes) and
permutation tables.
❑ FN: divides the text into equal halves, and on one half, it applies diffusion. Also, at the beginning of
each round, it swaps the two halves.
❑ GFN: divides the plaintext into sub-blocks and performs operations on the sub-blocks. It also applies
a cyclic shift proportional to the number of created sub-blocks.
❑ ARX: uses addition, rotation, and XOR operations for encryption and decryption.
❑ NLFSR: uses the basic building blocks of a stream cipher.
❑ Hybrid structure: uses a combination of the structures mentioned above based on the application’s
requirements.
 Symmetric Key LWC Algorithms

Tiny Encryption Algorithm (TEA)

❑ Block cipher & FN-based algorithm
❑ Requires 1350 bytes of ROM and only 13 bytes of RAM.
❑ uses a large number of iterations, rather than a complicated
program, in order to avoid preset tables and long setup times
❑ uses 128-bit key
❑ TEA family: XTEA (extended TEA), XXTEA, Block TEA, Speed
TEA, and Tiny TEA
❑ uses very simple operations (addition, XORing, shifts), and has
a very small code size; ideal candidate for small objects and
wireless sensors
 Symmetric Key LWC Algorithms

Scalable Encryption Algorithm (SEA)

❑ Block cipher & FN-based algorithm

❑ implementation in assembly language

❑ on-the-fly derivation of keys,

❑ efficient encryption and decryption.

❑ SEA requires 2800 bytes of ROM and only 24 bytes of RAM.

 Symmetric Key LWC Algorithms

PRESENT

❑ PRESENT is an ultra-lightweight block cipher algorithm based on a

Substitution-Permutation Network (SPN) structure.

❑ PRESENT has been designed to be extremely compact and efficient

in hardware.

❑ It operates on 64-bit blocks and with keys of either 80 or 128 bits.

❑ It is for use in situations where low-power consumption and high chip

efficiency are desired, thus making it of particular interest for
constrained environments.
 Symmetric Key LWC Algorithms

HIGHT
• The HIGh security and lightweigHT (HIGHT) encryption
algorithm is a generalized Feistel network with a block size of
64 bits, 128-bit keys.
• HIGHT was designed with an eye on low-resource hardware
performance.
• HIGHT uses very simple operations, such as XORing, addition
and bitwise rotation
 Asymmetric LWC Algorithms
◼ Public-key (asymmetric) cryptography requires the use of a
public-key and a private key. Asymmetric cryptography
requires higher processing and long keys (at least 1024 bits for
RSA ) to be used.
◼ Alternative public-key cryptographic schemes, such as ECC,
might require shorter keys to be used in order to achieve the
same security than RSA keys. However, because of these
reasons, symmetric cryptography is preferred in terms of
processing speed, computational effort, and size of
transmitted messages.
◼ Lightweight cryptography algorithms are suitable for
environments that do not have stringent security
requirements and where the constraints on available
hardware and power budget cannot be relaxed.
 Asymmetric LWC Algorithms
Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC)
◼ provides higher security and a better performance than
the first generation public-key techniques (RSA and
Diffie-Hellman).
◼ the most interesting public-key cryptographic family for
embedded environments
◼ can reach the same security level as RSA with much
shorter keys
◼ computationally lighter operations, like addition and
multiplication, rather than exponentiation