A cement and concrete industry publication

How to Design Concrete

Structures using Eurocode 2
A J Bond MA MSc DIC PhD MICE CEng T Harrison BSc PhD CEng MICE FICT R S Narayanan FREng
O Brooker BEng CEng MICE MIStructE R M Moss BSc PhD DIC CEng MICE MIStructE R Webster CEng FIStructE
A J Harris BSc MSc DIC MICE CEng FGS
Foreword
The introduction of European standards to UK construction is a significant event. The ten design standards, known
as the Eurocodes, will affect all design and construction activities as current British Standards for design are due
to be withdrawn in 2010 at the latest. BS 8110, however, has an earlier withdrawal date of March 2008. The aim
of this publication is to make the transition to Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures as easy as possible by
drawing together in one place key information and commentary required for the design and detailing of typical
concrete elements.

The cement and concrete industry recognised that a substantial effort was required to ensure that the UK design
profession would be able to use Eurocode 2 quickly, effectively, efficiently and with confidence. With support
from government, consultants and relevant industry bodies, the Concrete Industry Eurocode 2 Group (CIEG)
was formed in 1999 and this Group has provided the guidance for a co-ordinated and collaborative approach to
the introduction of Eurocode 2. Part of the output of the CIEG project was the technical content for 7 of the 11
chapters in this publication. The remaining chapters have been developed by The Concrete Centre.

Acknowledgements
The content of Chapters 1 and 3 to 8 were produced as part of the project Eurocode 2: transition from UK to
European concrete design standards. This project was part funded by the DTI under the Partners in Innovation
scheme. The lead partner was British Cement Association. The work was carried out under the guidance of the
Concrete Industry Eurocode 2 Group and overseen by a Steering Group of the CIEG (members are listed on inside
back cover).
Particular thanks are due to Robin Whittle, technical editor to the CEN/TC 250/SC2 committee (the committee
responsible for structural Eurocodes), who has reviewed and commented on the contents. Thanks are also due to
John Kelly and Chris Clear who have contributed to individual chapters.

Gillian Bond, Issy Harvey, Kevin Smith and the designers at Media and Design Associates and Michael Burbridge Ltd
have also made essential contributions to the production of this publication.

Published by The Concrete Centre

Riverside House, 4 Meadows Business Park, Station Approach, Blackwater, Camberley, Surrey GU17 9AB
Tel: +44 (0)1276 606800 Fax: +44 (0)1276 606801 www.concretecentre.com

CCIP–006
Published December 2006
ISBN 1-904818-4-1
Price Group P
© The Concrete Centre. Joint copyright with British Cement Association for Chapters 1 and 3 to 8.

Permission to reproduce extracts from British Standards is granted by British Standards Institution.
British Standards can be obtained from BSI Customer Services, 389 Chiswick High Road, London W4 4AL.
Tel: +44 (0)20 8996 9001 email: [email protected]

CCIP publications are produced on behalf of the Cement and Concrete Industry Publications Forum – an industry
initiative to publish technical guidance in support of concrete design and construction.

CCIP publications are available from the Concrete Bookshop at www.concrete bookshop.com
Tel: +44(0)7004-607777
All advice or information from The Concrete Centre (TCC), British Cement Association (BCA) and Quarry Products Association (QPA) is intended for
those who will evaluate the significance and limitations of its contents and take responsibility for its use and application. No liability (including that for
negligence) for any loss resulting from such advice or information is accepted by TCC, BCA and OPA or their subcontractors, suppliers or advisors. Readers
should note that publications from TCC, BCA and OPA are subject to revision from time to time and should therefore ensure that they are in possession
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expressed are not necessarily those of the DTI.

Printed by Michael Burbridge Ltd, Maidenhead.

How to Design Concrete
Structures using Eurocode 2

Contents
1. Introduction to Eurocodes 1
2. Getting started 9
3. Slabs 17
4. Beams 25
5. Columns 33
6. Foundations 43
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2
1. Introduction to Eurocodes
R S Narayanan FREng O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE

The Eurocode family

This chapter shows how to use Eurocode 21 with the other Eurocodes. In
particular it introduces Eurocode: Basis of structural design2 and Eurocode 1:
Actions on structures3 and guides the designer through the process of
determining the design values for actions on a structure. It also gives a brief
overview of the significant differences between the Eurocodes and BS 81104,
(which will be superseded) and includes a glossary of Eurocode terminology.

The development of the Eurocodes started in 1975; since then they have
evolved significantly and are now claimed to be the most technically
advanced structural codes in the world. The many benefits of using Eurocode 2
are summarised below. There are ten Eurocodes covering all the main structural
materials (see Figure 1). They are produced by the European Committee for
Standardization (CEN), and will replace existing national standards in 28
countries.

Each country is required to publish a Eurocode with a national title page and
forward but the original text of the Eurocode must appear as produced by
CEN as the main body of the document. A National Annex (NA) can be
included at the back of the document (see Figure 2). Throughout this
publication it is assumed that the UK National Annexes will be used.

Table 1 details which existing standards relating to concrete design will be

replaced by the new Eurocodes. During the implementation period it is
recommended that existing standards are considered for use where the
European standards have not yet been issued.

Benefits of using Eurocode 2

Learning to use the new Eurocodes will require time and effort on
behalf of the designer, so what benefits will there be?
1. The new Eurocodes are claimed to be the most technically
advanced codes in the world.
2. Eurocode 2 should result in more economic structures than
BS 8110.
3. The Eurocodes are logical and organised to avoid repetition.
4. Eurocode 2 is less restrictive than existing codes.
5. Eurocode 2 is more extensive than existing codes.
6. Use of the Eurocodes will provide more opportunity for designers
to work throughout Europe.
7. In Europe all public works must allow the Eurocodes to be used.
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Figure 1
The Eurocodes Eurocode: Basis of
BS EN 1990, Eurocode:
Basis of structural design
Structural safety,
serviceability and durability
structural design
BS EN 1991, Eurocode 1: This Eurocode underpins all structural design irrespective of the
Actions on structures
Actions on structures material of construction. It establishes principles and requirements for
safety, serviceability and durability of structures. (Note, the correct title
BS EN 1992, Eurocode 2: Concrete
BS EN 1993, Eurocode 3: Steel
is Eurocode not Eurocode 0.) The Eurocode uses a statistical approach
BS EN 1994, Eurocode 4: Composite Design and detailing to determine realistic values for actions that occur in combination with
BS EN 1995, Eurocode 5: Timber
BS EN 1996, Eurocode 6: Masonry each other.
BS EN 1999, Eurocode 9: Aluminium

Geotechnical
There is no equivalent British Standard for Eurocode: Basis of structural
BS EN 1997, Eurocode 7: BS EN 1998, Eurocode 8:
Geotechnical design Seismic design and seismic design and the corresponding information has traditionally been
design
replicated in each of the material Eurocodes. It also introduces new
definitions (see Glossary) and symbols (see Tables 2a and 2b), which
will be used throughout this publication to assist familiarity. Partial
Figure 2 factors for actions are given in this Eurocode, whilst partial factors for
Typical Eurocode layout
materials are prescribed in their relevant Eurocode.

Representative values
For each variable action there are four representative values. The
principal representative value is the characteristic value and this can be
B determined statistically or, where there is insufficient data, a nominal
A C
D value may be used. The other representative values are combination,
D
D frequent and quasi-permanent; these are obtained by applying to the
A: National title page D: Main text D
B: National Foreword E: Main Annex(es) E characteristic value the factors c 0 , c 1 and c 2 respectively (see Figure 3).
F
C: CEN title page F: National Annex A semi-probabilistic method is used to derive the c factors, which vary
depending on the type of imposed load (see Table 3). Further information
Table 1 on derivation of the c factors can be found in Appendix C of the Eurocode.
Concrete related Eurocodes and their equivalent current standards
Eurocode Title Superseded standards The combination value (c 0 Qk) of an action is intended to take
BS EN 1990 Basis of structural design BS 8110: Part 1 – section 2 account of the reduced probability of the simultaneous occurrence of
BS EN 1991–1–1 Densities, self-weight and BS 6399: Part 1 and BS 648 two or more variable actions. The frequent value ( c 1 Qk) is such that it
imposed loads
BS EN 1991–1–2 Actions on structures – should be exceeded only for a short period of time and is used
exposed to fire primarily for the serviceability limit states (SLS) and also the accidental
BS EN 1991–1–3 Snow loads BS 6399: Part 2 ultimate limit state (ULS). The quasi-permanent value (c 2 Qk) may be
BS EN 1991–1–4 Wind actions BS 6399: Part 3 exceeded for a considerable period of time; alternatively it may be
BS EN 1991–1–5 Thermal actions – considered as an average loading over time. It is used for the long-term
BS EN 1991–1–6 Actions during execution –
affects at the SLS and also accidental and seismic ULS.
BS EN 1991–1–7 Accidental actions –
BS EN 1991–2 Traffic loads on bridges BD 37/88
Combinations of actions
BS EN 1991–3 Actions induced by cranes –
and machinery In the Eurocodes the term ‘combination of actions’ is specifically used
BS EN 1991–4 Silos and tanks – for the definition of the magnitude of actions to be used when a limit
BS EN 1992–1–1 General rules for buildings BS 8110: Parts 1, 2 and 3 state is under the influence of different actions. It should not be
BS EN 1992–1–2 Fire resistance of concrete BS 8110: Part 1,Table 3.2 and confused with ‘load cases’, which are concerned with the arrangement
structures BS 8110: Part 2, section 4
of the variable actions to give the most unfavourable conditions and
BS EN 1992–2 Bridges BS 5400: Part 4
are given in the material Eurocodes. The following process can be used
BS EN 1992–3 Liquid-retaining and BS 8007
containment structures to determine the value of actions used for analysis:
BS EN 1997–1 Geotechnical design – BS 6031, BS 8002, BS 8004, 1. Identify the design situation (e.g. persistent, transient, accidental).
General rules BS 8006, BS 8008 & BS 8081
2. Identify all realistic actions.
BS EN 1997–2 Geotechnical design – Ground BS 5930
investigation and testing 3. Determine the partial factors (see below) for each applicable
BS EN 1998 Design of structures for – combination of actions.
earthquake resistance (6 parts) 4. Arrange the actions to produce the most critical conditions.

2
 1. Introduction to Eurocodes

Table 2a
Where there is only one variable action (e.g. imposed load) in a Selected symbols for Eurocode
combination, the magnitude of the actions can be obtained by Symbol Definition
multiplying them by the appropriate partial factors. Gk Characteristic value of permanent action
Qk Characteristic value of single variable action
Where there is more than one variable action in a combination, it is gG Partial factor for permanent action
necessary to identify the leading action (Qk,1) and other accompanying gQ Partial factor for variable action
actions (Qk,i). The accompanying action is always taken as the c0 Factor for combination value of a variable action
combination value. c1 Factor for frequent value of a variable action
c2 Factor for quasi-permanent value of a variable action
Ultimate limit state j Combination factor for permanent actions
The ultimate limit states are divided into the following categories:
EQU Loss of equilibrium of the structure. Table 2b
Selected subscripts
STR Internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure
Subscript Definition
or structural member.
A Accidental situation
GEO Failure due to excessive deformation of the ground.
c Concrete
FAT Fatigue failure of the structure or structural members.
d Design
The Eurocode gives different combinations for each of these ultimate E Effect of action
limit states. For the purpose of this publication only the STR ultimate fi Fire
limit state will be considered. k Characteristic
R Resistance
For persistent and transient design situations under the STR limit w Shear reinforcement
state, the Eurocode defines three possible combinations, which are given y Yield strength
in Expressions (6.10), (6.10a) and (6.10b) of the Eurocode (see Tables 4
and 5). The designer (for UK buildings) may use either (6.10) or the less Figure 3
favourable of (6.10a) and (6.10b). Representative values of variable actions ⁵
Characteristic value of QK

At first sight it appears that there is considerably more calculation

Instantaneous value of Q

required to determine the appropriate load combination; however, with Combination value of c0 QK
experience the designer will be able to determine this by inspection.
Frequent value of c1 QK
Expression (6.10) is always equal to or more conservative than the less
Quasi-
favourable of Expressions (6.10a) and (6.10b). Expression (6.10b) will permanent
value of c2 QK
normally apply when the permanent actions are not greater than 4.5
times the variable actions (except for storage loads (category E, Table 3)
where Expression (6.10a) always applies).
Time

Therefore, for a typical concrete frame building, Expression (6.10b) will Table 3
give the most structurally economical combination of actions. Recommended values of c factors for buildings (from UK National Annex)
Action c0 c1 c2
Imposed loads in buildings (see BS EN 1991–1–1)
For members supporting one variable action the combination
Category A: domestic, residential areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
1.25 Gk + 1.5 Qk (derived from (Exp 6.10b))
Category B: office areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
can be used provided the permanent actions are not greater
Category C: congregation areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
than 4.5 times the variable actions (except for storage loads). Category D: shopping areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category E: storage areas 1.0 0.9 0.8
Category F: traffic area, vehicle weight < 30 kN 0.7 0.7 0.6
Serviceability limit state
Category G: traffic area, 30 kN < vehicle weight < 160 kN 0.7 0.5 0.3
There are three combinations of actions that can be used to check the
Category H: roofs* 0.7 0 0
serviceability limit states (see Tables 6 and 7). Eurocode 2 indicates
Snow loads on buildings (see BS EN 1991–3)
which combination should be used for which phenomenon (e.g.
For sites located at altitude H > 1000 m above sea level 0.7 0.5 0.2
deflection is checked using the quasi-permanent combination). Care For sites located at altitude H < 1000 m above sea level 0.5 0.2 0
should be taken not to confuse the SLS combinations of characteristic, Wind loads on buildings (see BS EN 1991–1–4) 0.5 0.2 0
frequent and quasi-permanent, with the representative values that Temperature (non-fire) in buildings (see BS EN 1991–1–5) 0.6 0.5 0
have the same titles. Key
*See also 1991–1–1: Clause 3.3.2

3
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Table 4
Design values of actions, ultimate limit state – persistent and transient design situations (table A1.2 (B) Eurocode)

Combination Expression reference Permanent actions Leading variable action Accompanying variable actions
Unfavourable Favourable Main (if any) Others
Exp. (6.10) g G, j, sup Gk , j , sup g G , j, inf G k , j , inf g Q,1 Qk,1 g Q,1 c 0 ,1 Q k,i
Exp. (6.10a) g G, j, sup Gk , j , sup g G , j, inf G k , j , inf g Q,1 c 0 ,1 Qk,1 g Q,1 c 0 ,1 Q k,i
Exp. (6.10b) jg G, j, sup Gk , j , sup g G , j, inf G k , j , inf g Q,1 Qk,1 g Q,1 c 0 ,1 Q k,i
Note
1 Design for either Expression (6.10) or the less favourable of Expressions (6.10a) and (6.10b).

Table 5
Design values of actions, derived for UK design, ultimate limit state – persistent and transient design situations

Combination Expression reference Permanent actions Leading variable action Accompanying variable actions
Unfavourable Favourable Main (if any) Others
Combination of permanent and variable actions
Exp. (6.10) 1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5c Qk
Exp. (6.10a) 1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5 c 0,1b Qk
Exp. (6.10b) 0.925 d x 1.35 Gk a
1.0 Gk a
1.5c Qk
Combination of permanent, variable and accompanying variable actions
Exp. (6.10) 1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5c Qk,1 1.5 c c 0,i b Q k,i
Exp. (6.10a) 1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5 c 0,1b Qk 1.5 c c 0,i b Q k,i
Exp. (6.10b) 0.925 d x 1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5c Qk,1 1.5 c c 0,i b Q k,i
Key
a Where the variation in permanent action is not considered significant, Gk,j,sup and Gk,j,inf may be taken as Gk c Where the accompanying load is favourable, g Q,i = 0
b The value of c 0 can be obtained from Table NA A1.1 of the UK National Annex (reproduced here as Table 3) d The value of j in the UK National Annex is 0.925

Table 6
Design values of actions, serviceability limit states

Combination Permanent actions Variable actions Example of use in Eurocode 2

Unfavourable Favourable Leading Others
Characteristic Gk,j,sup Gk,j,inf Qk,1 c 0 , i Qk,i
Frequent Gk,j,sup Gk,j,inf c 1,1 Qk,1 c 2 , i Qk,i Cracking – prestressed concrete
Quasi-permanent Gk,j,sup Gk,j,inf c 2,1 Qk,1 c 2 , i Qk,i Deflection
Notes
1 Where the variation in permanent action is not considered significant. Gk,j,sup and Gk,j,inf may be taken as Gk 2 For values of c 0, c 1 and c 2 refer to Table 3

Table 7
Example design combinations for deflection (quasi-permanent) derived for typical UK reinforced concrete design

Combination Permanent actions Variable action

Unfavourable Leading
Office Gk a 0.3 b Q k,1
a
Shopping area Gk 0.6b Q k,1
Storage Gk a 0.8b Q k,1
Key
a Where the variation in permanent action is not considered significant Gk,j,sup and Gk,j,inf may be taken as Gk b Values of c 2 are taken from UK NA (see Table 3)

4
 1. Introduction to Eurocodes

Eurocode 1 Table 8
Eurocode 1, its parts and dates of publication

Reference Title Publication date

Eurocode 1 supersedes BS 6399: Loading for buildings6 and BS 648:
Eurocode National Annex
Schedule of weights of building materials7. It contains within its ten parts
BS EN 1991–1–1 Densities, July December
(see Table 8) all the information required by the designer to assess the self-weight and 2002 2005
individual actions on a structure. It is generally self-explanatory and it imposed loads
is anticipated the actions to be used in the UK (as advised in the UK BS EN 1991–1–2 Actions on November Due
structures 2002 October
National Annex) will typically be the same as those in the current exposed to fire 2006a
British Standards. The most notable exception is the bulk density of BS EN 1991–1–3 Snow loads July December
reinforced concrete, which has been increased to 25 kN/m3. Currently 2003 2005

not all the parts of Eurocode 1 and their National Annexes are BS EN 1991–1–4 Wind actions April Due
2005 January
available, in which case it is advised that the loads recommended in 2007a
the current British Standards are used. BS EN 1991–1–5 Thermal actions March Due
2004 December
2006a
BS EN 1991–1–6 Actions during December Due
Eurocode 2 execution 2005 June
2007a
BS EN 1991–1–7 Accidental actions September Due
There are four parts to Eurocode 2; Figure 4 indicates how they fit into due to impact 2006 October
the Eurocode system, which includes other European standards. and explosions 2007a
BS EN 1991–2 Traffic loads October Due
on bridges 2003 December
Part 1–1 2006a
Eurocode 2, Part 1–1: General rules and rules for buildings9 is the BS EN 1991–3 Actions induced September Due
by cranes 2006 January
principal part which is referenced by the three other parts. For the UK and machinery 2007a
designer there are a number of differences between Eurocode 2 and BS EN 1991–4 Actions in silos June Due
BS 8110, which will initially make the new Eurocode seem unfamiliar. and tanks 2006 June
2007a
The key differences are listed below to assist in the familiarisation process.
Key
1. Eurocode 2 is generally laid out to give advice on the basis of a Planned publication date (correct at time of publication) Source: BSI8
phenomena (e.g. bending, shear etc) rather than by member
types as in BS 8110 (e.g. beams, slabs, columns etc). Figure 4
2. Design is based on characteristic cylinder strengths not cube Relationship between Eurocode 2 and other Eurocodes
strengths.
3. The Eurocode does not provide derived formulae (e.g. for bending, BS EN 1997 BS EN 1990 BS EN 1998
EUROCODE 7 EUROCODE EUROCODE 8
only the details of the stress block are expressed). This is the Geotechnical Basis of structural Seismic
traditional European approach, where the application of a Eurocode design design design

is expected to be provided in a textbook or similar publication.

The Eurocodes allow for this type of detail to be provided in
‘Non-contradictory complementary information’ (NCCI) (See BS EN 206 BS EN 1991 BS EN 10080
Specifying EUROCODE 1 Reinforcing
Glossary). concrete Actions on steels
structures
4. Units for stress are mega pascals, MPa (1 MPa = 1 N/mm2).
5. Eurocode 2 uses a comma for a decimal point. It is expected that
UK designers will continue to use a decimal point. Therefore to BS 8500 BS 4449
BS EN 1992
avoid confusion, the comma should not be used for separating Specifying Reinforcing
EUROCODE 2
concrete steels
multiples of a thousand. Design of concrete
structures
6. One thousandth is represented by ‰. Part 1–1: General
7. The partial factor for steel reinforcement is 1.15. However, the rules for structures
BS EN 13670 BS EN 13369
characteristic yield strength of steel that meets the requirements Execution of
Part 1–2: Structural
Precast
fire design
of BS 4449 will be 500 MPa; so overall the effect is negligible. structures concrete

8. Eurocode 2 is applicable for ribbed reinforcement with characteristic

yield strengths of 400 to 600 MPa. There is no guidance on plain
bar or mild steel reinforcement in the Eurocode, but guidance is BS EN 1992 BS EN 1992 Part 3: Precast
EUROCODE 2 EUROCODE 2 concrete
given in the background paper to the UK National Annex10. Part 2: Liquid-retaining product
9. The effects of geometric imperfection (‘notional horizontal loads’) Bridges structures standards

are considered in addition to lateral loads.

5
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

10. Minimum concrete cover is related to bond strength, durability Eurocode 7

and fire resistance. In addition to the minimum cover an
allowance for deviations due to variations in execution Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design17 is in two parts and gives guidance on
(construction) should be included. Eurocode 2 recommends geotechnical design, ground investigation and testing. It has a broad
that, for concrete cast against formwork, this is taken as 10 mm, scope and includes the geotechnical design of spread foundations, piled
unless the construction is subject to a quality assurance system foundations, retaining walls, deep basements and embankments. Like
in which case it could be reduced to 5 mm or even 0 mm where all the Eurocodes it is based on limit state design principles, which is
non-conforming members are rejected (e.g. in a precast yard). a significant variation for most geotechnical design. Further guidance
It is recommended that the nominal cover is stated on the related to simple foundations is given in Chapter 6, originally
drawings and construction tolerances are given in the ppublished as Foundations18.
specification.
11. Higher strengths of concrete are covered by Eurocode 2, up to
class C90/105. However, because the characteristics of higher Eurocode 8
strength concrete are different, some Expressions in the Eurocode
are adjusted for classes above C50/60. Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance19 is divided into
12. The ‘variable strut inclination’ method is used in Eurocode 2 for six parts and gives guidance on all aspects of design for earthquake
the assessment of the shear capacity of a section. In practice, resistance and covers guidance for the various structural materials for
design values for actual structures can be compared with all types of structures. It also includes guidance for strengthening and
tabulated values. Further advice can be found in Chapter 4, repair of buildings. In areas of low seismicity it is anticipated that detailing
originally published as Beams11. structures to Eurocode 2 will ensure compliance with Eurocode 8.
13. The punching shear checks are carried out at 2d from the face of
the column and for a rectangular column, the perimeter is
rounded at the corners. Related Standards
14. Serviceability checks can still be carried out using ‘deemed to
satisfy’ span to effective depth rules similar to BS 8110. However, BS 8500/BS EN 206
if a more detailed check is required, Eurocode 2 guidance varies BS 8500: Concrete – Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206–120
from the rules in BS 8110 Part 2. replaced BS 5328 in December 2003 and designers should currently
15. The rules for determining the anchorage and lap lengths are more be using this to specify concrete. Further guidance can found in
complex than the simple tables in BS 8110. Eurocode 2 considers Chapter 11, originally published as How to use BS 8500 with BS 811021.
the effects of, amongst other things, the position of bars during
concreting, the shape of the bar and cover. BS 4449/BS EN 10080
BS 4449: Specification for carbon steel bars for the reinforcement of
Part 1–2 concrete22 has been revised ready for implementation in January 2006.
Eurocode 2, Part 1–2: Structural fire design12, gives guidance on design for It is a complementary standard to BS EN 10080 Steel for the
fire resistance of concrete structures. Although much of the Eurocode reinforcement of concrete23 and Normative Annex C of Eurocode 2. The
is devoted to fire engineering methods, the design for fire resistance most significant changes are that steel characteristic yield will change
may still be carried out by referring to tables for minimum cover and to 500 MPa. There are three classes of reinforcement, A, B and C, which
dimensions for various elements. These are given in section 5 of Part indicate increasing ductility. Class A is not suitable for use where
1–2. Further advice on using the tabular method is given in Chapter 2, redistribution of 20% and above has been assumed in the design.
originally published as Getting started 13.
BS EN 13670
Part 2 BS 8110 Part 1 sections 6 and 7 specify the workmanship for concrete
Eurocode 2, Part 2: Bridges14 applies the general rules given in Part 1–1 construction. There is no equivalent guidance in Eurocode 2, and it is
to the design of concrete bridges. As a consequence both Part 1–1 and intended that execution (construction) will be covered in a new
Part 2 will be required to carry out a design of a reinforced concrete standard BS EN 13670 Execution of concrete structures24. This is still in
bridge. preparation and is not expected to be ready for publication until 2008
at the earliest. In the intervening period the draft background paper to
Part 3 the UK National Annex of Eurocode 2, Part 1-110 recommends that
Eurocode 2, Part 3: Liquid-retaining and containment structures15 applies designers use the National structural concrete specification for building
the general rules given in Part 1–1 to the liquid-retaining structures construction25, which refers to BS 8110 for workmanship.
and supersedes BS 800716.

6
 1. Introduction to Eurocodes

Glossary of Eurocode terminology

Term Definition
Principles Clauses that are general statements, definitions, requirements and analytical models for which no
alternative is permitted. They are identified by (P) after the clause number.
Application Rules These are generally recognised rules, which comply with the principles and satisfy their requirements.
Nationally Determined Parameter (NDP) Eurocodes may be used to satisfy national Building Regulations, which themselves will not be
harmonized. NDPs are therefore used to allow a country to set its own levels of safety. NDPs also allow
certain other parameters (generally influenced by climate, geography and geology) to be left open for
selection nationally: NDPs are advised in the National Annex.
National Annex (NA) A National Annex accompanies each Eurocode and it contains a) the values of NDPs b) the national
decision regarding the use of Informative Annexes and c) references to NCCIs
Normative The term used for the text of Standards that forms the core requirements. Compliance with Eurocodes
will generally be judged against the normative requirements.
Informative A term used only in relation to annexes, which seek to inform rather than require.
NCCI Non-contradictory complementary information. References in a National Annex which contains further
information or guidance which does not contradict the Eurocode.
Characteristic value A value that may be derived statistically with a probability of not being exceeded during a reference
period. The value corresponds to a specified fractile for a particular property of material or product. The
characteristic values are denoted by subscript ‘k’ (e.g. Qk etc). It is the principal representative value
from which other representative values may be derived.
Representative value Value used for verification of a limit state. It may be the characteristic value or an accompanying value,
e.g. combination, frequent or quasi-permanent.
Design values These refer to representative values modified by partial factors. They are denoted by subscript ‘d’
(e.g. f cd = f ck /g c ; Qd = g Q Qk).
Action (F) Set of forces, deformations or accelerations acting on the structure.
Combination of actions Set of design values used for the verification of the structural reliability for a limit state under the
simultaneous influence of different and statistically independent actions.
Fixed action Action that has a fixed distribution and position over the structure or structural member.
Free action Action that may have various spatial distributions over the structure.
Permanent actions (G) Actions that are likely to act throughout the life of the structure and whose variation in magnitude
with time is negligible (e.g. permanent loads).
Variable actions (Q) Actions whose magnitude will vary with time (e.g. wind loads).
Effect of action (E) Deformation or internal force caused by an action.
Accidental action (A) Action, usually of short duration but of significant magnitude, that is unlikely to occur on a given
structure during the design working life.
Accompanying action An action in a combination that is not the leading variable action.
Transient design situation Design situation that is relevant during a period much shorter than the design working life of the structure.
Persistent design situation Design situation that is relevant during a period of the same order as the design working life of the structure.
Accidental design situation Design situation involving exceptional conditions of the structure.
Irreversible serviceability limit state Serviceability limit state where some consequences of actions will remain when the actions are removed.
Reversible serviceability limit state Serviceability limit state where no consequences of actions will remain when the actions are removed.
Execution Construction of the works.

7
 1. Introduction to Eurocodes

References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. BSI (4 parts).
2 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1990, Eurocode: Basis of structural design. BSI, 2002.
3 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. BSI (10 parts).
4 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110: The structural use of concrete. BSI (3 parts).
5 GULVANESSIAN, H, CALGARO, J A & HOLICÝ, M T. Designers’ guide to EN 1990. Thomas Telford, 2002.
6 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 6399: Loading for buildings. BSI (3 parts).
7 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 648: Schedule of weights of building materials. BSI, 1964.
8 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Web page: www.bsi-global.com/Eurocodes/Progress/index.xalter. BSI.
9 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–1, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules and rules for buildings. BSI, 2004.
10 BRITISH STANDARD INSTITUTION. PD 6687. Background paper to the UK National Annex to BS EN 1992–1–1. BSI, 2006.
11 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Beams (TCC/03/19). The Concrete Centre, 2006.
12 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Structural fire design. BSI, 2004.
13 BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Getting started (TCC/03/17). The Concrete Centre, 2005.
14 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Bridges. BSI, 2005.
15 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–3, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Liquid-retaining and containment structures.
BSI, due 2006.
16 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8007: Code of practice for design of concrete structures for retaining aqueous liquids. BSI, 1987.
17 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1997, Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design. BSI (2 parts).
18 WEBSTER, R & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Foundations (TCC/03/21). The Concrete Centre, 2006.
19 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1998, Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance. BSI (6 parts).
20 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8500: Concrete – Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206–1, 2002 (2 parts).
21 HARRISON, T A & BROOKER, O. How to use BS 8500 with BS 8110 (TCC/03/11). The Concrete Centre, 2005.
22 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 4449: Specification for carbon steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete. BSI, 2005.
23 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 10080: Steel for the reinforcement of concrete – Weldable reinforcing steel – General. BSI, 2005.
24 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. EN 13670: Execution of concrete structures – Part 1: Common. BSI, due 2008.
25 THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. CS 152: National structural concrete specification for building construction, third edition. The Society, 2004.

8
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2
2. Getting started
O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE

The design process

This chapter is intended to assist the designer determine all the design
information required prior to embarking on detailed element design. It
covers design life, actions on structures, load arrangements, combinations
of actions, method of analysis, material properties, stability and
imperfections, minimum concrete cover and maximum crack widths.

The process of designing elements will not be revolutionised as a result

of using Eurocode 21, although much of the detail may change – as
described in subsequent chapters.

Similarly, the process of detailing will not vary significantly from current
practice. Guidance can be found in Chapter 10 or in Standard method of
detailing 2. With regard to specification, advice can be found in Chapter 1,
originally published as Introduction to Eurocodes3. Concept designs
prepared assuming that detailed design would be to BS 8110 may be
continued through to detailed design using Eurocode 2.

In the long-term it is anticipated that Eurocode 2 will lead to more

economic structures.

Design life
The design life for a structure is given in Eurocode: Basis of structural
design 4. The UK National Annex (NA) to Eurocode presents UK values
for design life; these are given in Table 1 (overleaf). These should be used
to determine the durability requirements for the design of reinforced
concrete structures.

Actions on structures
Eurocode 1: Actions on structures5 consists of 10 parts giving details of
a wide variety of actions. Further information on the individual codes
can be found in Chapter 1. Eurocode 1, Part 1–1: General actions –
Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings6 gives the densities and
self-weights of building materials (see Table 2 overleaf).

The key change to current practice is that the bulk density of reinforced
concrete has been increased to 25 kN/m3. The draft National Annex to
this Eurocode gives the imposed loads for UK buildings and a selection is
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Table 1
Indicative design working life (from UK National Annex to Eurocode) reproduced in Table 3. It should be noted that there is no advice given
for plant rooms.
Design life (years) Examples
10 Temporary structures
10–30 Replaceable structural parts At the time of writing not all the parts of Eurocode 1 and their National
15–25 Agricultural and similar structures Annexes are available; it is advised that existing standards are considered
50 Buildings and other common structures for use where European standards have not yet been issued.
120 Monumental buildings, bridges and other civil
engineering structures

Load arrangements
Table 2
Selected bulk density of materials (from Eurocode 1, Part 1–1) The term load arrangements refers to the arranging of variable actions
(e.g. imposed and wind loads) to give the most onerous forces in a
Material Bulk density (kN/m3)
Normal weight concrete 24.0 member or structure and are given in Eurocode 2 and its UK NA.
Reinforced normal weight concrete 25.0
Wet normal weight reinforced concrete 26.0 For building structures, the UK NA to Eurocode 2, Part 1–1 allows any
of the following sets of load arrangements to be used for both the
ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state:
Figure 1
Alternate spans loaded
Load set 1. Alternate or adjacent spans loaded
The design values should be obtained from the more critical of:
■ Alternate spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads
with other spans loaded with only the design permanent load (see
Figure 1). The value of gG should be the same throughout.
■ Any two adjacent spans carrying the design variable and
permanent loads with other spans loaded with only the design
permanent load (see Figure 2). The value of gG should be the
same throughout.

Load set 2. All or alternate spans loaded

Figure 2 The design values should be obtained from the more critical of:
Adjacent spans loaded
■ All spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads
(see Figure 3).
■ Alternate spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads
with other spans loaded with only the design permanent load (see
Figure 1). The value of gG should be the same throughout.

Generally, load set 2 will be used for beams and slabs in the UK as it
requires three load arrangements to be considered, while load set 1
will often require more than three arrangements to be assessed.
Alternatively, the UK NA makes the following provision for slabs.

Load set 3. Simplified arrangements for slabs

The load arrangements can be simplified for slabs where it is only
necessary to consider the all spans loaded arrangement (see Figure 3),
provided the following conditions are met:
■ In a one-way spanning slab the area of each bay exceeds 30 m2
Figure 3
All spans loaded (a bay means a strip across the full width of a structure bounded
on the other sides by lines of support).
■ The ratio of the variable actions (Qk) to the permanent actions (Gk)
does not exceed 1.25.
■ The magnitude of the variable actions excluding partitions does not
exceed 5 kN/m2.

2
10
 2. Getting started

Combination of actions Standard to BS EN 206–17 (e.g. for class C28/35 concrete the cylinder
strength is 28 MPa, whereas the cube strength is 35 MPa). Typical
The term combination of actions refers to the value of actions to be concrete properties are given in Table 4.
used when a limit state is under the influence of different actions.
Concrete up to class C90/105 can be designed using Eurocode 2.
The numerical values of the partial factors for the ULS combination can For classes above C50/60, however, there are additional rules and
be obtained by referring to Eurocode: Basis of structural design or to variations. For this reason, the design of these higher classes is not
Chapter 1. considered in this publication.

For members supporting one variable action the ULS combination It should be noted that designated concretes (e.g. RC30) still refer
.( 1.25 Gk + 1.5 Qk (derived from Exp. (6.10b), Eurocode) to the cube strength.
can be used provided the permanent actions are not greater than
4.5 times the variable actions (except for storage loads). Reinforcing steel
Eurocode 2 can be used with reinforcement of characteristic
There are three SLS combinations of actions – characteristic, frequent strengths ranging from 400 to 600 MPa. The properties of steel
and quasi-permanent. The numerical values are given in Eurocode: Basis reinforcement in the UK for use with Eurocode 2 are given in
of structural design. BS 4449 (2005): Specification for carbon steel bars for the
reinforcement of concrete 8 and are summarised in Table 5 (on page 4).
A characteristic yield strength of 500 MPa has been adopted by the
Material properties UK reinforcement industry. There are three classes of reinforcement,
A, B and C, which provide increasing ductility. Class A is not suitable
Concrete where redistribution of 20% and above has been assumed in the
In Eurocode 2 the design of reinforced concrete is based on the design. There is no provision for the use of plain bar or mild steel
characteristic cylinder strength rather than cube strength and should reinforcement, but guidance is given in the background paper to the
be specified according to BS 8500: Concrete – complementary British National Annex9.

Table 3
Selected imposed loads for buildings (from draft UK National Annex to Eurocode 1, Part 1–1)

Category Example use qk (kN/m2) Qk (kN)

A1 All uses within self-contained dwelling units 1.5 2.0
A2 Bedrooms and dormitories 1.5 2.0
A3 Bedrooms in hotels and motels, hospital wards and toilets 2.0 2.0
A5 Balconies in single family dwelling units 2.5 2.0
A7 Balconies in hotels and motels 4.0 min. 2.0 at outer edge
B1 Offices for general use 2.5 2.7
C5 Assembly area without fixed seating, concert halls, bars, places of worship 5.0 3.6
D1/2 Shopping areas 4.0 3.6
E12 General storage 2.4 per m height 7.0
E17 Dense mobile stacking in warehouses 4.8 per m height (min. 15.0) 7.0
F Gross vehicle weight ≤ 30kN 2.5 10.0

Table 4
Selected concrete properties based on Table 3.1 of Eurocode 2, Part 1–1

Symbol Description Properties

fck (MPa) Characteristic cylinder strength 12 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 28a 32a
fck,cube (MPa) Characteristic cube strength 15 20 25 30 37 45 50 55 60 35 40
fctm (MPa) Mean tensile strength 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.1 2.8 3.0
Ecm b (GPa) Secant modulus of elasticity 27 29 30 31 33 34 35 36 37 32 34
Key
a Concrete class not cited in Table 3.1, Eurocode 2, Part 1–1
b Mean secant modulus of elasticity at 28 days for concrete with quartzite aggregates. For concretes with other aggregates refer to Cl 3.1.3 (2)

3
11
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Table 5
Characteristic tensile properties of reinforcement Structural analysis
Class (BS 4449) and designation (BS 8666) A B C
The primary purpose of structural analysis in building structures is to
Characteristic yield strength fyk or f 0.2k (MPa) 500 500 500
establish the distribution of internal forces and moments over the
Minimum value of k = ( ft /fy ) k ≥ 1.05 ≥ 1.08 ≥ 1.15 < 1.35
whole or part of a structure and to identify the critical design
Characteristic strain at maximum force e uk (%) ≥ 2.5 ≥ 5.0 ≥ 7.5
conditions at all sections. The geometry is commonly idealised by
Notes
1 Table derived from BS EN 1992–1–1 Annex C, BS 4449: 2005 and BS EN 1008010 . considering the structure to be made up of linear elements and plane
2 The nomenclature used in BS 4449: 2005 differs from that used in BS EN 1992–1–1 two-dimensional elements.
Annex C and used here.
3 In accordance with BS 8666, class H may be specified, in which case class A, B or C
may be supplied. The type of analysis should be appropriate to the problem being
considered. The following may be used: linear elastic analysis, linear
Table 6 elastic analysis with limited redistribution, and plastic analysis. Linear
Bending moment and shear co-efficients for beams elastic analysis may be carried out assuming cross sections are
Moment Shear uncracked (i.e. concrete section properties); using linear stress-strain
Outer support 25% of span moment 0.45 (G + Q) relationships, and assuming mean values of elastic modulus.
Near middle of end span 0.090 Gl + 0.100 Ql
At first interior support – 0.094 (G + Q) l 0.63 (G + Q)a For the ultimate limit state only, the moments derived from elastic
At middle of interior spans 0.066 Gl + 0.086 Ql analysis may be redistributed (up to a maximum of 30%) provided
At interior supports – 0.075 (G + Q) l 0.50 (G + Q) that the resulting distribution of moments remains in equilibrium with
Key the applied loads and subject to certain limits and design criteria (e.g.
a 0.55 (G + Q) may be used adjacent to the interior span.
limitations of depth to neutral axis).
Notes
1 Redistribution of support moments by 15% has been included.
2 Applicable to 3 or more spans only and where Qk ≤ G k. Regardless of the method of analysis used, the following principles apply:
3 Minimum span ≥ 0.85 longest span.
4 l is the effective length, G is the total of the ULS permanent actions, Q is the total ■ Where a beam or slab is monolithic with its supports, the critical
of the ULS variable actions.
design hogging moment may be taken as that at the face of the
support, but should not be taken as less than 0.65 times the full
Table 7 fixed end moment.
Exposure classes
■ Where a beam or slab is continuous over a support that may be
Class Description considered not to provide rotational restraint, the moment
No risk of corrosion or attack calculated at the centre line of the support may be reduced by
X0 For concrete without reinforcement or embedded metal where there (FEd,sup t/8), where FEd,sup is the support reaction and t is the breadth
is no significant freeze/thaw, abrasion or chemical attack. of the support.
Corrosion induced by carbonation ■ For the design of columns the elastic moments from the frame
XC1 Dry or permanently wet action should be used without any redistribution.
XC2 Wet, rarely dry
XC3/4 Moderate humidity or cyclic wet and dry Bending moment and shear force co-efficients for beams are given in
Corrosion induced by chlorides other than from seawater
Table 6; these are suitable where spans are of similar length and the
other notes to the table are observed.
XD1 Moderate humidity
XD2 Wet, rarely dry
XD3 Cyclic wet and dry
Corrosion induced by chlorides from seawater
Minimum concrete cover
XS1 Exposed to airborne salt but not in direct contact with sea water The nominal cover can be assessed as follows:
XS2 Permanently submerged
cnom = cmin + D cdev Exp. (4.1)
XS3 Tidal, splash and spray zones
Freeze/thaw with or without de-icing agents Where cmin should be set to satisfy the requirements below:
XF1 Moderate water saturation without de-icing agent ■ safe transmission of bond forces

XF2 Moderate water saturation with de-icing agent ■ durability

■ fire resistance
XF3 High water saturation without de-icing agent
and D cdev is an allowance which should be made in the design for
XF4 High water saturation with de-icing agent or sea water
deviations from the minimum cover. It should be taken as 10 mm,
Chemical attack (ACEC classes)
unless fabrication (i.e. construction) is subjected to a quality assurance
Refer to BS 8500–1 and Special Digest 111
system, in which case it is permitted to reduce D cdev to 5 mm.

4
12
 2. Getting started

Figure 4
Sections through structural members, showing nominal axis distance, a National Annex (Table 4.3 (N) (BS)) gives durability requirements that
comply with BS 8500, but which significantly modify the approach
taken in Eurocode 2. To determine the minimum cover for durability
(and also the strength class and minimum water cement ratio) either
the UK National Annex or BS 8500 can be used.

The various exposure classes from BS 8500 are given in Table 7. Selected
recommendations are given in Table 8 (on page 6) for the concrete
strength, minimum cement ratio, minimum concrete cover and maximum
cement content for various elements in a structure based on the exposure
of that element. This is taken from Chapter 11, originally published as
How to use BS 8500 with BS 811013.
Table 9
Minimum column dimensions and axis distances for columns with
rectangular or circular section – method A
Design for fire resistance
Eurocode 2 Part 1–2: Structural fire design14, gives several methods
Standard fire Minimum dimensions (mm)
resistance Column width ( bmin)/axis distance (a) of the main bars for determining the fire resistance of concrete elements; further
Column exposed on more Exposed on one side guidance can be obtained from specialist literature. Design for
than one side ( m f i = 0.7) ( m f i = 0.7) fire resistance may still be carried out by referring to tables to
R 60 250/46 155/25 determine the minimum cover and dimensions for various elements,
350/40 as set out below.
R 120 350/57* 175/35
450/51*
Rather than giving the minimum cover, the tabular method is based
R 240 † 295/70
on nominal axis distance, a (see Figure 4). This is the distance from the
Notes
1 Refer to BS EN 1992–1–2 for design limitations.
centre of the main reinforcing bar to the surface of the member. It is
2 m fi is the ratio of the design axial load under fire conditions to the design resistance a nominal (not minimum) dimension. The designer should ensure that
of the column at normal temperature conditions. Conservatively m fi may be taken
as 0.7
a ≥ cnom + f link + f bar /2.
* Minimum 8 bars
† Method B indicates 600/70 for R 240 and m fi = 0.7 and may be used.
See EN 1992–1–2 Table 5.2b
There are three standard fire exposure conditions that may be satisfied:
R Mechanical resistance for load bearing
E Integrity of separation
Minimum cover for bond I Insulation
The minimum cover to ensure adequate bond should not be less than
the bar diameter, or equivalent bar diameter for bundled bars, unless Tables 9 and 10 give the minimum dimensions for columns and slabs
the aggregate size is over 32 mm. to meet the above conditions. The tables offer more flexibility than
BS 8110 in that there are options available to the designer e.g. section
Minimum cover for durability sizes can be reduced by increasing the axis distance. Further information
The recommendations for durability in Eurocode 2 are based on is given in Eurocode 2 and subsequent chapters, including design
BS EN 206–112. In the UK the requirements of BS EN 206 –1 are limitations and data for walls and beams.
applied through the complementary standard BS 8500. The UK

Table 10
Minimum dimensions and axis distances for reinforced concrete slabs

Standard Minimum dimensions (mm)

fire One-way Two-way spanning slab Flat slab Ribs in a two-way spanning ribbed slab
resistance spanning slab l y /l x ≤ 1.5 1.5 < l y /l x ≤ 2 (bmin is the width of the rib)
REI 60 hs = 80 80 80 180 bmin = 100 120 ≥200
a = 20 10 15 15 a= 25 15 10
REI 120 hs = 120 120 120 200 bmin = 160 190 ≥300
a = 40 20 25 35 a= 45 40 30
REI 240 hs = 175 175 175 200 bmin = 450 700 –––
a = 65 40 50 50 a= 70 60
Notes
1 Refer to BS EN 1992–1–2 for design limitations.
2 a is the axis distance (see Figure 4).
3 h s is the slab thickness, including any non-combustible flooring.

5
13
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Table 8
Selected a recommendations for normal-weight reinforced concrete quality for combined exposure classes and cover to reinforcement for at least a
50-year intended working life and 20 mm maximum aggregate size

Exposure conditions Cement/ Strength classc, maximum w/c ratio, minimum cement or combination
combination content (kg/m3), and equivalent designated concrete (where applicable)
designationsb
Typical example Primary Secondary Nominal cover to reinforcementd
15 + D c dev 20 + D c dev 25 + D c dev 30 + D c dev 35 + D c dev 40 + D c dev 45 + D c dev 50 + D c dev
Internal mass
X0 ___ All Recommended that this exposure is not applied to reinforced concrete
concrete
Internal elements C20/25,
(except humid XC1 ___ All 0.70, 240 or <<< <<< <<< <<< <<< <<< <<<
locations) RC20/25
Buried concrete C25/30,
in AC-1 ground XC2 AC-1 All ___ ___ 0.65, 260 or <<< <<< <<< <<< <<<
conditions e RC25/30
Vertical surface C40/50, C30/37, C28/35, C25/30,
protected from ___ All except IVB ___ 0.45, 340 or 0.55, 300 0.60, 280 or 0.65, 260 or <<< <<< <<<
direct rainfall RC40/50 or RC30/37 RC28/35 RC25/30
C40/50, C30/37, C28/35,
Exposed vertical
XF1 All except IVB ___ 0.45, 340 or 0.55, 300 0.60, 280 or <<< <<< <<< <<<
surfaces
XC3 RC40/50 or RC30/37 RC28/35
& C40/50,0.45,
XC4 XF3 All except IVB ___ 340 g or <<< <<< <<< <<< <<< <<<
RC40/50XFg
Exposed horizontal
surfaces C28/35, C25/30,
C32/40,
XF3 (air
All except IVB ___ ___ 0.55, 300
0.60, 280 0.60, 280
<<< <<< <<<
entrained) plus air g,h plus air g, h, j
plus air g,h
or PAV2 or PAV1
Elements subject
to airborne XD1f ___ All ___ ___ C40/50, C32/40, C28/35,
<<< <<< <<<
0.45, 360 0.55, 320 0.60, 300
chlorides

IIB-V, IIIA ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C35/45, C32/40, C28/35,
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340
Car park decks and
areas subject to ___ CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ See C40/50, C35/45,
IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.40, 380 0.45, 360
de-icing spray
IIIB, IVB-V ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C32/40, C28/35, C25/30,
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340

IIB-V, IIIA ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C35/45, C32/40, C32/40,
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340
Vertical elements XD3f
subject to de-icing XF2
CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ See C40/50, C35/45,
IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.40, 380 0.45, 360
spray and freezing
IIIB, IVB-V ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C32/40, C32/40 C32/40,
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340

Car park decks, XF4

CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ See C40/50,
<<<
ramps and external IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.40, 380 g
areas subject to
freezing and XF4 (air ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C28/35, C28/35 C28/35,
IIB-V, IIIA, IIIB 0.40, 380g, h 0.45, 360g, h 0.50, 340g, h
de-icing salts entrained)

CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ See C35/45, C32/40,

<<< <<<
IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.45, 360 0.50, 340
Exposed vertical
XF1 IIB-V, IIIA ___ ___ ___ See C32/40, C28/35, C25/30,
<<<
surfaces near coast BS 8500 0.45, 360 0.50, 340 0.55, 320
XS1f
IIIB ___ ___ ___ C32/40, C25/30, C25/30, C25/30,
<<<
0.40, 380 0.50, 340 0.50, 340 0.55, 320
Exposed horizontal
XF4
CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ See C40/50,
<<< <<< <<<
surfaces near coast IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.45, 360 g
Key d D c dev is an allowance for deviations. ___ Not recommended
a This table comprises a selection of common exposure class combinations. e For sections less than 140 mm thick refer to BS 8500.
Requirements for other sets of exposure classes, e.g. XD2, XS2 and XS3 should f Also adequate for exposure class XC3/4. <<< Indicates that concrete
be derived from BS 8500-1: 2002, Annex A. g Freeze/thaw resisting aggregates should be specified. quality in cell to the left
b See BS 8500-2,Table 1. (CEM I is Portland cement, IIA to IVB are cement combinations.) h Air entrained concrete is required. should not be reduced
c For prestressed concrete the minimum strength class should be C28/35. j This option may not be suitable for areas subject to
severe abrasion.

6
14
 2. Getting started

Stability and imperfections Crack control

The effects of geometric imperfections should be considered in Crack widths should be limited to ensure appearance and durability
combination with the effects of wind loads (i.e. not as an alternative are satisfactory. In the absence of specific durability requirements
load combination). For global analysis, the imperfections may be (e.g. water tightness) the crack widths may be limited to 0.3 mm in
represented by an inclination y i . all exposure classes under the quasi-permanent combination. In the
absence of requirements for appearance, this limit may be relaxed (to
y i = (1/200) x a h x a m say 0.4 mm) for exposure classes X0 and XC1 (refer to Table 7). The
where theoretical size of the crack can be calculated using the expressions
a h = (2/Rl), to be taken as not less than 2/3 nor greater than 1.0 given in Cl 7.3.4 from Eurocode 2–1–1 or from the ‘deemed to satisfy’
a m = [0.5 (1 + 1/m)]0.5 requirements that can be obtained from Table 11, which is based on
l is the height of the building in metres tables 7.2N and 7.3N of the Eurocode. The limits apply to either the
m is the number of vertical members contributing to the horizontal bar size or the bar spacing, not both.
force in the bracing system.
Figure 5
The effect of the inclination may be represented by transverse forces at Examples of the effect of geometric imperfections
each level and included in the analysis along with other actions (see
Figure 5):

Effect on bracing system: Hi = y i (Nb – Na)

Effect on floor diaphragm: Hi = y i (Nb + Na)/2
Effect on roof diaphragm: Hi = y i Na
where Na and Nb are longitudinal forces contributing to Hi.

In most cases, an allowance for imperfections is made in the partial

factors used in the design of elements. However for columns, the effect a) Bracing system b) Floor diaphragm c) Roof diaphragm
of imperfections, which is similar in principle to the above, must be
considered (see Chapter 5, originally published as Columns15).
Figure 6
Determination of steel stress for crack width control

Table 11
Maximum bar size or spacing to limit crack width

Steel wmax = 0.4 mm wmax = 0.3 mm

stress
Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum
(s s)MPa bar bar bar bar
size (mm) spacing (mm) size (mm) spacing (mm)

160 40 300 32 300

200 32 OR 300 25 OR 250
240 20 250 16 200
280 16 200 12 150
320 12 150 10 100
360 10 100 8 50
Note
The steel stress may be estimated from the expression below (or see Figure 6):
ss = fyk m As,req
gms n As,prov d
where
fyk = characteristic reinforcement yield stress
gms = partial factor for reinforcing steel
m = total load from quasi-permanent combination
n = total load from ULS combination To determine stress in the reinforcement (ss), calculate the ratio Gk/Qk,
As,req = area of reinforcement at the ULS read up the graph to the appropriate curve and read across to determine ssu .
As,req 1
As,prov = area of reinforcement provided
d = ratio of redistributed moment to elastic moment
ss can be calculated from the expression: ss = ssu (As,prov d)( )

7
15
 2. Getting started

References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. BSI (4 parts).
2 INSTITUTION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS/THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. Standard method of detailing. ISE/CS. 2006.
3 NARAYANAN, R S & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Introduction to Eurocodes (TCC/03/16). The Concrete Centre, 2005.
4 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1990, Eurocode: Basis of structural design. BSI, 2002.
5 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. BSI (10 parts).
6 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures Part 1–1: General actions – Densities, self-weight, imposed loads
for buildings. BSI, 2002.
7 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8500–1: Concrete – Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206–1– Part 1: Method of specifying and
guidance for the specifier. BSI, 2002.
8 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 4449: Specification for carbon steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete. BSI, 2005.
9 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Background paper to the UK National Annex to BS EN 1992–1–1. BSI, 2006.
10 BRITISH STAND ARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 10080: Steel for the reinforcement of concrete – Weldable reinforcing steel – General. BSI, 2005.
11 BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT. Special Digest 1: Concrete in aggressive ground. BRE, 2005.
12 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 206–1: Concrete – Part: Specification, performance, production and conformity. BSI, 2000.
13 HARRISON, T A BROOKER, O. How to use BS 8500 with BS 8110 (TCC/03/11). The Concrete Centre, 2005.
14 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules – structural fire design, BSI, 2004.
15 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Columns, (TCC/03/20). The Concrete Centre, 2006.

16
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2
3. Slabs
R M Moss BSc, PhD, DIC, CEng, MICE, MIStructE O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE

Designing to Eurocode 2
This chapter covers the analysis and design of slabs to Eurocode 21 which is
essentially the same as with BS 81102. However, the layout and content of
Eurocode 2 may appear unusual to designers familiar with BS 8110. Eurocode 2
does not contain the derived formulae or specific guidance on determining
moments and shear forces. This has arisen because it has been European
practice to give principles in the codes and for the detailed application to
be presented in other sources such as textbooks.

Chapter 1, originally published as Introduction to Eurocodes3, highlighted the

key differences between Eurocode 2 and BS 8110, including terminology.
Chapter 7, originally published as Flat slabs4 covers the design of flat slabs.

It should be noted that values from the UK National Annex (NA) have been
used throughout, including values that are embedded in derived formulae.
(Derivations can be found at www.eurocode2.info.) A list of symbols related to
slab design is given at the end of this chapter.

Design procedure
A procedure for carrying out the detailed design of slabs is shown in Table 1.
This assumes that the slab thickness has previously been determined during
conceptual design. More detailed advice on determining design life, actions,
material properties, methods of analysis, minimum concrete cover for
durability and control of crack widths can be found in Chapter 2, originally
published as Getting started 5.

Fire resistance
Eurocode 2, Part 1–2: Structural fire design6, gives a choice of advanced,
simplified or tabular methods for determining the fire resistance. Using tables
is the fastest method for determining the minimum dimensions and cover for
slabs. There are, however, some restrictions which should be adhered to.
Further guidance on the advanced and simplified methods can be obtained
from specialist literature.

Rather than giving a minimum cover, the tabular method is based on

nominal axis distance, a. This is the distance from the centre of the main
reinforcing bar to the surface of the member. It is a nominal (not minimum)
Continues page 19
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Table 1
Slab design procedure

Step Task Further guidance

Chapter in this publication Standard
1 Determine design life 2: Getting started NA to BS EN 1990 Table NA.2.1
2 Assess actions on the slab 2: Getting started BS EN 1991 (10 parts) and National Annexes
3 Determine which combinations of actions apply 1: Introduction to Eurocodes NA to BS EN 1990 Tables NA.A1.1 and NA.A1.2 (B)
4 Determine loading arrangements 2: Getting started NA to BS EN 1992–1–1
5 Assess durability requirements and determine concrete strength 2: Getting started BS 8500: 2002
6 Check cover requirements for appropriate fire resistance period 2: Getting started and Table 2 Approved Document B. BS EN 1992–1–2: Section 5
7 Calculate min. cover for durability, fire and bond requirements 2: Getting started BS EN 1992–1–1 Cl 4.4.1
8 Analyse structure to obtain critical moments and shear forces 2: Getting started and Table 3 BS EN 1992–1–1 section 5
9 Design flexural reinforcement See Figure 1 BS EN 1992–1–1 section 6.1
10 Check deflection See Figure 3 BS EN 1992–1–1 section 7.4
11 Check shear capacity See Table 7 BS EN 1992–1–1 section 6.2
12 Check spacing of bars 2: Getting started BS EN 1992–1–1 section 7.3
Note
NA = National Annex.

Table 2
Minimum dimensions and axis distances for reinforced concrete slabs (excluding flat slabs)

Standard fire Minimum dimensions (mm)

resistance
One-way a,b Two-way spanning slab a,b,c,d Ribs in a two-way spanning ribbed slabe
spanning slab l y /l x ≤ 1.5 f 1.5 <l y /l x ≤ 2f

REI 60 hs = 80 80 80 b min = 100 120 ≥200

a= 20 10 g 15g a= 25 15g 10g
REI 90 hs = 100 100 100 b min = 120 160 ≥250
a= 30 15g 20 a= 35 25 15g
REI 120 hs = 120 120 120 b min = 160 190 ≥300
a= 40 20 25 a= 45 40 30
REI 240 hs = 175 175 175 b min = 450 700
–––
a= 65 40 50 a= 70 60

Notes Key
1 This table is taken from BS EN 1992–1–2 Tables 5.8 to 5.11. For flat slabs refer to a The slab thickness hs is the sum of the slab thickness and the thickness of any
Chapter 7. non-combustible flooring.
2 The table is valid only if the detailing requirements (see note 3) are observed and in b For continuous solid slabs a minimum negative reinforcement As ≥ 0.005 A c
normal temperature design redistribution of bending moments does not exceed 15%. should be provided over intermediate supports if
3 For fire resistance of R90 and above, for a distance of 0.3l eff from the centre line of each 1) cold worked reinforcement is used; or
intermediate support, the area of top reinforcement should not be less than the following: 2) there is no fixity over the end supports in a two span slab; or
A s,req (x) = A s,req ( 0 ) ( 1 – 2.5 ( x/ l eff ) ) 3) where transverse redistribution of load effects cannot be achieved.
where: c In two way slabs the axis refers to the lower layer of reinforcement.
x is the distance of the section being considered from the centre
d The term two way slabs relates to slabs supported at all four edges. If this is
line of the support.
not the case, they should be treated as one-way spanning slabs.
A s,req ( 0 ) is the area of reinforcement required for normal temperature design.
e For two-way ribbed slabs the following notes apply:
A s,req (x) is the minimum area of reinforcement required at the section
The axis distance measured to the lateral surface of the rib should be at
being considered but not less than that required for normal
least (a + 10).
temperature design.
The values apply where there is predominantly uniformly distributed loading.
l eff is the greater of the effective lengths of the two adjacent spans.
There should be at least one restrained edge.
4 There are three standard fire exposure conditions that need to be satisfied:
The top reinforcement should be placed in the upper half of the flange.
R Mechanical resistance for load bearing
E Integrity of separation f l x and l y are the spans of a two-way slab (two directions at right angles) where
I Insulation l y is the longer span.

5 The ribs in a one-way spanning ribbed slab can be treated as beams and reference can g Normally the requirements of BS EN 1992–1–1 will determine the cover.
be made to Chapter 4, Beams. The topping can be treated as a two-way slab where
1.5 < ly / lx ≤ 2.

2
18
 3. Slabs

Figure 1
Procedure for determining flexural reinforcement dimension, so the designer should ensure that
a ≥ cnom + f link + f bar /2.
START The requirements for various types of slab are given in Table 2.

Carry out analysis of slab to determine design moments (M)

(Where appropriate use coefficients from Table 3) Flexure
The design procedure for flexural design is given in Figure 1; this
No Outside scope of includes derived formulae based on the simplified rectangular stress
Concrete class
≤C50/60? this publication block from Eurocode 2. Where appropriate, Table 3 may be used to
determine bending moments and shear forces for slabs. Further
Yes information for the design of two-way, ribbed or waffle slabs is given in
Determine K from: K =
M the appropriate sections on pages 5 and 6.
bd 2 fck

Table 4
Determine K’ from Table 4 or
Values for K ’
K’ = 0.60d – 0.18 d 2 – 0.21 where d ≤ 1.0
% redistribution d (redistribution ratio) K’
0 1.00 0.208a
Compression
reinforcement
10 0.90 0.182a
No
Is K ≤ K ’ ? required – not 15 0.85 0.168
recommended for
typical slabs 20 0.80 0.153

Yes
25 0.75 0.137
30 0.70 0.120
No compression reinforcement required Key
a It is often recomended in the UK that K´ should be limited to 0.168 to ensure ductile failure.

Obtain lever arm z from Table 5 or

d Table 5
z=
2 [
1 + 1 – 3.53 K ≤ 0.95d] z/d for singly reinforced rectangular sections

K z/d K z/d
Calculate tension reinforcement required from ≤0.05 0.950a 0.13 0.868
M
As = 0.06 0.944 0.14 0.856
fyd z
0.07 0.934 0.15 0.843
0.08 0.924 0.16 0.830
Check minimum reinforcement requirements (see Table 6) 0.09 0.913 0.17 0.816
0.26 fctm bt d 0.10 0.902 0.18 0.802
As,min = where fck ≥ 25
fyk 0.11 0.891 0.19 0.787
0.12 0.880 0.20 0.771
Key
Check maximum reinforcement requirements
a Limiting z to 0.95d is not a requirement of Eurocode 2, but is considered to be good practice.
As,max = 0.04 Ac for tension or compression
reinforcement outside lap locations

Table 6
Minimum percentage of reinforcement required
Table 3
Bending moment and shear coefficients for slabs fck fctm Minimum % (0.26 fctm /fyka )
25 2.6 0.13%
End support /slab connection First Interior Interior
interior spans supports 28 2.8 0.14%
Pinned Continuous
support 30 2.9 0.15%
End End End End
support span support span 32 3.0 0.16%
Moment 0 0.086Fl – 0.04Fl 0.075Fl –0.086Fl 0.063Fl –0.063Fl 35 3.2 0.17%
Shear 0.40F 0.46F 0.6F 0.5F 40 3.5 0.18%
Notes 45 3.8 0.20%
1 Applicable to one-way spanning slabs where the area of each bay exceeds 30 m2,
Qk ≤ 1.25 Gk and qk ≤ 5 kN/m2 50 4.1 0.21%
2 F is the total design ultimate load, l is the span Key
3 Minimum span > 0.85 longest span, minimum 3 spans
4 Based on 20% redistribution at supports and no decrease in span moments a Where fyk = 500 MPa.

3
19
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Eurocode 2 offers various methods for determining the stress-strain Deflection

relationship of concrete. For simplicity and familiarity the method
presented here is the simplified rectangular stress block, which is Eurocode 2 has two alternative methods of designing for deflection,
similar to that found in BS 8110 (see Figure 2). either by limiting span-to-depth ratio or by assessing the theoretical
deflection using the Expressions given in the Eurocode. The latter
The Eurocode gives recommendations for the design of concrete up to is dealt with in detail in Chapter 8, originally published as Deflection
class C90/105. However, for concrete greater than class C50/60, the stress calculations7.
block is modified. It is important to note that concrete strength is based
on the cylinder strength and not the cube strength (i.e. for class C28/35 The span-to-depth ratios should ensure that deflection is limited to
the cylinder strength is 28 MPa, whereas the cube strength is 35 MPa). span /250 and this is the procedure presented in Figure 3.

Figure 2
Simplified rectangular stress block for concrete up to class C50/60 from Eurocode 2

Figure 3 Figure 4
Procedure for assessing deflection Determination of steel stress

START

Determine basic l/d from Figure 5

Determine Factor 1 (F1)

For ribbed or waffle slabs
F1 = 1 – 0.1 ((bf/bw) – 1) ≥ 0.8†
(bf is flange breadth and bw is rib breadth)
Otherwise F1 = 1.0

Determine Factor 2 (F2)

Where the slab span exceeds 7 m and it supports
brittle partitions, F2 = 7/leff
Otherwise F2 = 1.0

Determine Factor 3 (F3)

F3 = 310/ss
Where ss = Stress in reinforcement at serviceability
limit state (see Figure 4)
ss may be assumed to be 310 MPa (i.e. F3 = 1.0)
Note: As,prov ≤ 1.5 As,req’d (UK National Annex) Increase
As,prov

Is basic l/d x F1 x F2 x F3 ≥ Actual l/d ?

No
Yes
To determine stress in the reinforcement (ss), calculate the ratio
Gk/Qk , read up the graph to the appropriate curve and read across
Check complete to determine ssu .
As,req 1
† The Eurocode is ambiguous regarding linear interpolation. It is understood that this
was the intention of the drafting committee and is in line with current UK practice.
ss can be calculated from the expression: ss = ssu ( )( )
As,prov d

4
20
 3. Slabs

Design for shear Table 7

vRd,c resistance of members without shear reinforcement, MPa

It is not usual for a slab to contain shear reinforcement, therefore it is rI = Effective depth, d (mm)
As /(bd)
only necessary to ensure that the concrete shear stress capacity ≤200 225 250 275 300 350 400 450 500 600 750
without shear reinforcement (vRd,c – see Table 7) is more than applied
0.25% 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.48 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.38 0.36
shear stress (vEd = VEd /( bd )). Where shear reinforcement is required,
e.g. for ribs in a ribbed slab, refer to Chapter 4, originally published as 0.50% 0.59 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.54 0.52 0.51 0.49 0.48 0.47 0.45
Beams 8. 0.75% 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.62 0.59 0.58 0.56 0.55 0.53 0.51

1.00% 0.75 0.72 0.71 0.69 0.68 0.65 0.64 0.62 0.61 0.59 0.57

Two-way slabs 1.25% 0.80 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.66 0.63 0.61

1.50% 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.79 0.78 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.70 0.67 0.65
Unlike BS 8110 there is no specific guidance given in Eurocode 2 on
how to determine the bending moments for a two-way slab. The 1.75% 0.90 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.82 0.79 0.77 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.68
assessment of the bending moment can be carried out using any ≥2.00% 0.94 0.91 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.77 0.74 0.71
suitable method from Section 5 of the Code. However, co-efficients
k 2.000 1.943 1.894 1.853 1.816 1.756 1.707 1.667 1.632 1.577 1.516
may be obtained from Table 8 (taken from the Manual for the design of
building structures to Eurocode 29) to determine bending moments per Table derived from: v Rd,c = 0.12 k (100r I fck)1/3 ≥ 0.035 k1.5 fck 0.5
unit width (Msx and Msy) where: where k = 1 + R(200/d) ≤ 2 and r I = As /(bd) ≤ 0.02
Note
Msx = bsx w lx2 1 This table has been prepared for fck = 30.
2 Where r I exceeds 0.40% the following factors may be used:
Msy = b sy w lx2
fck 25 28 32 35 40 45 50
Where bsx and bsy are coefficients, lx is the shorter span and w (load
Factor 0.94 0.98 1.02 1.05 1.10 1.14 1.19
per unit area) is the STR ultimate limit state combination. For more
information on combinations refer toChapter 1, originally published as
Introduction to Eurocodes3.

Figure 5
Basic span-to-effective-depth ratios

Notes
1 For two-way spanning slabs, the check should be
carried out on the basis of the shorter span.
2 This graph assumes simply supported span
condition (K = 1.0).
K = 1.5 for interior span condition
K = 1.3 for end span condition
K = 0.4 for cantilevers
3 Compression reinforcement, r’, has been taken as 0.
4 Curves based on the following expressions:

1.5
1.5 fck r 0 r0
l
d [
= K 11 +
r
+ 3.2 fck
( )]
r
–1

where r ≤ r 0

and

1.5 fck r 0 r’
l
d
= K 11 +[ ( r – r ’)
+
fck
12 r0 ]
where r > r 0 .

Percentage of tension reinforcement (As,req’d/bd)

5
21
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Ribbed or waffle slabs Figure 6

Procedure for determining flexural capacity of flanged ribs

Current practices for determining forces in ribbed and waffle slabs may also
START
be used for designs to Eurocode 2. Where a waffle slab is treated as a
two-way slab refer to previous section, but note that their torsional stiffness
is significantly less than for a two-way slab and the bending moment co-
efficients may not be applicable. Where it is treated as a flat slab reference No Outside scope
Concrete class of this
may be made to Chapter 7, originally published as Flat slabs4 ≤ C50/60? publication

The position of the neutral axis in the rib should be determined, and Yes

then the area of reinforcement can be calculated depending on Determine l0 (see Figure 7) and beff from:
whether it lies in the flange or web (see flow chart in Figure 6). The beff = (bw + beff1 + beff2) where
beff1 = (0.2b1 + 0.1 l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b1
main differences compared with BS 8110 are that the assessment of
beff2 = (0.2b2 + 0.1 l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b2
the flange width is more sophisticated (see Figures 7 and 8). Note: The flange width at the support will be
different from that at mid-span.
For symbols refer to Figures 7 and 8
Where a slab is formed with permanent blocks or a with a topping
thickness less than 50 mm and one-tenth of the clear distance
between ribs it is recommended that a longitudinal shear check is
M
carried out to determine whether additional transverse reinforcement is Determine K from: K =
bd 2 fck
required (see BS EN 1992–1–1, Cl 6.2.4).

Table 8 Determine K’ from Table 2 or

Bending moment coefficients for two-way spanning rectangular slabs
K’ = 0.60d – 0.18 d2 – 0.21 where d ≤ 1.0
supported by beams

Type or panel Short span coefficients for Long-span

and moments values of ly /lx coefficients
Calculate lever arm z from
considered for all values d
of ly /lx z=
2 [
1 + 1 – 3.53 K ≤ 0.95d ]
1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0

Interior panels Calculate depth to neutral axis x from:

x = 2.5 (d – z)
Negative moment 0.031 0.044 0.053 0.059 0.063 0.032
at continuous edge
Neutral axis in
Positive moment 0.024 0.034 0.040 0.044 0.048 0.024 Yes flange.
at midspan Is x ≤ 1.25hf Design as
rectangular
section.
One short edge discontinuous
No
Negative moment 0.039 0.050 0.058 0.063 0.067 0.037
at continuous edge Neutral axis in web
Calculate moment capacity of flange from:
Positive moment 0.029 0.038 0.043 0.047 0.050 0.028 MR,f = 0.57 fck (beff – bw) hf (d – 0.5hf)
at midspan
M – MR,f
and Kf =
One long edge discontinuous fck bw d 2

Negative moment 0.039 0.059 0.073 0.083 0.089 0.037

at continuous edge
No
Is Kf ≤ K ’ Redesign
Positive moment 0.030 0.045 0.055 0.062 0.067 0.028 section
at midspan

Two adjacent edges discontinuous Yes

Negative moment 0.047 0.066 0.078 0.087 0.093 0.045 Calculate area of reinforcement required from
at continuous edge MR,f M – MR,f
As = +
fywd (d – 0.5 hf ) fywd z
Positive moment 0.036 0.049 0.059 0.065 0.070 0.034
at midspan

6
22
 3. Slabs

Figure 7 Figure 8
Definition of l0 , for calculation of effective flange width Effective flange width parameters

Selected symbols
Rules for spacing and Symbol Definition Value

quantity of reinforcement Ac
As
Cross sectional area of concrete
Area of tension steel
bh

As2 Area of compression steel

Minimum area of principal reinforcement As, prov Area of tension steel provided
The minimum area of principal reinforcement in the main direction is As, req’d Area of tension steel required
As,min = 0.26 fc tm b t d/fy k but not less than 0.0013b td, where b t is the beff Effective flange width
mean width of the tension zone (see Table 6). For a T-beam with the bt Mean width of the tension zone
flange in compression, only the width of the web is taken into account bmin Width of beam or rib
in calculating the value of b t. bw Width of rib web
d Effective depth
Minimum area of secondary reinforcement d2 Effective depth to compression reinforcement
The minimum area of secondary transverse reinforcement is
fcd Design value of concrete compressive strength acc fck /gc
20% As,min . In areas near supports, transverse reinforcement is not
fck Characteristic cylinder strength of concrete
necessary where there is no transverse bending moment.
fctm Mean value of axial tensile strength 0.30 fck2/3 for fck ≤ C50/60
(from Table 3.1, Eurocode 2)
Maximum area of reinforcement hf Flange thickness
Outside lap locations, the maximum area of tension or compression hs Slab thickness
reinforcement should not exceed As,max = 0.04 Ac K Factor to take account of the different See Table NA.4 in
structural systems UK National Annex

Minimum spacing of reinforcement leff Effective span of member See Section 5.3.2.2 (1)

The minimum clear distance between bars should be the greater of: l0 Distance between points of zero moment

■ Bar diameter l/d Limiting span-to-depth ratio

■ Aggregate size plus 5 mm lx, ly Spans of a two-way slab

■ 20 mm M Design moment at the ULS
x Depth to neutral axis (d – z)/0.4
Maximum spacing of reinforcement xmax Limiting value for depth to neutral axis (d – 0.4)d where d ≤1.0
For slabs less than 200 mm thick the following maximum spacing z Lever arm
rules apply: a cc Coefficient taking account of long term 0.85 for flexure and
effects on compressive strength and of axial loads.
■ For the principal reinforcement: 3h but not more than 400 mm
unfavourable effects resulting from the 1.0 for other phenomena
■ For the secondary reinforcement: 3.5h but not more than 450 mm way load is applied (From UK National Annex)
d Ratio of the redistributed moment to the
The exception is in areas with concentrated loads or areas of maximum elastic bending moment

moment where the following applies: gm Partial factor for material properties 1.15 for reinforcement (gs )
1.5 for concrete (gc )
■ For the principal reinforcement: 2h but not more than 250 mm
r0 Reference reinforcement ratio Rfck /1000
■ For the secondary reinforcement: 3h but not more than 400 mm
r Required tension reinforcement at mid-span As/bd
Where h is the depth of the slab.
to resist the moment due to the design
loads (or at support for cantilevers)
For slabs 200 mm thick or greater the bar size and spacing should be r’ Required compression reinforcement at As2/bd
limited to control the crack width and reference should be made to mid-span to resist the moment due to the
design loads (or at support for cantilevers)
section 7.3.3 of the Code or Chapter 2, originally published as Getting
started 5.

7
23
 3. Slabs

References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–1: Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures – Part 1–1 General rules and rules for buildings. BSI, 2004.
2 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110–1: The structural use of concrete – Part 1, Code of practice for design and construction. BSI, 1997.
3 NARAYANAN, R S & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Introduction to Eurocodes. The Concrete Centre, 2005.
4 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Flat slabs. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
5 BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Getting started. The Concrete Centre, 2005.
6 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules – structural fire design, BSI 2004.
7 WEBSTER, R & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Deflection calculations. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
8 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Beams. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
9 THE INSTITUTION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS/THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. Manual for the design of concrete building structures to
Eurocode 2. IStructE/ICE, 2006.

24
 4. Beams

How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

4. Beams
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@^mmbg`lmZkm^] %Zg] in<aZim^k*'

Fire resistance
>nkh\h]^+% IZkm*¾+3 Lmkn\mnkZe_bk^]^lb`g% `bo^lZ\ahb\^h_Z]oZg\^]%
lbfieb_b^]hkmZ[neZkf^mah]l_hk ]^m^kfbgbg`ma^_bk^k^lblmZg\^' Nlbg`mZ[e^l
blma^_Zlm^lmf^mah]_hk]^m^kfbgbg`ma^fbgbfnf]bf^glbhglZg]\ho^k
_hk[^Zfl' Ma^k^Zk^% ahp^o^k% lhf^k^lmkb\mbhglZg]b_ma^l^Ziier_nkma^k
`nb]Zg\^hgma^Z]oZg\^]Zg]lbfieb_b^]f^mah]l\Zg[^h[mZbg^]_khf
li^\bZeblmebm^kZmnk^ ' KZma^kmaZg`bobg`Zfbgbfnf\ho^k% ma^mZ[neZkf^mah]
bl[Zl^]hgghfbgZeZqbl]blmZg\^% Z !l^^?b`nk^*"' Mablblma^]blmZg\^_khf
ma^\^gmk^h_ma^fZbgk^bg_hk\bg`[Zkmhma^mhihk[hmmhflnk_Z\^h_ma^

<hgmbgn^liZ`^+0
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Table 1
Beam design procedure

Step Task Further guidance

Chapter in this publication Standard
* =^m^kfbg^]^lb`geb_^ +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] G:mh;L>G*22)MZ[e^G:'+'*
+ :ll^llZ\mbhglhgma^[^Zf +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] ;L>G*22*!*)iZkml"Zg]GZmbhgZe:gg^q^l
, =^m^kfbg^pab\a\hf[bgZmbhglh_Z\mbhglZiier *3Bgmkh]n\mbhgmh>nkh\h]^l G:mh;L>G*22)MZ[e^lG:':*'*Zg]G:':*'+!;"
- =^m^kfbg^ehZ]bg`ZkkZg`^f^gml +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] G:mh;L>G*22+¾*¾*
. :ll^ll]nkZ[bebmrk^jnbk^f^gmlZg]]^m^kfbg^\hg\k^m^lmk^g`ma +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] ;L1.))3 +))+
/ <a^\d\ho^kk^jnbk^f^gml_hkZiikhikbZm^_bk^k^lblmZg\^i^kbh] +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] Zg]Â?bk^k^lblmZg\^Ã :iikho^]=h\nf^gm;' ;L>G*22+¾*¾*3 L^\mbhg.
l^\mbhg
0 <Ze\neZm^fbg' \ho^k_hk]nkZ[bebmr% _bk^Zg][hg]k^jnbk^f^gml +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] ;L>G*22+¾*¾*<e-'-'*
1 :gZerl^lmkn\mnk^mhh[mZbg\kbmb\Zefhf^gmlZg]la^Zk_hk\^l +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] Zg]MZ[e^,    ;L>G*22+¾*¾*l^\mbhg.
2 =^lb`g_e^qnkZek^bg_hk\^f^gm L^^Â?e^qnk^Ã l^\mbhg   ;L>G*22+¾*¾*l^\mbhg/'*
*) <a^\dla^Zk\ZiZ\bmr L^^ÂO^kmb\Zela^Zkà l^\mbhg   ;L>G*22+¾*¾*l^\mbhg/'+
** <a^\d]^_e^\mbhg L^^Â=^_e^\mbhgà l^\mbhg   ;L>G*22+¾*¾*l^\mbhg0'-
*+ <a^\dliZ\bg`h_[Zkl +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] ;L>G*22+¾*¾*l^\mbhg0',
Note
G:6GZmbhgZe:gg^q

Table 2
Minimum dimensions and axis distances for beams made with reinforced concrete for fire resistance
Standard fire resistance Minimum dimensions (mm)
Possible combinations of a and bmin where a is the average axis distance and bmin is the width of the beam
Simply supported beams Continuous beams
A B C D E F G H
R60 bmin = 120 160 200 300 120 200
a= 40 35 30 25 25 12a
R90 bmin = 150 200 300 400 150 250
a= 55 45 40 35 35 25
R120 bmin = 200 240 300 500 200 300 450 500
a= 65 60 55 50 45 35 35 30
R240 bmin = 280 350 500 700 280 500 650 700
a= 90 80 75 70 75 60 60 50
Notes
1 This table is taken from BS EN 1992–1–2 Tables 5.5 and 5.6.
2 The axis distance, asd , from the side of the beam to the corner bar should be a +10 mm except where bmin is greater than the values in columns C and F.
3 The table is valid only if the detailing requirements (see note 4) are observed and, in normal temperature design, redistribution of bending moments does not exceed 15%.
4 For fire resistance of R90 and above, for a distance of 0.3l eff from the centre line of each intermediate support, the area of top reinforcement should not be less than the following:
A s,req (x) = A s,req ( 0 )( 1– 2.5 ( x/ l eff ) )
where:
x is the distance of the section being considered from the centre line of the support.
A s,req ( 0 ) is the area of reinforcement required for normal temperature design.
A s,req (x) is the minimum area of reinforcement required at the section being considered but not less than that required for normal temperature design.
l eff is the greater of the effective lengths of the two adjacent spans.
5 For fire resistances R120 – R240, the width of the beam at the first intermediate support should be at least that in column F, if both the following conditions exist:
a there is no fixity at the end support; and
b the acting shear at normal temperature Vsd > 0.67 V Rd,max .
Key
a Normally the requirements of BS EN 1992–1–1 will determine the cover.

Figure 1 Figure 3
Section through structural member, Simplified rectangular stress block for
showing nominal axis distances a and asd concrete up to class C50/60 from Eurocode 2

b εc
ε sc fcd
d2
x As2 0.8x Fsc
Fc
h>b Neutral axis
d
h z
a
As Fst
asd εs
b
Section Strain Stress block and forces

2
26
 4. Beams

Figure 2
member. It is a nominal (not minimum) dimension, so the designer Procedure for determining flexural reinforcement
should ensure that:
a ≥ cnom + f link + f bar /2 and asd = a + 10 mm START
Table 2 gives the minimum dimensions for beams to meet the
standard fire periods. Carry out analysis of beam to determine
design moments (M) (see Table 3)

Flexure Concrete class No Outside scope of this

≤C50/60? publication
The design procedure for flexural design is given in Figure 2; this includes Yes
derived formulae based on the simplified rectangular stress block from M
Determine K from K =
Eurocode 2. Table 3 may be used to determine bending moments and bd 2 fck
shear forces for beams, provided the notes to the table are observed.
Determine K’ from Table 4 or
Table 3 K’ = 0.60d – 0.18 d2 – 0.21
Bending moment and shear coefficients for beams where d ≤ 1.0

Moment Shear
Outer support 25% of span moment 0.45 (G + Q) No Compression reinforcement
Is K ≤ K ’ ? required
G^Zkfb]]e^h_^g]liZg )')2)Gl + 0.100 Ql
At first interior support – 0.094 (G + Q) l 0.63 (G + Q)a
Yes
At middle of interior spans 0.066 Gl + 0.086 Ql Calculate lever arm z from
At interior supports – 0.075 (G + Q) l 0.50 (G + Q) z = d 1 + 1 – 3.53 K ’
[ ]
No compression reinforcement required 2
Key
a 0.55 (G + Q) may be used adjacent to the interior span.
Notes
1 Redistribution of support moments by 15% has been included. Obtain lever arm z from Table 5 or use Calculate compression
2 Applicable to 3 or more spans only and where Qk ≤ G k. reinforcement required from
z= d [1 + 1 – 3.53 K ] ≤ 0.95d
3 Minimum span ≥ 0.85 longest span. 2 (K– K’) fck bd 2
As2 =
4 l is the span, G is the total of the ULS permanent actions, Q is the total fsc(d– d2)
of the ULS variable actions.
where
Calculate tension reinforcement
Table 4
Values for K ’
required from

As =
M
fsc = 700
[ x – d2
x ] ≤ fyd

fyd z
% redistribution d (redistribution ratio) K ’
) *')) )'+)1Z Calculate tension
Check minimum reinforcement
reinforcement required from
*) )'2) )'*1+Z requirements (see Table 6)
0.26 fctm bt d K’fck bd 2 fsc
*. )'1. )'*/1 As,min = where fck ≥ 25 As = + As2
fyk fyd z fyd
+) )'1) )'*.,
+. )'0. )'*,0
,)  )'0)  )'*+) Check maximum reinforcement requirements As,max = 0.04 Ac
for tension or compression reinforcement outside lap locations
Key
a Bmblh_m^gk^\hf^g]^]bgma^NDmaZm D£lahne][^ebfbm^]mh)'*/1mh^glnk^]n\mbe^_Zbenk^'

Table 5 Table 6
z/d for singly reinforced rectangular sections Minimum percentage of required reinforcement

K z/d K z/d fck fctm Minimum percentage (0.26 fctm / fyka)

©)'). )' 2.) Z )'*, )'1/1 +. +'/ )'*,
)')/ )'2-- )'*- )'1./ +1 +'1 )'*-
)')0 )'2,- )'*. )'1-, ,) +'2 )'*.
)')1 )'2+- )'*/ )'1,) ,+ ,') )'*/
)')2 )'2*, )'*0 )'1*/ ,. ,'+ )'*0
)'*) )'2)+ )'*1 )'1)+ -) ,'. )'*1
)'** )'12* )'*2 )'010 -. ,'1 )'+)
)'*+ )'11) )'+) )'00* .) -'* )'+*
Key Key
a Ebfbmbg`s mh)'2.] blghmZk^jnbk^f^gmh_>nkh\h]^+% [nmbl\hglb]^k^]mh[^`hh]ikZ\mb\^' a :llnfbg`_rd 6 .))FIZ

273
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Figure 4
Strut inclination method Eurocode 2 offers various methods for determining the stress-strain
relationship of concrete. For simplicity and familiarity the method
Concrete strut in compression
presented here is the simplified rectangular stress block, which is
similar to that found in BS 8110 (see Figure 3).

Eurocode 2 gives recommendations for the design of concrete up to

y
class C90/105. However, for concrete greater than class C50/60, the
stress block is modified. It is important to note that concrete strength
is based on the cylinder strength and not the cube strength (i.e. for
class C30/37 the cylinder strength ( fck ) is 30 MPa, whereas the cube
Longitudinal Vertical shear strength is 37 MPa).
reinforcement in tension reinforcement

Vertical shear
Figure 5
Procedure for determining vertical shear reinforcement Eurocode 2 introduces the strut inclination method for shear capacity
checks. In this method the shear is resisted by concrete struts acting in
START compression and shear reinforcement acting in tension.

Determine vEd where The angle of the concrete strut varies, depending on the shear force
vEd = design shear stress [ vEd = VEd /(bwz) = VEd /(0 9. bwd)] applied (see Figure 4). The procedure for determining the shear capacity
of a section is shown in Figure 5 (which includes UK NA values) and is
Determine the concrete strut capacity v Rd, max cot y = 2.5
in terms of shear stress in the vertical plane rather than a vertical force
from Table 7 as given in Eurocode 2. Where shear reinforcement is required, then
the angle of the concrete strut should be calculated. For many typical
beams the minimum angle of strut will apply (when cot y = 2.5 or y =
Is Is
21.8º) i.e. for class C30/37 concrete the strut angle exceeds 21.8º only
No No Redesign
vEd < vRd,max coty = 2.5? v Ed < v Rd,max cot y = 1.0?
section when the shear stress is greater than 3.27 N/mm2 (refer to Table 7).
(see Table 7)
As with BS 8110, there is a maximum permitted shear capacity, vRd,max ,
(when cot y = 1.0 or y = 45º), but this is not restricted to 5 MPa as in
Yes (cot y = 2.5) Yes
BS 8110.
Determine y from:

y = 0.5 sin -1 T vEd

0.20 fck (1 – fck /250) V Deflection
Calculate area of shear reinforcement: >nkh\h]^+aZlmphZem^kgZmbo^f^mah]l_hk\a^\dbg`]^_e^\mbhg%
Asw vEd bw
= ^bma^kZebfbmbg`liZg&mh&]^imakZmbhfZr[^nl^]hkma^ma^hk^mb\Ze
s fywd cot y
]^_e^\mbhg\Zg[^Zll^ll^]nlbg`ma^^qik^llbhgl`bo^gbgma^<h]^'
Ma^eZmm^kbl]^Zempbmabg]^mZbebg<aZim^k1%hkb`bgZeerin[ebla^]Zl
Check maximum spacing for vertical shear reinforcement: =^_e^\mbhg\Ze\neZmbhgl7'
s l, max = 0.75 d

Ma^liZg&mh&]^imakZmbhllahne]^glnk^maZm]^_e^\mbhgblebfbm^]mh
liZg(+.)Zg]mablblma^ikh\^]nk^ik^l^gm^]bg?b`nk^/'
Table 7
Minimum and maximum concrete strut capacity in terms of stress

fck
20
v Rd,max cot y = 2.5
2.54
v Rd,max cot y = 1.0
3.68
Flanged beams
25 3.10 4.50
28 3.43 4.97 ?eZg`^][^Zfl\Zg[^mk^Zm^]bgfn\ama^lZf^pZrZlbg;L1**)'
30 3.64 5.28 Ma^fZbg]b__^k^g\^l\hfiZk^]pbma;L1**)Zk^maZmma^Zll^llf^gm
32 3.84 5.58 h_ma^_eZg`^pb]mablfhk^lhiablmb\Zm^]!l^^?b`nk^l2Zg]*)"Zg]
35 4.15 6.02
40 4.63 6.72 maZm>nkh\h]^+\hgmZbglZ\a^\dmh\hg_bkfmaZmma^la^Zklmk^llZm
45 5.08 7.38
50 5.51 8.00 <hgmbgn^liZ`^,*

4
28
 4. Beams

Figure 6 Figure 8
Procedure for assessing deflection Determination of steel stress

START 320

Determine basic l/d and K from Figure 7 300

Unmodified steel stress, ssu

280
Determine Factor 1 (F1)
For ribbed or waffle slabs
F1 = 1 – 0.1 ((bf/bw) – 1) ≥ 0.8† 260
(bf is flange breadth and bw is rib breadth)
Otherwise F1 = 1.0 240

Determine Factor 2 (F2) 220

Where the slab span exceeds 7 m and it supports
brittle partitions, F2 = 7/leff ≤ 1.0 200
Otherwise F2 = 1.0

180
Determine Factor 3 (F3) 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
F3 = 310/ss
Where ss = Stress in reinforcement at serviceability Ratio Gk /Qk
limit state (see Figure 8)
ss may assumed to be 310 MPa (i.e. F3 = 1.0)
c2 = 0.8, gG = 1.35 c2 = 0.6, gG = 1.25
Note: As,prov ≤ 1.5 As,req’d (UK National Annex) Increase
As,prov c2 = 0.6, gG = 1.35 c2 = 0.3, gG = 1.25
c2 = 0.3, gG = 1.35 c2 = 0.2, gG = 1.25
Is basic l/d x K x F1 x F2 x F3 ≥ Actual l/d ? c2 = 0.2, gG = 1.35
No
Yes
To determine stress in the reinforcement (ss), calculate the ratio
Check complete Gk/Qk, read up the graph to the appropriate curve and read across
to determine ssu .
† The Eurocode is ambiguous regarding linear interpolation. It is understood that
As,req 1
it was the intention of the drafting committee that linear interpolation be used
and this is in line with current UK practice.
ss can be calculated from the expression: ss = ssu
As,prov d ( )( )

Figure 7
Basic span-to-effective-depth ratios

36
Notes
34 1 Mabl`kZiaZllnf^llbfierlniihkm^]liZg\hg]bmbhg
!D 6*')"'
fck = 50 D 6*'._hkbgm^kbhkliZg\hg]bmbhg
32
fck = 45 D 6*',_hk^g]liZg\hg]bmbhg
D 6)'-_hk\Zgmbe^o^kl'
30 fck = 40
fck = 35 2 <hfik^llbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gm% rÃ% aZl[^^gmZd^gZl)'
28 fck = 32 3 <nko^l[Zl^]hgma^_heehpbg`^qik^llbhgl3
Span to depth ratio (l/d)

fck = 30
*'.
26 fck = 28
fck = 25
e
] T
6D ** $
*'. _\d r )
r
$ ,'+ _\d
! "V
r)
r
¾*

24
fck = 20 pa^k^r ©r )
22
Zg]
20

18
e
] T
6D ** $
*'. _\d r )
! r ¾ r Ã"
$
_\d
*+
rÃ
r) V
pa^k^r 7r ) '
16

14

12
0.40% 0.60% 0.80% 1.00% 1.20% 1.40% 1.60% 1.80% 2.00%
Percentage of tension reinforcement (A s,req’d /bd)

295
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Figure 11 Figure 9
Procedure for determining flexural capacity of flanged beams Definition of lo, for calculation of effective flange width

START

l0 = 0.85 l1 l0 = 0.15 (l1 + l2 ) l0 = 0.7 l2 l0 = 0.15 l2 + l3

Carry out analysis of beam to determine design
moments, M (see Table 3)
l1 l2 l3

Determine l0 (see Figure 9) and beff from:

beff = (bw + beff1 + beff2) where Figure 10
beff1 = (0.2b1 + 0.1 l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b1 Effective flange width parameters
beff2 = (0.2b2 + 0.1 l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b2
Note: The flange width at the support will be beff
different from that at mid-span. beff,1 beff,2
For symbols refer to Figures 9 and 10

bw
M b1 b1 b2 b2
Determine K from K =
bd 2 fck
where b = bw at support b
b = beff in span

Figure 12
Placing of tension reinforcement in flanged cross section
Determine K’ from Table 4 or
K’ = 0.60d – 0.18 d2 – 0.21 where d ≤ 1.0
beff

As
Calculate lever arm z from
d
z=
2 [1 + 1 – 3.53 K ≤ 0.95d ] hf

Calculate depth to neutral axis x from: beff1 bw beff2

x = 2.5 (d – z)

Neutral axis in
flange. Design
Yes as rectangular
Is x ≤ 1.25hf ? section (Figure 2)
and then check
longitudinal shear
(Figure 14)
No

Figure 13
Neutral axis in web
Calculate moment capacity of flange from:
Notations for the connection between flange and web
MR,f = 0.57 fck (beff – bw) hf (d – 0.5hf)

M – MR,f Fd A
and Kf = yf
fck bw d 2
Compressive struts
Fd beff
Dx
Asf
Sf
No
Is Kf ≤ K ’? Redesign section A hf

Yes Longitudinal bar

anchored beyond Fd + D Fd
this projected point
Calculate area of reinforcement required from Check longitudinal
MR,f M – MR,f shear Fd + D Fd
As = + (see Figure 14) bw
fywd (d – 0.5 hf ) fywd

6
30
 4. Beams

ma^bgm^k_Z\^h_ma^_eZg`^Zg]p^[\Zg[^k^lblm^][rma^mkZglo^kl^ Minimum area of shear reinforcement

k^bg_hk\^f^gmbgma^_eZg`^' Ma^ihlbmbhgh_ma^g^nmkZeZqbllahne] Ma^fbgbfnfZk^Zh_la^Zkk^bg_hk\^f^gmbg[^Zfl%:lp%fbglahne]
[^]^m^kfbg^]% Zg]ma^gma^ Zk^Zh_k^bg_hk\^f^gm\Zg[^\Ze\neZm^] [^\Ze\neZm^]_khf
]^i^g]bg`pa^ma^kbmeb^lbgma^_eZg`^hkp^[!l^^?b`nk^**"' :lp
4 r p%fbg
l[p
:mlniihkmlma^m^glbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gmmhk^lblmah``bg`fhf^gml pa^k^r p%fbg \Zg[^h[mZbg^]_khfMZ[e^2'
lahne][^]blmkb[nm^]Z\khllma^_neepb]mah_ma^^__^\mbo^_eZg`^Zl
lahpgbg?b`nk^*+' Ma^liZg&mh&]^ima]^_e^\mbhg\a^\dlnlbg`kZmbhh_
m^glbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gmlahne][^[Zl^]hgZk^Zh_\hg\k^m^Z[ho^ Figure 14
Procedure for determining longitudinal shear capacity of flanged beams
\^gmk^h_m^glbhglm^^e'

Calculate the longitudinal shear stress

Longitudinal shear from: vEd = D Fd/(hf D x)
Ma^la^Zklmk^llbgma^o^kmb\ZeieZg^[^mp^^gma^_eZg`^Zg]p^[lahne] (see Figure 13)
[^Zll^ll^]Z\\hk]bg`mhl^\mbhg/'+'-Zg]?b`nk^/'0h_ma^>nkh\h]^
!k^ikh]n\^]a^k^Zl?b`nk^*,"' Ma^\aZg`^bg_hk\^bgma^_eZg`^\Zg
[^Zll^ll^]_khfma^fhf^gmZg]e^o^kZkfZmZiZkmb\neZkeh\Zmbhg' Is length of Yes
Determine the concrete
strut capacity from Table 8
Ma^>nkh\h]^lmZm^lmaZmma^fZqbfnfe^g`mamaZm\Zg[^\hglb]^k^] flange under consideration or from:
in tension? vRd = 0.195 fck (1 – fck/250)
_hkma^\aZg`^bg_hk\^blaZe_ma^]blmZg\^[^mp^^gma^fZqbfnf
fhf^gmZg]ma^ihbgmpa^k^ma^fhf^gmbls^kh' <e^Zker% ma^fZqbfnf No
ehg`bmn]bgZe_hk\^pbeeh\\nkpa^k^ma^\aZg`^bgfhf^gm% Zg]
ma^k^_hk^_hk\^% blma^`k^Zm^lm4 _hkZngb_hkfer]blmkb[nm^]ehZ]hgZ Determine the concrete strut capacity
from Table 8 or from:
\hgmbgnhnl[^Zfmablpbee[^ma^e^g`mah_[^Zf\ehl^lmmhma^lniihkm' vRd = 0.160 fck (1 – fck/250)

?b`nk^*-lahplZ_ehp\aZkm_hkZll^llbg`ma^ehg`bmn]bgZela^Zk
\ZiZ\bmr4 bgfZgr\Zl^lma^mkZglo^kl^k^bg_hk\^f^gmbgma^leZ[pbee[^ Determine y f from:
No No
ln__b\b^gmmhk^lblmma^la^Zk_hk\^' Mabl\a^\dblbg\en]^]mh^glnk^maZm
pa^k^iZkmb\neZkermabg_eZg`^lZk^nl^]ma^k^blZ]^jnZm^k^bg_hk\^f^gm'
Is v RD > vEd ?
yf = 0.5 sin-1 T vEd
0.2 fck (1 – fck /250) V Is v RD > vEd ?

Ma^ehg`bmn]bgZela^Zk\ZiZ\bmrbl[Zl^]hgma^oZkbZ[e^lmknmbg\ebgZmbhg Yes (cot y f = 2.0) Yes (cot y f

f^mah]% pab\apZl]^l\kb[^]bgma^l^\mbhghgo^kmb\Zela^Zk' = 1.25)
Calculate area of transverse reinforcement from:
Asf vEd hf
=

Rules for spacing and s fyd cot y f

quantity of reinforcement Table 8

Concrete strut capacity for longitudinal shear in flanged beams
Minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement fck v Rd,max
Ma^fbgbfnfZk^Zh_k^bg_hk\^f^gmbl:l%fbg 6)'+/_\ mf [ m ](_r d [nm Flange in compression Flange in tension
ghme^llmaZg)'))*,[ m]% pa^k^[ m blma^f^Zgpb]mah_ma^m^glbhg +) +'2- ,'.2
shg^!l^^MZ[e^/"' ?hkZM&[^Zfpbmama^_eZg`^bg\hfik^llbhg% hger +. ,'/) -',2
ma^pb]mah_ma^p^[blmZd^gbgmhZ\\hngmbg\Ze\neZmbg`ma^oZen^h_[ +1 ,'21 -'1.
,) -'++ .'*.
,+ -'-/ .'--
Maximum area of longitudinal reinforcement ,. -'1+ .'10
Ma^fZqbfnfZk^Zh_m^glbhghk\hfik^llbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gm% hnmlb]^ -) .',1 /'..
eZieh\Zmbhgllahne]ghm^q\^^]:l%fZq 6)')-:\ -. .'2) 0'+)
.) /'-) 0'1)
Minimum spacing of reinforcement
Ma^fbgbfnf\e^Zk]blmZg\^[^mp^^g[Zkllahne][^ma^`k^Zm^kh_3 Table 9
;Zk]bZf^m^k Values for r w,min
:``k^`Zm^lbs^ienl.ff fck 20 25 28 30 32 35 40 45 50
+)ff r p%fbgq*) &, )'0+ )'1) )'1. )'11 )'2* )'2. *')* *')0 *'*,

317
 4. Beams

Selected symbols
Symbol Definition Value Symbol Definition Value
:\ <khlll^\mbhgZeZk^Zh_\hg\k^m^ eh =blmZg\^[^mp^^gihbgmlh_s^khfhf^gm
:l :k^Zh_m^glbhglm^^e e(] LiZg&mh&]^imakZmbh
:l+ :k^Zh_\hfik^llbhglm^^e F =^lb`gfhf^gmZmma^NEL
:l% ikho :k^Zh_m^glbhglm^^eikhob]^] q =^imamhg^nmkZeZqbl !]&s"()'-
:l% k^jÃ] :k^Zh_m^glbhglm^^ek^jnbk^] qfZq Ebfbmbg`oZen^_hk]^imamhg^nmkZeZqbl !d ¾)'-"] pa^k^d ©*')
[^__ >__^\mbo^_eZg`^pb]ma s E^o^kZkf
[m F^Zgpb]mah_ma^m^glbhgshg^ a \\ <h^__b\b^gmmZdbg`Z\\hngmh_ehg`m^kf )'1._hk_e^qnk^Zg]
^__^\mlhg\hfik^llbo^lmk^g`maZg]h_ ZqbZeehZ]l
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ng_ZohnkZ[e^^__^\mlk^lnembg`_khfma^ *')_hkhma^kia^ghf^gZ
[p Pb]mah_l^\mbhg% hkpb]mah_p^[hg_eZg`^][^Zfl pZrehZ]blZiieb^] !?khfNDGZmbhgZe:gg^q"
] >__^\mbo^]^ima d KZmbhh_ma^k^]blmkb[nm^]fhf^gmmhma^
]+ >__^\mbo^]^imamh\hfik^llbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gm ^eZlmb\[^g]bg`fhf^gm
_\] =^lb`goZen^h_\hg\k^m^\hfik^llbo^lmk^g`ma a\\ _\d (g\ _hk_\d ©<.)(/) gf IZkmbZe_Z\mhk_hkfZm^kbZeikhi^kmb^l *'*._hkk^bg_hk\^f^gm!gl"
*'._hk\hg\k^m^!g\"
_\d <aZkZ\m^kblmb\\rebg]^klmk^g`mah_\hg\k^m^
r) K^_^k^g\^k^bg_hk\^f^gmkZmbh R_\d (*)))
_\mf F^ZgoZen^h_ZqbZem^glbe^lmk^g`ma )',)_\d!+(," _hk_\d ©<.)(/)
!_khfMZ[e^,'*% >nkh\h]^+" r K^jnbk^]m^glbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gmZmfb]&liZg :l([] !_hkk^\mZg`neZk[^Zfl"
mhk^lblmma^fhf^gm]n^mhma^]^lb`g
a_ ?eZg`^mab\dg^ll ehZ]l!hkZmlniihkm_hk\Zgmbe^o^kl"
D ?Z\mhkmhmZd^Z\\hngmh_ma^]b__^k^gm L^^mZ[e^G:'-bg rà K^jnbk^]\hfik^llbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gmZm :l+([]
lmkn\mnkZelrlm^fl NDGZmbhgZe:gg^q fb]&liZgmhk^lblmma^fhf^gm]n^mhma^
e^__ >__^\mbo^liZgh_f^f[^k L^^L^\mbhg.','+'+!*" ]^lb`gehZ]l!hkZmlniihkm_hk\Zgmbe^o^kl"

References
1 ;KBMBLALM:G=:K=LBGLMBMNMBHG' ;L>G*22+¾*¾*% >nkh\h]^+3 =^lb`gh_\hg\k^m^lmkn\mnk^l¾IZkm*¾*@^g^kZekne^lZg]kne^l_hk
[nbe]bg`l' ;LB% +))-'
2 ;KBMBLALM:G=:K=LBGLMBMNMBHG' ;L1**)¾*3 Ma^lmkn\mnkZenl^h_\hg\k^m^¾IZkm*% <h]^h_ikZ\mb\^_hk]^lb`gZg]\hglmkn\mbhg' ;LB% *220'
3 G:K:R:G:G% KL;KHHD>K% H' Ahpmh]^lb`g\hg\k^m^lmkn\mnk^lnlbg`>nkh\h]^+3 Bgmkh]n\mbhgmh>nkh\h]^l' Ma^<hg\k^m^<^gmk^% +)).'
4 ;KHHD>K% H' Ahpmh]^lb`g\hg\k^m^lmkn\mnk^lnlbg`>nkh\h]^+3 @^mmbg`lmZkm^]' Ma^<hg\k^m^<^gmk^% +)).'
5 ;KBMBLALM:G=:K=LBGLMBMNMBHG' ;L>G*22+¾*¾+% >nkh\h]^+3 =^lb`gh_\hg\k^m^lmkn\mnk^l' @^g^kZekne^l¾lmkn\mnkZe_bk^]^lb`g' ;LB% +))-
6 =>I:KMF>GMH?<HFFNGBMB>L:G=EH<:E@HO>KGF>GM' AZg][hhdmh>G&*22+&*&+ ' =<E@%]n^+))/'
7 P>;LM>K% K;KHHD>K% H' Ahpmh]^lb`g\hg\k^m^lmkn\mnk^lnlbg`>nkh\h]^+3 =^_e^\mbhg\Ze\neZmbhgl' Ma^<hg\k^m^<^gmk^% +))/'

32
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

5. Columns
R Moss BSc, PhD, DIC, CEng, MICE, MIStructE O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE

Designing to Eurocode 2
This chapter is intended to assist engineers with the design of columns and
walls to Eurocode 21. It sets out a design procedure to follow and gives useful
commentary on the provisions within the Eurocode. The layout and content
of Eurocode 2 may appear unusual to designers familiar with BS 81102.
Eurocode 2 does not contain the derived formulae; this is because it has been
European practice to give principles and general application rules in the codes
and for detailed application rules to be presented in other sources such as
textbooks or guidance documents.

Chapter 1, originally published as Introduction to Eurocodes 3, highlighted the

key differences between Eurocode 2 and BS 8110, including terminology.

It should also be noted that values from the UK National Annex (NA) have
been used throughout this publication, including values that are embedded in
derived formulae. (Derivations can be found at www.eurocode2.info.) A full list
of symbols related to column design is given at the end of this chapter.

Design procedure
A procedure for carrying out the detailed design of braced columns (i.e.
columns that do not contribute to resistance of horizontal actions) is shown
in Table 1. This assumes that the column dimensions have previously been
determined during conceptual design or by using quick design methods, for
example those presented in Economic concrete frame elements 4. Column sizes
should not be significantly different from those obtained using BS 8110. Steps
1 to 4 of Table 1 are covered by earlier chapters and the next step is therefore
to consider fire resistance.

Fire resistance
Eurocode 2, Part 1–2: Structural fire design5, gives a choice of advanced, simplified
or tabular methods for determining fire resistance of columns. Using tables is the
fastest method for determining the minimum dimensions and cover for columns.
There are, however, some restrictions and if these apply further guidance can
be obtained from specialist literature.6 The simplified method may give more
economic columns, especially for small columns and/or high fire resistance periods.

Rather than giving a minimum cover, the tabular method is based on nominal
axis distance, a (see Figure 1). This is the distance from the centre of the main

Continues page 35
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Table 1
Column design procedure

Step Task Further guidance

Chapter in the publication Standard

1 Determine design life 2: Getting started UK NA to BS EN 1990 Table NA.2.1

2 Assess actions on the column 2: Getting started BS EN 1991 (10 parts) and UK National Annexes

3 Determine which combinations of actions apply 1: Introduction to Eurocodes UK NA to BS EN 1990 Tables NA.A1.1 and NA.A1.2 (B)

4 Assess durability requirements and determine concrete strength 2: Getting started BS 8500: 2002

5 Check cover requirements for appropriate fire resistance period 2: Getting started and Table 2 Approved Document B. BS EN 1992–1–2

6 Calculate min. cover for durability, fire and bond requirements 2: Getting started BS EN 1992–1–1 Cl. 4.4.1

7 Analyse structure to obtain critical moments and axial 2: Getting started and ‘Structural BS EN 1992–1–1 section 5
forces analysis’ section

8 Check slenderness See Figures 2 and 3 BS EN 1992–1–1 section 5.8

9 Determine area of reinforcement required See Figures 2 and 3 BS EN 1992–1–1 section 6.1

10 Check spacing of bars ‘Rules for spacing’ section BS EN 1992–1–1 sections 8 and 9

Note
NA = National Annex.

Table 2 Figure 1
Minimum column dimensions and axis distances for fire resistance Section through structural member, showing nominal axis distance a

Standard fire Minimum dimensions (mm)

resistance
Column width bmin/axis distance, a, of the main
bars
Column exposed on more than Column
one side exposed on
one side
( μfi = 0.7) h≥b
μfi = 0.5 μfi = 0.7
R 60 200/36 250/46 155/25
300/31 350/40
a
R 90 300/45 350/53 155/25
400/38 a 450/40 a
b
R 120 350/45 a 350/57 a 175/35
450/40 a 450/51a
b
R 240 450/75a 295/70 Table 3
Minimum reinforced concrete wall dimensions and axis distances for
load-bearing for fire resistance
Note
The table is taken from BS EN 1992–1–2 Table 5.2a (method A) and is valid under the Standard Minimum dimensions (mm)
following conditions: fire
resistance Wall thickness/axis distance, a, of the main bars
1 The effective length of a braced column under fire conditions lo,fi ≤ 3m. The value of lo,fi
may be taken as 50% of the actual length for intermediate floors and between 50% Wall exposed on one side Wall exposed on two
and 70% of the actual length for the upper floor column. ( μfi = 0.7) sides ( μfi = 0.7)
2 The first order eccentricity under fire conditions should be ≤ 0.15b (or h). Alternatively REI 60 130/10 a 140/10 a
use method B (see Eurocode 2, Part 1–2, Table 5.2b). The eccentricity under fire
conditions may be taken as that used in normal temperature design. REI 90 140/25 170/25
3 The reinforcement area outside lap locations does not exceed 4% of the concrete REI 120 160/35 220/35
cross section.
REI 240 270/60 350/60
4 μfi is the ratio of the design axial load under fire conditions to the design resistance of
the column at normal temperature conditions. μfi may conservatively be taken as 0.7. Notes
Key 1 The table is taken from BS EN 1992–1–2 Table 5.4.

a Minimum 8 bars 2 See note 4 of Table 2.

b Method B may be used which indicates 600/70 for R 240 and μfi = 0.7. Key
See BS EN 1992–1–2 Table 5.2b
a Normally the requirements of BS EN 1992–1–1 will determine the cover.

34
 5. Columns

reinforcing bar to the surface of the member. It is a nominal (not present methods A and B. Both are equally applicable, although
minimum) dimension, and the designer should ensure that: method A has smaller limits on eccentricity than method B. Method A
a ≥ cnom + f link + f bar/2. is slightly simpler and is presented in Table 2; limits of applicability
are given in the notes. Similar data for load-bearing walls is given in
For columns there are two tables given in Eurocode 2 Part 1–2 that Table 3.

Figure 2 For columns supporting the uppermost storey, the eccentricity will
Flow chart for braced column design often exceed the limits for both methods A and B. In this situation
Annex C of Eurocode 2, Part 1–2 may be used. Alternatively,
START
consideration can be given to treating the column as a beam for
determining the design fire resistance.

Initial column size may be determined using quick design

methods or through iteration.
Column design
Determine the actions on the column A flow chart for the design of braced columns is shown in Figure 2. For
using an appropriate analysis method. slender columns, Figure 3 will also be required.
The ultimate axial load is NEd and the ultimate moments
are Mtop and Mbottom (Moments from analysis)
Structural analysis
The type of analysis should be appropriate to the problem being
Determine the effective length, lo, using either: considered. The following may be used: linear elastic analysis, linear
1. Figure 5
2. Table 4 elastic analysis with limited redistribution, plastic analysis and
3. Expression (5.15) from BS EN 1992–1–1
non-linear analysis. Linear elastic analysis may be carried out assuming
cross sections are uncracked (i.e. concrete section properties),
using linear stress-strain relationships and assuming mean values
Determine first order moments (see Figure 4)
M01 = Min {|Mtop|, |Mbottom|} + ei NEd of long-term elastic modulus.
M02 = Max {|Mtop|, |Mbottom|} + ei NEd
Where ei = Max {lo/400, h/30, 20} (units to be in millimetres).
M01 and M02 should have the same sign
For the design of columns the elastic moments from the frame action
if they give tension on the same side. should be used without any redistribution. For slender columns a
non-linear analysis may be carried out to determine the second order
moments; alternatively use the moment magnification method
Determine slenderness, l, from either:
l = lo/i where i = radius of gyration or
(Cl 5.8.7.3) or nominal curvature method (Cl 5.8.8) as illustrated in
l = 3.46 lo/h for rectangular sections (h = overall depth) or Figure 3. The latter is expected to be adopted in the UK.
l = 4.0 lo/d for circular sections (d = column diameter)

Design moments
Determine slenderness limit, λlim, from: The design bending moment is illustrated in Figure 4 and defined as:
l 15.4C
lim =
√n MEd = Max {M02, M0e + M2, M01 + 0.5 M2}
(See ‘Slenderness’ section on page 5 for explanation.)
where
M01 = Min {|Mtop|, |Mbottom|} + ei NEd
Yes M02 = Max {|Mtop|, |Mbottom|} + ei NEd
Column is slender
Is l ≥ l lim? (refer to Figure 3).
ei = Max {lo/400, h/30, 20} (units to be in millimetres).
Mtop, Mbottom = Moments at the top and bottom of the column
No M0e = 0.6 M02 + 0.4 M01 ≥ 0.4 M02
Column is not slender. MEd = M02
M2 = NEd e2 where NEd is the design axial load and e2
is deflection due to second order effects

M01 and M02 should be positive if they give tension on the same side.
Use column chart (see Figure 9) to find As required for NEd
and MEd. Alternatively, solve by iteration or by using RC
Spreadsheet TCC53 from Spreadsheets for concrete design to A non-slender column can be designed ignoring second order effects
BS 8110 and Eurocode 2 7
and therefore the ultimate design moment, MEd = M02.

The calculation of the eccentricity, e2, is not simple and is likely to

Check rules for spacing and quantity of reinforcement
(see page 7) require some iteration to determine the deflection at approximately
mid-height, e2. Guidance is given in Figure 3.

35
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Figure 3 Effective length

Flow chart for slender columns (nominal curvature method)
Figure 5 gives guidance on the effective length of the column.
However, for most real structures Figures 5f) and 5g) only are
From Figure 2 applicable, and Eurocode 2 provides two expressions to calculate the
effective length for these situations. Expression (5.15) is for braced
Determine Kr from Figure 9 or from members and Expression (5.16) is for unbraced members.
Kr = (nu - n) / (nu - nbal) ≤ 1
where
n = NEd / (Ac fcd), relative axial force
In both expressions, the relative flexibilities at either end, k1 and k2,
NEd = the design value of axial force should be calculated. The expression for k given in the Eurocode
nu = 1 + w
nbal = 0.4 involves calculating the rotation of the restraining members, which in
w = As,est fyd / (Ac fcd) practice requires the use of framework analysis software. Alternatively,
As,est = the estimated total area of steel
Ac = the area of concrete PD 6687: Background paper to the UK National annex 8 provides a
simplification, based on the stiffness of the beams attached to either
side of the column. This relative stiffness, k, can therefore be calculated
Calculate Kh from Kh = 1 + b hef ≥ 1
where as follows (provided the stiffness of adjacent columns does not vary by
hef = the effective creep ratio
b = 0.35 + fck/200 – λ/150
more than 15% of the higher stiffness):
l = the slenderness ratio.
See section on creep (page 6) EIc 2EIb
k= Σl ≥ 0.1
lc b

Calculate e2 from where

e2 = 0.1 (
Kh fyd
Kr
0.45d Es
l0
2
) Revise value
of As,est
Ic, Ib are the column and beam uncracked second moments of area
where lc, lb are the column and beam lengths
Es = elastic modulus of reinforcing steel
(200 GPa)
Once k1 and k2 have been calculated, the effective length factor, F, can
be established from Table 4 for braced columns. The effective length is
then lo = Fl.
M0e = 0.6 M02 + 0.4 M01 ≥ 0.4 M02
M2 = NEd e2
MEd = Max {M02, M0e + M2, M01 + 0.5 M2} For a 400 mm square internal column supporting a 250 mm thick flat
slab on a 7.5 m grid, the value of k could be 0.11, and therefore lo = 0.59l.
In the edge condition k is effectively doubled and lo = 0.67l. If the internal
Use column chart to find As,req’d for NEd and MEd column had a notionally ‘pinned’ support at its base then lo = 0.77l.
Alternatively, solve by iteration or by using
RC Spreadsheet7
It is also generally accepted that Table 3.19 of BS 8110 may
conservatively be used to determine the effective length factor. In the
long term, Expressions (5.15) and (5.16) will be beneficial as they are
No
Is As req’d & As, est? particularly suitable for incorporation into design software.

Yes Figure 4
Design bending moments
Check detailing requirements

M02
M ei NEd M02
Figure 5
Effective lengths for isolated members

M0e M0e + M2
M2 = NEd e2

+ =
y
y
l

y
M M01 0.5 M2 M01 + 0.5 M2
First order Additional second Total moment
moments for order moments for diagram for
a) l0 = l b) l0 = 2l c) l0 = 0.7l d) l0 = l /2 e) l0 = l f) l/2 < l0 < l g) l0 > 2l ‘stocky’ columns ‘slender’ columns ‘slender’ columns

36
 5. Columns

Table 4 Slenderness
Effective length factor, F, for braced columns
Eurocode 2 states that second order effects may be ignored if they
k2 k1 are less than 10% of the first order effects. As an alternative, if the
0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.70 1.00 2.00 5.00 9.00 Pinned slenderness (l) is less than the slenderness limit (l lim), then second
order effects may be ignored.
0.10 0.59 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.67 0.69 0.71 0.73 0.75 0.76 0.77
0.20 0.62 0.65 0.68 0.69 0.71 0.73 0.74 0.77 0.79 0.80 0.81 Slenderness, l = lo/i where i = radius of gyration and slenderness limit.
0.30 0.64 0.68 0.70 0.72 0.73 0.75 0.77 0.80 0.82 0.83 0.84
20ABC 15.4C
0.40 0.66 0.69 0.72 0.74 0.75 0.77 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.85 0.86 l lim = ≤
n n
0.50 0.67 0.71 0.73 0.75 0.76 0.78 0.80 0.83 0.86 0.86 0.87
where
0.70 0.69 0.73 0.75 0.77 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.85 0.88 0.89 0.90
A = 1/(1+0.2 hef) (if hef is not known, A = 0.7 may be used)
1.00 0.71 0.74 0.77 0.79 0.80 0.82 0.84 0.88 0.90 0.91 0.92 B= (if ω, reinforcement ratio, is not known,
2.00 0.73 0.77 0.80 0.82 0.83 0.85 0.88 0.91 0.93 0.94 0.95 B = 1.1 may be used)
5.00 0.75 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.93 0.96 0.97 0.98 C = 1.7 – rm (if rm is not known, C = 0.7 may be used – see below)
9.00 0.76 0.80 0.83 0.85 0.86 0.89 0.91 0.94 0.97 0.98 0.99 n = NEd / (Ac fcd)
Pinned 0.77 0.81 0.84 0.86 0.87 0.90 0.92 0.95 0.98 0.99 1.00 rm = M01/M02
M01, M02 are the first order end moments, |M02| ≥ |M01|
Figure 6
Calculating factor C If the end moments M01 and M02 give tension on the same side,
rm should be taken positive.
105 kNm 105 kNm 105 kNm
Of the three factors A, B and C, C will have the largest impact on
l lim and is the simplest to calculate. An initial assessment of l lim can
therefore be made using the default values for A and B, but including
a calculation for C (see Figure 6). Care should be taken in determining
105 kNm 0 105 kNm
C because the sign of the moments makes a significant difference. For
rm = 1.0 rm = 0 rm = -1.0
unbraced members C should always be taken as 0.7.
a) C = 1.7 - 1 = 0.7 b) C = 1.7 - 0 = 1.7 c) C = 1.7 + 1.0 = 2.7
Column design resistance
For practical purposes the rectangular stress block used for the design
Figure 7
Stress block diagram for columns of beams (see Chapter 4, originally published as Beams 9) may also be
used for the design of columns (see Figure 7). However, the maximum
f cd d2 compressive strain for concrete classes up to and including C50/60,
ecu 2 s sc
esc As2 when the whole section is in pure compression, is 0.00175 (see Figure
dc 8a). When the neutral axis falls outside the section (Figure 8b), the
x
h maximum allowable strain is assumed to lie between 0.00175 and
n. axis
d2 0.0035, and may be obtained by drawing a line from the point of zero
ey As
s st strain through the ‘hinge point’ of 0.00175 strain at mid-depth of the
section. When the neutral axis lies within the section depth then the
a) Strain diagram b) Stress diagram
maximum compressive strain is 0.0035 (see Figure 8c).

Figure 8
Strain diagrams for columns

0.00175 0.00175 x / ( x – h /2) 0.0035 max 0.0035 max

x x
h/ 2
hinge hinge
h point h d point
x
ex ex

0.00175 0.00175 min

a) Pure compression b) When x > h c) When x < h d) General relationship

37
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

The general relationship is shown in Figure 8d). For concrete classes Creep
above C50/60 the principles are the same but the maximum strain Depending on the assumptions used in the design, it may be necessary
values vary. to determine the effective creep ratio hef (ref. Cl. 3.1.4 & 5.8.4). A
nomogram is provided in the Eurocode (Figure 3.1) for which the
Two expressions can be derived for the area of steel required, (based on cement strength class is required; however, at the design stage it often
a rectangular stress block, see Figure 7) one for the axial loads and the not certain which class applies. Generally, Class R should be assumed.
other for the moments: Where the ground granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs) exceeds 35%
AsN /2 = (NEd – fcd b dc) / (σsc – σst) of the cement combination or where pulverized fuel ash (pfa) exceeds
where 20% of the cement combination, Class N may be assumed. Where
AsN = Area of reinforcement required to resist axial load ggbs exceeds 65% or where pfa exceeds 35%, Class S may be assumed.
NEd = Axial load
fcd = Design value of concrete compressive strength
σsc (σst) = Stress in compression (and tension) reinforcement Biaxial bending
b = Breadth of section
dc = Effective depth of concrete in compression = lx ≤ h The effects of biaxial bending may be checked using Expression (5.39),
l = 0.8 for ≤ C50/60 which was first developed by Breslaer.
x = Depth to neutral axis MEdz a MEdy a

h = Height of section ( ) + ( ) ≤ 1.0

MRdz MRdy

AsM /2 = [M – fcd b dc(h/2 – dc/2)] / [(h/2–d2) (σsc+σst)] where

where MEdz,y = Design moment in the respective direction including second
AsM = Total area of reinforcement required to resist moment order effects in a slender column
MRdz,y = Moment of resistance in the respective direction
Realistically, these can only be solved iteratively and therefore either a = 2 for circular and elliptical sections; refer to Table 5 for rectangular
computer software (e.g. RC Spreadsheet TCC53 from Spreadsheets for sections
concrete design to BS 8110 and EC27) or column design charts (see NRd = Ac fcd + As fyd
Figures 9a to 9e) may be used. Continues page 41

Figure 9a
Column design chart for rectangular columns d2 /h = 0.05

1.3
Kr = 0.2
1.2 d2/h = 0.05
0.3 Asfyk/bhfck
1.1
1.0 0.4
1.0 0.9
0.8
0.9
0.7 0.5
0.6
0.8
0.5 0.6
0.4
N/bhfck

0.7
0.3
0.7
0.6 0.2
0.1
0.5
0 0.8
0.4
0.9
0.3
1.0
0.2

0.1

0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
2
M/bh fck

38
 5. Columns

Figure 9b
Column design chart for rectangular columns d2 /h = 0.10

1.3
0.2
1.2 d2/h = 0.10
0.3 Asfyk/bhfck
1.1
1.0 0.4
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.9
0.7 0.5
0.8 0.6
0.5
0.6
0.7 0.4
N/bhfck

0.3
0.7
0.6 0.2
0.1
0.5
0 0.8
0.4
0.9
0.3
Kr =1
0.2

0.1

0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
2
M/bh fck

Figure 9c
Column design chart for rectangular columns d2 /h = 0.15

1.3
0.2
1.2 d2/h = 0.15
0.3
1.1
Asfyk/bhfck
1.0
1.0 0.9 0.4
0.8
0.9
0.7 0.5
0.8 0.6
0.5 0.6
N/bhfck

0.7 0.4
0.3
0.6 0.2 0.7
0.1
0.5 0 0.8
0.4
0.9
0.3
Kr =1
0.2

0.1

0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40
2
M/bh fck

39
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Figure 9d
Column design chart for rectangular columns d2 /h = 0.20

1.3
0.2
1.2 d2/h = 0.20
0.3 Asfyk/bhfck
1.1
1.0
1.0
0.9 0.4
0.9 0.8
0.7 0.5
0.8 0.6
0.5
0.6
N/bhfck

0.7 0.4
0.3
0.6 0.2 0.7
0.1
0.5
0
0.8
0.4

0.3 0.9

0.2
Kr = 1
0.1

0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
2
M/bh f ck

Figure 9e
Column design chart for rectangular columns d2 /h = 0.25

1.3
0.2
1.2 d2/h = 0.25

1.1 0.3
Asfyk/bhfck
1.0 1.0
0.9 0.4
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.8
0.6 0.5
0.5
0.7
N/bhfck

0.4
0.3 0.6
0.6
0.2
0.5 0.1
0 0.7
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.9
0.2

0.1
Kr = 1
0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
2
M/bh fck

40
 5. Columns

Table 5 Selected symbols

Value of a for rectangular sections Symbol Definition Value
1/r0 Reference curvature εyd/(0.45 d)
NEd /NRd 0.1 0.7 1.0
1/r Curvature Kr Kh 1/r0
a 1.0 1.5 2.0
a Axis distance for fire resistance
Note
Linear interpolation may be used. A Factor for determining slenderness limit 1 / (1+0.2 hef)

Ac Cross sectional area of concrete bh

As Area of total column reinforcement

Unbraced columns B Factor for determining slenderness limit

c Factor depending on curvature distribution 10 (for constant cross-section)

There is no comment made on the design of sway frames in Eurocode 2.
C Factor for determining slenderness limit 1.7 – rm
However, it gives guidance on the effective length of an unbraced
member in Expression (5.16). The value for C of 0.7 should always be d Effective depth

used in Expression (5.13N). The design moments should be assessed e2 Second order eccentricity (1/r)lo/c

including second order effects. The tabular method for fire resistance ei Eccentricity due to geometric imperfections

design (Part 1–2) does not explicitly cover unbraced columns; however Es Elastic modulus of reinforcing steel 200 GPa
reference can be made to the Handbook to EN 1992–1–2 6. fcd Design value of concrete compressive strength αcc fck/γc

fck Characteristic cylinder strength of concrete

Walls l Clear height of compression member between

end restraints

lo Effective length
When the section length of a vertical element is four times greater
Kr Correction factor depending on axial load
than its thickness it is defined as a wall. The design of walls does not
Kh Factor taking into account creep
differ significantly from that for columns except for the following:
M01,M02 First order moments including the effect of
■ The requirements for fire resistance (see Table 3). geometric imperfections |M02| ≥ |M01|
■ Bending will be critical about the weak axis.
M2 Nominal second order moment NEd e2
■ There are different rules for spacing and quantity of reinforcement
M0e Equivalent first order moment 0.6 M02 + 0.4 M01 ≥ 0.4 M02
(see below).
MEd Ultimate design moment

There is no specific guidance given for bending about the strong axis MEqp First order bending moment under
quasi-permanent loading
for stability. However, the principles of CIRIA Report 10810 may be
n Relative axial force NEd/(Acfcd)
followed. Alternatively the strut and tie method may be used (section
6.5 of the Eurocode). nbal Value of n at maximum moment of resistance 0.4

nu Factor to allow for reinforcement in the column 1 +ω

Rules for spacing and NEd

rm
Ultimate axial load

Moment ratio M01/M02

quantity of reinforcement x

z
Depth to neutral axis

Lever arm
(d – z)/0.4

αcc Coefficient taking account of long term effects 0.85 for flexure and axial
Maximum areas of reinforcement on compressive strength and of unfavourable loads. 1.0 for other
In Eurocode 2 the maximum nominal reinforcement area for columns effects resulting from the way load is applied phenomena (From UK NA)

and walls outside laps is 4% compared with 6% in BS 8110. However, β Factor 0.35 + fck/200 – λ/150
this area can be increased provided that the concrete can be placed εyd Design value of strain in reinforcement fyd/Es
and compacted sufficiently. If required self-compacting concrete may γm Partial factor for material properties 1.15 for reinforcement (γs)
be used for particularly congested situations, where the reinforcing bars 1.5 for concrete (γc)

should be spaced to ensure that the concrete can flow around them. l Slenderness lo/i
Further guidance can be found in Self-compacting concrete.11 l lim Slenderness limit

μfi Degree of utilisation in a fire NEd,fi /NRd

Minimum reinforcement requirements hef Effective creep ratio h(∞,to) MEqp /MEd
The recommended minimum diameter of longitudinal reinforcement in h (∞,to) Final creep co-efficient to Cl 3.1.4
columns is 12 mm. The minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement in
ω Mechanical reinforcement ratio As fyd/(Ac fcd)
columns is given by: As,min = 0.10 NEd/fyd ≥ 0.002Ac Exp. (9.12N)
|x| Absolute value of x
The diameter of the transverse reinforcement should not be less than
Max. {x,y+z} The maximum of values x or y + z
6 mm or one quarter of the maximum diameter of the longitudinal bars.

41
 5. Columns

Spacing requirements for columns Particular requirements for walls

The maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement (i.e. links) in The minimum area of vertical reinforcement in walls is given by:
columns (Clause 9.5.3(1)) should not exceed:
■ 12 times the minimum diameter of the longitudinal bars.
As,min = 0.002Ac
■ 60% of the lesser dimension of the column.
Half of this area should be located at each face. The distance between
■ 240 mm.
two adjacent vertical bars should not exceed the lesser of either three
At a distance greater than the larger dimension of the column above times the wall thickness or 400 mm.
or below a beam or slab these spacings can be increased by a factor
of 1.67. The minimum clear distance between the bars should be the The minimum area of horizontal reinforcement in walls is the greater
greater of the bar diameter, aggregate size plus 5 mm or 20 mm. of either 25% of vertical reinforcement or 0.001 Ac. However, where
No longitudinal bar should be further than 150 mm from transverse crack control is important, early age thermal and shrinkage effects
reinforcement (links) in the compression zone. should be considered explicitly.

References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–1, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules and rules for buildings. BSI, 2004.
2 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110–1, Structural use of concrete – Part 1, Code of practice for design and construction. BSI, 2004.
3 NARAYANAN, R S & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Introduction. The Concrete Centre, 2005.
4 GOODCHILD, C H. Economic concrete frame elements. BCA 1997.
5 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–2. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules – structural fire design. BSI, 2004.
6 DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNITIES AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT. Handbook to EN 1992–1–2. DCLG, due 2006.
7 GOODCHILD, C H WEBSTER, R M. Spreadsheets for concrete design to BS 8110 and Eurocode 2, version 3. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
8 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Background paper to the UK National Annex to BS EN 1992–1–1 and BS EN 1992–1–2. BSI, due 2006.
9 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Beams. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
10 CIRIA. Report 102: Design of shear wall buildings. CIRIA, 1984.
11 THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. Technical Report No 62: Self-compacting concrete. A review. The Society, 2005.

42
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

6. Foundations
R Webster CEng, FIStructE O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE

Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design

Scope
All foundations should be designed so that the soil safely resists the
actions applied to the structure. The design of any foundation consists of
two components; the geotechnical design and the structural design of the
foundation itself. However, for some foundations (e.g. flexible rafts) the effect
of the interaction between the soil and structure may be critical and must
also be considered. Geotechnical design is covered by Eurocode 71, which
supersedes several current British Standards including BS 59302, BS 80023
and BS 80044. The new Eurocode marks a significant change in geotechnical
design in that limit state principles are used throughout and this should
ensure consistency between the Eurocodes. There are two parts to Eurocode 7,
Part 1: General rules and Part 2: Ground investigation and testing. Guidance on
the design of retaining walls can be found in Chapter 9.

The essential features of Eurocode 7, Part 1 relating to foundation design are

discussed in this chapter. It should be emphasised that this publication covers
only the design of simple foundations, which are a small part of the scope of
Eurocode 7. Therefore it should not be relied on for general guidance on this
Eurocode. At the time of writing it is anticipated that the National Annex (NA)
for Part 1 will be published in July 2007.

Limit states
The following ultimate limit states (ULS) should be satisfied for geotechnical
design; they each have their own combinations of actions. (For an explanation
of Eurocode terminology please refer to Chapter 1, originally published as
Introduction to Eurocodes5.)
EQU Loss of equilibrium of the structure.
STR Internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure or structural
member.
GEO Failure due to excessive deformation of the ground.
UPL Loss of equilibrium due to uplift by water pressure.
HYD Failure caused by hydraulic gradients.

In addition, the serviceability limit states (SLS) should be satisfied. It will

usually be clear that one of the limit states will govern the design and
therefore it will not be necessary to carry out checks for all of them, although
it is considered good practice to record that they have all been considered.

Geotechnical Categories
Eurocode 7 recommends three Geotechnical Categories to assist in establishing
the geotechnical design requirements for a structure (see Table 1).
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

It is anticipated that structural engineers will take responsibility for the to be applied to the actions for these combinations of partial factors
geotechnical design of category 1 structures, and that geotechnical are given in Table 2 and the partial factors for the geotechnical
engineers will take responsibility for category 3 structures. The material properties are given in Table 3. Combination 1 will generally
geotechnical design of category 2 structures may be undertaken by govern the structural resistance, and Combination 2 will generally
members of either profession. This decision will very much depend on govern the sizing of the foundations.
individual circumstances.
The partial factors for soil resistance to sliding and bearing should be
Methods of design and combinations taken as 1.0 for both combinations.
There has not been a consensus amongst geotechnical engineers
over the application of limit state principles to geotechnical design. The partial factors to be applied to the actions at the EQU limit state
Therefore, to allow for these differences of opinion, Eurocode 7 are given in Table 4; the geotechnical material partial factors being the
provides for three Design Approaches to be used for the ULS. The same as for Combination 2 in Table 3.
decision on which approach to use for a particular country is given
in its National Annex. In the UK Design Approach 1 will be specified For the SLS, Eurocode 7 does not give any advice on whether the
in the National Annex. For this Design Approach (excluding pile and characteristic, frequent or quasi-permanent combination should be
anchorage design) there are two sets of combinations to use for the used. Where the prescriptive method is used for spread foundations
STR and GEO ultimate limit states. The values for the partial factors (see page 3) then the characteristic values should be adopted. For

Table 1
Geotechnical categories of structures

Category Description Risk of geotechnical failure Examples from Eurocode 7

1 Small and relatively simple structures Negligible None given

2 Conventional types of structure and foundation No exceptional risk Spread foundations

with no difficult ground or loading conditions
3 All other structures Abnormal risks Large or unusual structures
Exceptional ground conditions

Table 2
Design values of actions derived for UK design, STR/GEO ultimate limit state – persistent and transient design situations

Combination Permanent actions Leading variable Accompanying variable actions

Expression reference action
from BS EN 1990 Unfavourable Favourable Main (if any) Others
Combination 1 (Application of combination 1 (BS EN 1997) to set B (BS EN 1990))

Exp. (6.10) 1.35 Gka 1.0 Gka 1.5b Qk – 1.5b co,ic Qk,i
Exp. (6.10a) 1.35 Gka 1.0 Gka – 1.5 co,1c Qk 1.5b co,ic Qk,i

Exp. (6.10b) 0.925d x 1.35 Gka 1.0 Gka 1.5b Qk – 1.5b co,ic Qk,i

Combination 2 (Application of combination 2 (BS EN 1997) to set C (BS EN 1990))

Exp. (6.10) 1.0 Gka 1.0 Gka 1.3b Qk,1 – 1.3b co,i b Qk,i

Key
a Where the variation in permanent action is not considered significant Gk,j,sup and Gk,j,inf may be taken as Gk
b Where the action is favourable, gQ,i = 0 and the variable actions should be ignored
c The value of c o can be obtained from Table NA.A1.1 of the UK NA to BS EN 1990 (or see Table 3 of Chapter 1)
d The value of j in the UK NA to BS EN 1990 is 0.925

Table 3
Partial factors for geotechnical material properties

Angle of shearing Effective cohesion Undrained shear Unconfined strength Bulk density
resistance strength
(apply to tan h)
Symbol gh gc’ gcu gqu gg
Combination 1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Combination 2 1.25 1.25 1.4 1.4 1.0

44
 6. Foundations

direct methods of calculation the frequent combination can be used

for sizing of foundations and the quasi-permanent combination can be Spread foundations
used for settlement calculations.
The geotechnical design of spread foundations (e.g. strip and pad
Further information on design combinations can be found in Chapter 1, foundations) is covered by section 6 of Eurocode 7, Part 1 and this
originally published as Introduction to Eurocodes5. gives three methods for design:
■ Direct method – calculation is carried out for each limit state.
Geotechnical design report ■ Indirect method – experience and testing used to determine
A geotechnical design report should be produced for each project, serviceability limit state parameters that also satisfy all relevant
even if it is only a single sheet. The report should contain details of limit states (included in Eurocode 7 mainly to suit French design
the site, interpretation of the ground investigation report, geotechnical methods, and is not discussed further here).
design recommendations and advice on supervision, monitoring and ■ Prescriptive method in which a presumed bearing resistance is used.
maintenance of the works. It is likely that this report will require input
from more than one consultant, depending on whether the project is in For most spread foundations in the UK, settlement will be the
Geotechnical Category 1, 2 or 3. governing criterion; traditionally ‘allowable bearing pressures’ have been
used to limit settlement. This concept of increasing the factor of safety
The foundation design recommendations should include bearing on bearing resistances to control settlement may still be used with the
resistances and characteristic values for soil parameters. It should prescriptive method. The exception is for soft clays where Eurocode 7
also clearly state whether the values are applicable to SLS or ULS and requires settlement calculations to be undertaken.
whether they are for Combination 1 or Combination 2.
When using the direct method, calculations are carried out for each
limit state. At the ULS, the bearing resistance of the soil should be
Table 4
Design values of actions derived for UK design, EQU ultimate limit checked using partial factors on the soil properties as well as on
state – persistent and transient design situations the actions. At the SLS the settlement of the foundations should be
calculated and checked against permissible limits.
Combination Permanent actions Leading Accompanying variable
Expression variable actions
reference action The prescriptive method may be used where calculation of the soil
Unfavourable Favourable Main Others
(if any) properties is not possible or necessary and can be used provided that
Exp. (6.10) 1.1 Gka 0.90 Gka 1.5b Qk – 1.5c co,i c Qk,i conservative rules of design are used. Therefore reference can continue
to be made to Table 1 of BS 8004 (see Table 5) to determine presumed
Key
a Where the variation in permanent action is not considered significant Gk, j, sup
(allowable) bearing pressures for category 1 structures and preliminary
and Gk, j, inf may be taken as Gk calculations for category 2 structures. Alternatively, the presumed
b Where the action is favourable, gQ, i = 0 and the variable actions should be ignored bearing resistance to allow for settlement can be calculated by the
c The value of co can be obtained from Table NA.A1.1 of the UK NA to BS EN 1990 geotechnical designer and included in the geotechnical design report.

Table 5
Presumed allowable bearing values under static loading (from BS 8004)
Category Type of soil Presumed allowable bearing value (kN/m2) Remarks

Non- Dense gravel, or dense sand and gravel > 600 Width of foundation not less than 1 m.
cohesive Groundwater level assumed to be below the base
soils Medium dense gravel, or medium < 200 to 600 of the foundation.
dense sand and gravel
Loose gravel, or loose sand and gravel < 200
Compact sand > 300
Medium dense sand 100 to 300
Loose sand < 100
Cohesive Very stiff boulder clay and hard clay 300 to 600 Susceptible to long-term consolidation settlement
soils
Stiff clay 150 to 300
Firm clay 75 to 150
Soft clay and silt <75
Very soft clay and silt Not applicable
Note
These values are for preliminary design purposes only.

45
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

A flow chart showing the design process for shallow foundations is Partial factors for the soil parameters used to determine the resistances
given in Figure 1. can be obtained from Table 3 above (Combination 2).

Where there is a moment applied to the foundation, the EQU limit The pressure distribution under the base should be assessed to ensure
state should also be checked. Assuming the potential overturning of that the maximum pressure does not exceed the bearing resistances
the base is due to the variable action from the wind, the following obtained from the geotechnical design report at both EQU and GEO
combination should be used (the variable imposed action is not ultimate limit states (see Figure 2). If the eccentricity is greater than
considered to contribute to the stability of the structure): L/6 at SLS, then the pressure distribution used to determine the
settlement should be modified because tension cannot occur between
0.9 Gk + 1.5 Qk,w EQU combination the base and the soil. In this case the designer should satisfy himself
where: that there will be no adverse consequences (e.g. excessive rotation of
Gk is the stabilising characteristic permanent action the base). It should also be noted that the ULS pressure distribution
(Use 1.1 Gk for a destabilising permanent action) diagram will be rectangular and not trapezoidal.
Qk,w is the destabilising characteristic variable wind action
Reinforced concrete pads
Figure 1
Procedures for depth of spread foundations Where the pad foundations require reinforcement the following checks
should be carried out to ensure:
■ Sufficient reinforcement to resist bending moments.
START
■ Punching shear strength.
■ Beam shear strength.
Obtain soil parameters from Ground Investigation report
The moments and shear forces should be assessed using the STR
combination:
1.35 Gk + 1.5 Qk STR combination 1 (Exp. (6.10))
Design using
Yes No
direct method?
However, there may be economies to made from using Expressions
(6.10a) or (6.10b) from the Eurocode.
Size foundation
Use prescriptive method.
(geotechnical design) using
Size foundation The critical bending moments for design of bottom reinforcement
the worst of Combinations
(geotechnical design) are located at the column faces. Both beam shear and punching
1 or 2 (ULS) for actions
using SLS for actions
and geotechnical material shear should then be checked at the locations shown in Figure 3. For
and presumed
properties. Combination 2
bearing resistance
will usually govern. punching shear the ground reaction within the perimeter may be
deducted from the column load (Expression (6.48), Eurocode 2–1–16).
It is not usual for a pad foundation to contain shear reinforcement,
therefore it is only necessary to ensure that the concrete shear stress
Check overturning using EQU
Is there an limit state for actions and capacity without shear reinforcement (vRd,c – see Table 6) is greater than
overturning moment? GEO Combination 2
Yes applied shear stress (vEd = VEd/(bd)).
for material properties.

No If the basic shear stress is exceeded, the designer may increase the
depth of the base. Alternatively, the amount of main reinforcement
Design foundation (structural design) using the worst of
Combinations 1 and 2 (ULS) for actions and geotechnical could be increased or, less desirably, shear links could be provided. (See
material properties.
Chapter 4, originally published as Beams8 for an explanation of how to
design shear reinforcement.)
Figure 2
Pressure distributions for pad foundations

M M M
P 6e
1
L L
P or P P

2P P
1.5 L 3 e L 2e
e e
P P
e = M/ P e
P 6e L = width of base P
1+
L L
SLS pressure distributions ULS pressure distribution

46
 6. Foundations

Design for punching shear Figure 4

Procedure for determining punching shear capacity for pad foundations
Eurocode 2 provides specific guidance on the design of foundations for
punching shear, and this varies from that given for slabs. In Eurocode 2 the
shear perimeter has rounded corners and the forces directly resisted by START

the ground should be deducted (to avoid unnecessarily conservative

designs). The critical perimeter should be found iteratively, but it is
Determine value of factor β
generally acceptable to check at d and 2d. Alternatively, a spreadsheet (β =1.0 when applied moment is zero; refer to Expressions
could be used (e.g. spreadsheet TCC81 from Spreadsheets for concrete (6.38) to (6.42) from BS EN 1992–1–1 for other cases)

design to BS 8110 and Eurocode 2 7). The procedure for determining the
punching shear requirements is shown in Figure 4.
Determine value of vEd,max
(design shear stress at face of column) from:
Table 6 vEd,max = β(VEd – DVEd) (from Exp. (6.38))
vRd,c resistance of members without shear reinforcement, MPa (u0deff)
rl Effective depth, d (mm) where u0 is perimeter of column
(see Clause 6.4.5 for columns at base edges)
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000a deff = (dy + dz)/2 where dy and dz
are the effective depths in orthogonal directions
0.25% 0.47 0.43 0.40 0.38 0.36 0.35 0.35 0.34
0.50% 0.54 0.51 0.48 0.47 0.45 0.44 0.44 0.43
Determine value of vRd,max (refer to Table 7)
0.75% 0.62 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.52 0.51 0.50 0.49
1.00% 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.54
1.25% 0.73 0.69 0.66 0.63 0.62 0.60 0.59 0.58 No
Is vEd,max < vRd,max? Redesign foundation
1.50% 0.78 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.65 0.64 0.63 0.62
1.75% 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.66 0.65 Yes
≥2.00% 0.85 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.72 0.70 0.69 0.68
Determine value of vEd, (design shear stress) from:
k 1.816 1.707 1.632 1.577 1.535 1.500 1.471 1.447 vEd = (VEd – DVEd)
Key (u1deff)
where u1 is length of control perimeter (refer to Figure 5). For
a For depths greater than 1000 calculate vRd,c directly. eccentrically loaded bases, refer to Exp. (6.51).
Notes The control perimeter will have to be found through iteration;
it will usually be between d and 2d
1 Table derived from: vRd,c = 0.12 k (100r I fck)(1/3) ≥ 0.035 k1.5 fck0.5
where k = 1 + √(200/d) ≤ 2 and r I = √(rIy +r Iz) ≤ 0.02,
r Iy = Asy/(bd) and r Iz = Asz/(bd)
2 This table has been prepared for fck = 30; Determine concrete punching shear capacity vRd (without
where r l exceed 0.40% the following factors may be used: shear reinforcement) from 2dvRd,c/a (Refer to Table 6 for vRd,c)

fck 25 28 32 35 40 45 50
Factor 0.94 0.98 1.02 1.05 1.10 1.14 1.19 Either increase main
steel, or provide
Is vEd < vRd at No punching shear
critical perimeter? reinforcement required.
(Not recommended
Figure 3 for foundations.)
Yes
Shear checks for pad foundations
No shear reinforcement required. Check complete.

Beam shear Punching shear perimeters,

faces (load within deducted from V Ed)

Figure 5
Typical basic control perimeters around loaded areas

2d
u1

u1 2d
2d

bz

Bends may be
d required

h d
by

47
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

flexure reference should be made to Chapter 4, originally published as

Raft foundations Beams 8.

The basic design processes for rafts are similar to those for isolated Alternatively, a truss analogy may be used; this is covered in Sections 5.6.4
pad foundations or pilecaps. The only difference in approach lies in the and 6.5 of Eurocode 2–1–1. The strut angle y should be at least 21.8° to
selection of an appropriate method for analysing the interaction between the horizontal; note that y should be measured in the plane of the column
the raft and the ground so as to achieve a reasonable representation of and pile.
their behaviour. For stiffer rafts (i.e. span-to-thickness greater than 10) with
a fairly regular layout, simplified approaches such as yield line or the flat Both beam shear and punching shear should then be checked as shown in
slab equivalent frame method may be employed, once an estimation of Figure 6. For beam shear, the design resistances in Table 6 may be used. If the
the variations in bearing pressure has been obtained from a geotechnical basic shear stress is exceeded, the designer should increase the depth of the
specialist. Whatever simplifications are made, individual elastic raft base. Alternatively, the amount of main reinforcement could be increased or,
reactions should equate to the applied column loads. less desirably, shear links could be provided. Care should be taken that main
bars are fully anchored. As a minimum, a full anchorage should be provided
Thinner, more flexible rafts or those with a complex layout may require from the inner face of piles. Large radius bends may be required.
the application of a finite element or grillage analysis. For rafts bearing
on granular sub-grades or when contiguous-piled walls or diaphragm When assessing the shear capacity in a pile cap, only the tension steel
perimeter walls are present, the ground may be modelled as a series placed within the stress zone should be considered as contributing to the
of Winkler springs. However, for cohesive sub-grades, this approach is shear capacity (see Figure 7).
unlikely to be valid, and specialist software will be required.
Figure 6
Critical shear perimeters for piles

Piled foundations f /5 Beam shear 5 d from column face

For the purpose of this chapter it is assumed that the pile design will be
carried out by a specialist piling contractor. The actions on the piles must f /5
be clearly conveyed to the pile designer, and these should be broken down
into the unfactored permanent actions and each of the applicable variable
Punching shear 5 2d from column face
actions (e.g. imposed and wind actions). The pile designer can then carry
out the structural and geotechnical design of the piles. f

Where moments are applied to the pilecap the EQU combination

should also be used to check the piles can resist the overturning forces.
These EQU loads must also be clearly conveyed to the pile designer Figure 7
Shear reinforcement for pilecaps
and procedures put in place to ensure the piles are designed for the
correct forces.
A s contributing to shear capacity

A pilecap may be treated as a beam in bending, where the critical

bending moments for the design of the bottom reinforcement are Stress zone
o
located at the column faces. For further guidance on designing for 45

Table 7
Values for vRd, max

fck vRd,max Figure 8

20 3.68 Dimensions for plain foundations

25 4.50
28 4.97
a a
30 5.28
32 5.58
hF
35 6.02
40 6.72
bF
45 7.38
50 8.00

48
 6. Foundations

Plain concrete foundations Table 8

Minimum percentage of reinforcement required

Strip and pad footings may be constructed from plain concrete fck fctm Minimum % (0.26 fctm /fyka )
provided the following rules are adhered to. 25 2.6 0.13%
■ In compression, the value of acc, the coefficient taking account of 28 2.8 0.14%
long-term effects applied to design compressive strength 30 2.9 0.15%
(see Cl. 3.1.6), should be taken as 0.6 as opposed to 0.85 for 32 3.0 0.16%
reinforced concrete. 35 3.2 0.17%
■ The minimum foundation depth, hF, (see Figure 8) may be 40 3.5 0.18%
calculated from: 45 3.8 0.20%
50 4.1 0.21%
Key
a Where fyk = 500 MPa.

where:
sgd = the design value of the ground bearing pressure
fctd = the design concrete tensile strength from Exp. (3.16) Selected symbols
Symbol Definition Value
For many situations this is unlikely to offer any savings over the current Ac Cross sectional area of concrete bh
practice of designing for hf ≥ a. As Area of tension steel
As, prov Area of tension steel provided
The possibility of splitting forces, as advised in Clause 9.8.4 of Eurocode
As, req’d Area of tension steel required
2–1–1, may need to be considered.
d Effective depth
Eurocode 2 allows plain concrete foundations to contain reinforcement deff Average effective depth (dy + dz) /2

for control of cracking. fcd Design value of concrete compressive strength acc fck /gc
fck Characteristic cylinder strength of concrete
fctm Mean value of axial tensile strength 0.30 fck2/3 for fck ≤ C50/60

Rules for spacing and Gk Characteristic value of permanent action

(from Table 3.1, Eurocode 2)

h Overall depth of the section

quantity of reinforcement leff Effective span of member See Section 5.3.2.2 (1)
M Design moment at the ULS
Crack control Qk Characteristic value of a variable action
Refer to Chapter 2, originally published as Getting started 9. Qk,w Characteristic value of a variable wind action
VEd Design value of applied shear force

Minimum area of principal reinforcement vEd Design value of applied shear stress
VRd,c Design value of the punching shear
The minimum area of reinforcement is As,min = 0.26 fctm bt d/fyk but not
resistance without punching shear reinforcement
less than 0.0013bt d (see Table 8). vRd,c Design value of the punching shear stress
resistance without punching shear reinforcement
Maximum area of reinforcement vRd,max Design value of the maximum punching shear
resistance along the control section considered
Except at lap locations, the maximum area of tension or compression
x Depth to neutral axis (d – z)/0.4
reinforcement, should not exceed As,max = 0.04 Ac
xmax Limiting value for depth to neutral axis (d – 0.4)d where d ≤1.0
z Lever arm
Minimum spacing of reinforcement acc Coefficient taking account of long term 0.85 for flexure and
The minimum spacing of bars should be the greater of: effects on compressive strength and of axial loads, 1.0 for
■ Bar diameter, unfavourable effects resulting from the way other phenomena
load is applied (From UK National Annex)
■ Aggregate size plus 5 mm, or
b Factor for determining punching shear stress
■ 20 mm. d Ratio of the redistributed moment to the elastic
bending moment
Deep elements gm Partial factor for material properties
For deep elements the advice in Eurocode 2 for the side faces of deep r0 Reference reinforcement ratio fck/1000

beams may be followed. The UK National Annex recommends that 0.2% rl Required tension reinforcement at mid-span As l bd
to resist the moment due to the design
is provided in each face. The distance between bars should not exceed loads (or at support for cantilevers)
the lesser of twice the beam depth or 300 mm. For pile caps the side c0 Factor for combination value of a variable action
face may be unreinforced if there is no risk of tension developing. c1 Factor for frequent value of a variable action
c2 Factor for quasi-permanent value of a variable action

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 6. Foundations

References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1997: Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design. BSI (2 parts).
2 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 5930: Code of practice for site investigation. BSI, 1999.
3 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8002: Code of practice for earth retaining structures. BSI, 1994.
4 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8004: Code of practice for foundations. BSI, 1986.
5 NARAYANAN, R S & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Introduction to Eurocodes. The Concrete Centre, 2005.
6 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–1, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules and rules for buildings. BSI, 2004.
7 GOODCHILD, C H & WEBSTER R M. Spreadsheets for concrete design to BS 8110 and Eurocode 2, version 3. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
8 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Beams. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
9 BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Getting started. The Concrete Centre, 2005.

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