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Chapter 5.
Object Space Coordinate Systems

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5-1. Introduction
 In this chapter, three-dimensional object space coordinate systems are presented and
described

 Object space coordinate systems have always been important for specifying the
relative positions of points in surveying, photogrammetry, and mapping

 Object space in photogrammetry refers to the three-dimensional region that

encompasses the physical features imaged in the photographs

 When mapping the earth's terrain and natural and cultural features, it is important
that all mapped objects be accurately located with respect to an accepted geographic
frame of reference

 If any of the spatial data sets are not accurately defined in an accepted frame of
reference, then gaps, overlaps, and mismatches will occur

Several accepted reference systems exist:

geodetic geocentric local vertical map projection

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5-2. Concepts of Geodesy

 The field of geodesy involves the study of the size, shape, gravity, rotation, and crustal
movement of the earth ⇨ It is a highly refined science which provides the basis for
earth-related reference coordinate systems
 To understand its basis, three "reference surfaces" must be defined
⇨ The physical earth, the geoid, and the ellipsoid

 The geoid is an equipotential gravity surface, which is generally considered to be mean

sea level
 The geoid is a gently undulating surface which is everywhere perpendicular to the
direction of gravity
⇨ These gentle undulations are due to gravity variations caused by the nonhomogeneous
mass distribution of the earth
 The amplitude of geoid undulations
depicted in Fig.5-1 are greatly exaggerated

 The shape of the geoid, in fact, results

from the net attraction, comprised of
gravity and the effect of the earth's
Figure 5-1. The three fundamental geodetic reference surfaces:
rotation physical earth, geoid, and ellipsoid.

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5-2. Concepts of Geodesy

 A reference ellipsoid is a mathematically

defined surface which approximates the
geoid either globally or in a large local area
such as a continent

 This surface is formed by rotating a two-

Figure 5-2. Definition of a reference ellipsoid. (a) Two-
dimensional ellipse (shown in Fig. 5-2a)
dimensional ellipse showing major and minor axes. (b) Three- about its minor axis
dimensional ellipsoid formed by rotation of ellipse about the minor
axis.

 Rotation of an ellipse in this manner generates a three-dimensional ellipsoid, as shown in

Fig. 5-2b

 This figure shows the (curved) lines which pass through the north and south poles (NP
and SP, respectively), known as meridians, and (curved) lines which are parallel to the
equator, called parallels

 A meridian is formed by the intersection of the ellipsoid with a plane containing the pole

 A parallel, however, is formed by the intersection of the ellipsoid with a plane that is
perpendicular to the pole (i.e., parallel to the equator)

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5-2. Concepts of Geodesy

 To define the size and shape of the reference ellipsoid, at least two constants(from
actual measurements) are required
⇨ Generally, the semimajor axis of the ellipsoid a and the flattening 𝑓 are specified

 The following equations give relationships between the ellipsoid constants of

the semimajor axis- 𝑎, the semiminor axis- 𝑏 , the flattening- 𝑓,
the first eccentricity- 𝑒, the second eccentricity- 𝑒′
𝑏 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 (5-5)
𝑓 =1− (5-1) 𝑒= (5-3) ′
𝑒 =
𝑎 𝑎 𝑏
𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 2
𝑒2 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
𝑏 = 𝑎(1 − 𝑓) (5-2) 2
𝑒 =𝑓 2−𝑓 = (5-4) 𝑒′ = = (5-6)
𝑎2 (1 − 𝑓)2 𝑏2

 The flattening 𝑓 is a parameter for an ellipsoid (or ellipse) which quantifies how much
it departs from a true sphere (or circle)
⇨ The value of 𝑓 for an ellipse can range from 0, which corresponds to a circle, to 1,
which corresponds to a completely flattened ellipse

 The accepted value of 𝑓 for the earth is roughly 0.0033, which implies that the earth is
very nearly spherical

 The first and second eccentricities 𝑒 and 𝑒′ are also parameters which quantify how
much an ellipse departs from a true circle, with values near 0 denoting near circularity
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5-2. Concepts of Geodesy

Table 5-1. Parameters for Select Reference
Ellipsoids

 Table 5-1 gives semimajor axis 𝑎 and flattening 𝑓 values for three commonly used
reference ellipsoids

 The values for 𝑎 and 𝑓 are selected on the basis of geodetic measurements made in
different locations of the world

 The Clarke 1866 ellipsoid is an example of this type of local surface, which was a best-
fit to the geoid in North America.

 Recently, reference ellipsoids have been derived which give a best-fit to the geoid in a
worldwide sense

 The GRS80 and WGS84 ellipsoids are examples of worldwide reference surfaces

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5-3. Geodetic Coordinate System

 Geodetic coordinates for specifying point locations relative to the earth's surface are
latitude 𝜙, longitude 𝜆, and height ℎ
⇨ These coordinates all depend upon a reference ellipsoid for their basis
 Latitude and longitude are horizontal components, while the vertical component is height
 These three coordinates are illustrated in Fig. 5-3

 This figure shows a point 𝑃 with a line passing through

it, perpendicular to the ellipsoid and extending to the
polar axis ⇨ This line is called the normal

 The longitude 𝑙 of a point is given by the angle in the

plane of the equator from the prime meridian (usually
the meridian through Greenwich, England) to the local
Figure 5-3. Geodetic coordinates of
latitude 𝜙, longitude 𝜆, and height ℎ. meridian (meridian passing through the normal line)

 Values of longitude range from –180° to +180° with those west of the prime meridian
being negative and those to the east being positive

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5-3. Geodetic Coordinate System

 The latitude (𝜙) of a point is the angle from the
equatorial plane to the normal line

 Values of latitude range from –90° to +90° with those

north of the equator being positive and those to the
south being negative

 The latitude is more clearly illustrated in Fig. 5-4,

which shows a plane section through the ellipsoid
containing the local meridian and the normal
Figure 5-4. Illustration of latitude 𝜙, normal,
and height ℎ in the plane of the local
meridian.
 As also illustrated in Fig. 5-4, height ℎ is the distance from the surface of the ellipsoid to
the point 𝑃, in the same direction as the normal

 This value specifies the elevation of a point above the ellipsoid, also known as the
ellipsoid height

 The elevation of a point above the geoid 𝐻, also known as orthometric height, is
commonly considered to be the mean sea level elevation

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5-3. Geodetic Coordinate System

 Figure 5-1 illustrates the relationship
between these two height definitions

 The difference between the two heights

is referred to as the geoid undulation or
geoid height and is indicated in Fig. 5-1
Figure 5-1. The three fundamental geodetic reference surfaces:
by the value 𝑁
physical earth, geoid, and ellipsoid.

 The relationship between ellipsoid height ℎ, orthometric height 𝐻, and geoid undulation
𝑁 is specified in Eq. (5-7)
ℎ=𝐻+𝑁 (5-7)

 Figure 5-1 shows two lines through point 𝑃 perpendicular to the ellipsoid and geoid
⇨ These lines intersect at an angle known as the deviation of the vertical

 The deviation of the vertical can be determined by precise surveying techniques, and
its value never exceeds 2 arc minutes anywhere on the earth

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5-4. Geocentric Coordinates

 While geodetic coordinates 𝜙𝜆ℎ provide an earth-based definition for a point's
threedimensional position, they are related to a curved surface (reference ellipsoid)

 The geodetic coordinates are nonorthogonal and as such are unsuitable for analytical
photogrammetry, which assumes a rectangular or cartesian coordinate system

 The geocentric coordinate system, on the other hand, is a three-dimensional 𝑋𝑌𝑍

cartesian system which provides an earth-centered definition of position, independent of
any reference surface
⇨ This system has its 𝑋𝑌 plane in the plane of the equator with the 𝑍 axis extending
through the north pole
⇨ The 𝑋 axis is oriented such that its positive end
passes through the prime meridian

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5-4. Geocentric Coordinates

 Figure 5-5 illustrates the geocentric coordinate

system and its relationship to geodetic
coordinates

 The geocentric coordinate system is a

convenient system for many worldwide geodetic
applications such as satellite geodesy

Figure 5-5. Relationship between geocentric

and geodetic coordinates.

 Values of the coordinates are very large and have no obvious relationship to the
cardinal directions in a local area
 The direction of the camera axis would be quantified relative to the earth's pole
instead of the local vertical

⇨ For these reasons, a special coordinate system, the local vertical system, with its origin
in the local project area is generally used

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5-5. Local Vertical Coordinates

 A local vertical coordinate system is a three-dimensional cartesian 𝑋𝑌𝑍 reference system
which has its origin placed at a specific point within the project area

 At this local origin, the 𝑍 axis extends straight up from the ellipsoid in the same direction
as the normal at the origin

 The positive 𝑋 and 𝑌 axes are tangent to the ellipsoid and point to the east and north,
respectively

 Figure 5-6 shows the local vertical system and its

relationship to geocentric and geodetic coordinates

 In this figure, the position of the local origin is

specified in terms of geodetic coordinates 𝜙0 , 𝜆0 ,
and ℎ0 , with the last equal to zero

 As shown in Fig. 5-6, the local origin has geocentric

coordinates 𝑋0 , 𝑌0 and 𝑍0 , and point 𝑃 in the project
area has local vertical coordinates 𝑋𝐼𝑃 , 𝑌𝐼𝑃 , and 𝑍𝐼𝑃
Figure 5-6. Local vertical coordinate system
relative to geocentric and geodetic systems.

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5-5. Local Vertical Coordinates

 A local vertical coordinate system is a three-dimensional cartesian 𝑋𝑌𝑍 reference system
which has its origin placed at a specific point within the project area

 At this local origin, the 𝑍 axis extends straight up from the ellipsoid in the same direction
as the normal at the origin

 The positive 𝑋 and 𝑌 axes are tangent to the ellipsoid and point to the east and north,
respectively

 Local vertical coordinates have the characteristic that

𝑋, 𝑌, and 𝑍 values will correspond roughly to eastings,
northings, and heights above the ellipsoid,
respectively

 This will no detrimental effect on coordinates

computed through analytical photogrammetry, since
the local vertical coordinates can be accurately
converted to useful geodetic coordinates or map
projection eastings and northings
Figure 5-6. Local vertical coordinate system
relative to geocentric and geodetic systems.

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5-6. Map Projections

 A map, in general, consists of points, lines, arcs, symbols, or images which are placed
on a flat, two-dimensional surface such as a sheet of paper or computer display

 It is preferable that the map present the viewpoint from directly overhead throughout
the area

 While there are several types of map projections to choose from, those most often used
in photogrammetric mapping applications are conformal, meaning that true shape is
maintained
 Two particular conformal map projections which will be discussed here are the
Lambert conformal conic and the transverse Mercator

 These map projections both employ the concept of the developable surface
⇨ A developable surface is a surface that may be three-dimensional in its natural form,
but can be "unrolled" and laid flat

 The developable surface is created which nearly coincides with the ellipsoid in the
region being mapped

 Points are then projected from the ellipsoid onto the developable surface or vice versa

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5-6. Map Projections

 The Lambert conformal conic projection uses a cone as its
developable surface

 The axis of the cone is made to coincide with the minor axis of
the ellipsoid and will pass through the ellipsoid along two
parallels of latitude, called the standard parallels

 Figure 5-7 shows a cone superimposed on the reference

ellipsoid of the earth
Figure 5-7. Cone used in the
Lambert conformal conic projection.

 In the region between the standard parallels, the conic surface is below the ellipsoid
⇨ Therefore, lines that are projected from the ellipsoid to the cone will be made
shorter, and those outside the standard parallels will be made longer
⇨ This change in dimension can be quantified by a scale factor which is less than 1
between the standard parallels, greater than 1 outside, and exactly equal to 1 at the
standard parallels

 Since this scale factor varies in the north-south direction but remains the same in the
east-west direction, the Lambert conformal conic projection is appropriate for areas of
limited extent north-south, but wide extent east-west
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5-6. Map Projections

 The 𝑋𝑌 (easting, northing) coordinates of points within
a Lambert conformal conic projection are based on the
cone after it has been unrolled and laid flat

 Figure 5-8 shows how the flattened cone is placed

relative to the 𝑋𝑌 axes

 In this figure, parallels of latitude form concentric

circular arcs centered on the apex of the cone, and
meridians appear as lines which are radial from the apex

 Different Lambert conformal conic projections can be

Figure 5-8. The Lambert cone unrolled and laid
flat.
set up for specific local areas or "zones"

 When a Lambert conformal conic map projection is developed for a specific area, a
central meridian is selected whose longitude is equal to that of the approximate center of
the zone

 The origin for the map projection is also selected

 It lies on the central meridian at a location below the coverage of the zone

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5-6. Map Projections

Figure 5-7. Cone used in the Figure 5-8. The Lambert cone unrolled
Lambert conformal conic projection. and laid flat.

 Six parameters define a Lambert conformal conic map projection for a specific zone
① The latitudes 𝜙1 and 𝜙2 of the two standard parallels depicted in Figs. 5-7 and 5-8
② The latitude and longitude 𝜙0 and 𝜆0 of the grid origin
③ The false easting 𝐸0 and false northing 𝑁0 of the origin

 These latter parameters, as shown in Fig. 5-8, are included so that all coordinates
within the zone will be positive

 A point 𝑃 having a particular latitude and longitude (𝜙𝑃 , 𝜆𝑃 ) will have corresponding map
projection coordinates (𝑋𝑃 , 𝑌𝑃 )

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5-6. Map Projections

 The axis of the cylinder is defined so as to lie in the
plane of the equator, transverse to the minor axis of
the ellipsoid

 Computation of the forward conversion for the

Lambert conformal conic projection involves
complex mathematics

Figure 5-9. Cylinder used in the transverse

 Conversion from 𝑋𝑌 to 𝜙𝜆 is referred to as the
Mercator projection. inverse conversion

 Another commonly used map projection is the transverse Mercator, which employs a
cylinder as its developable surface

 Using an ellipsoidal representation of the earth requires the use of a cylinder that has
been flattened slightly to conform to the shape of the ellipsoid

 Conversion of latitude and longitude (𝜙𝜆) of a point into map projection coordinates
(𝑋𝑌) is known as the forward or direct conversion

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5-6. Map Projections

 Figure 5-9 shows a cylinder superimposed on the

reference ellipsoid of the earth

 The cylinder intersects the reference ellipsoid along

two rings which are nominally oriented in the north-
south direction

Figure 5-9. Cylinder used in the transverse

Mercator projection.

 In the region between the rings of intersection, the cylinder is below the ellipsoid and
therefore lines that are projected from the ellipsoid to the cylinder will be made shorter,
and those outside the rings will be made longer

 This change in dimension can also be quantified by a scale factor which is less than 1
between the rings of intersection, greater than 1 outside, and exactly equal to 1 at the
intersecting rings

 Since this scale factor varies in the east-west direction but remains approximately the
same in the north-south direction, the transverse Mercator projection is appropriate for
areas of limited extent east-west, but with long extent north-south
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5-6. Map Projections

 The XY (easting, northing) coordinates are based on the
cylinder after it has been unrolled and laid flat

 Figure 5-10 shows how the flattened cylinder is placed

relative to the X and Y axes

 In this figure, parallels of latitude and meridians of

longitude appear as lines which take the shapes of
complex curves, symmetric about the central meridian

 Different transverse Mercator projections can be set up

in local areas or zones, also defined in terms of their
Figure 5-10. The transverse
Mercator cylinder unrolled and laid ranges of latitude and longitude
flat.

 To develop a transverse Mercator map projection for a specific area, a central meridian
is selected in the approximate center of the zone

 An origin is also defined which lies on the central meridian at a location below the
coverage of the zone (see Fig. 5-10)

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5-6. Map Projections

Figure 5-9. Cylinder used in the transverse Figure 5-10. The transverse
Mercator projection. Mercator cylinder unrolled and laid
flat.

 Five parameters uniquely define a transverse Mercator map projection for a specific zone
① the latitude and longitude, ϕ0 and λ0 of the grid origin
② k 0 , is the scale factor along the central meridian
③ a false easting E0 and false northing N0 of the origin are included to keep the coordinates
positive

 A point 𝑃 having a particular latitude and longitude (𝜙𝑃 , 𝜆𝑃 ) will have corresponding
map projection coordinates (𝑋𝑃 , 𝑌𝑃 )

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5-6. Map Projections

 Both the Lambert conformal conic and transverse Mercator projections are used in state
plane coordinate (SPC) systems in the United States
⇨ These SPC systems were established to provide convenient local coordinate systems
for surveying and mapping

 In the SPC system, each state is divided into one or more zones chosen so that the
maximum scale distortion is no more than 1 part in 10,000

 To achieve this distortion limit, the north-south dimension of each Lambert conformal
conic zone and the east-west dimension of each transverse Mercator zone are limited to
approximately 254 kilometers (km)

 Each zone has its own unique set of defining parameters, with some states, such as
Rhode Island, having a single zone, and other states, such as Alaska, having as many as
10 zones (Note that one of the Alaska zones uses the oblique Mercator projection)

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5-6. Map Projections

 Another common map projection system is the universal transverse Mercator(UTM) system

 This system was established to provide worldwide coverage between 80° S and 80° N
latitude by defining 60 zones, each having a 6° longitude range

 UTM zone 1 extends from 180° west longitude to 174° west longitude, with a central
meridian of 177° west

 Zone numbers increase to the east, at an equal spacing of 6° longitude

 The value of the scale factor along the central meridian 𝑘0 is equal to 0.9996 for every
zone, resulting in a maximum scale distortion of 1 part in 2500

 Each zone has its origin (ϕ0 , λ0 ) at the intersection of the equator with the central meridian

 The false easting for each zone is 500,000m

 The false northing is 0m for latitudes north of the equator, and 10,000,000m for latitudes
south of the equator

 Other projections which may be routinely encountered are the polyconic, polar
stereographic, and space oblique Mercator

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5-7. Horizontal and Vertical Datums

 A datum is a system of reference for specifying the spatial positions of points
⇨ These spatial positions are generally expressed in terms of two separate components,
horizontal and vertical
⇨ Thus datums have also traditionally been of two kinds, horizontal and vertical

 In a physical sense, a datum provide the basis for specifying the relative positions of
points both for surveying operations and for mapping purposes

 Common horizontal datums encountered in the United States include the North
American Datum of 1927 (NAD27), the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83), the
World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS84), various statewide high-accuracy reference
networks (HARNs), and the International Terrestrial Reference Framework (ITRF)
⇨ They provide a means of relating horizontal coordinates derived through surveying
and mapping processes to established coordinate reference systems

 Although the theoretical development of horizontal datums is rather complicated,

conceptually they can be considered to be based on three primary components as
minimum constraints ⇨ a reference ellipsoid, an origin, and an angular alignment

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5-7. Horizontal and Vertical Datums

 The North American Datum of 1927, for example, uses the Clarke 1866 ellipsoid as its
reference surface which was a best-fit to the geoid in North America

 In a physical sense a horizontal datum such as NAD27 consists of the monument points
along with their published coordinates. Since these coordinates were computed from a
large number of measurements, each of which contains a certain amount of error,
NAD27 likewise contains distortions due to these errors

 With advances in instrumentation, particularly accurate electronic distance-measuring

devices, the distortions inherent in NAD27 began to cause difficulties in constraining the
newer, more accurate measurements to the distorted system
⇨ To address this problem, the U.S. National Geodetic Survey created a new datum
known as NAD83

 The World Geodetic System of 1984 was established by the U.S. Department of Defense
during the same time period that NAD83 was being developed

 WGS84 is also the datum to which the broadcast ephemeris of the Global Positioning
System (GPS) is referenced

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5-7. Horizontal and Vertical Datums

 At the same time that NAD83 was being completed, GPS was beginning to be widely
used for geodetic surveys

 Due to the exceptionally high accuracy of GPS, discrepancies were being revealed in the
newly created NAD83

 As use of GPS expanded, these discrepancies became a significant nuisance for

geodesists, and newer, more accurate datums were sought

 As a response, the National Geodetic Survey, in cooperation with individual states, began
to establish high-accuracy reference networks (HARNs)

 The HARNs were individually connected to a highaccuracy worldwide network

⇨ therefore even though these networks have a high degree of internal consistency,
there are discontinuities along the borders between states

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5-7. Horizontal and Vertical Datums

 The horizontal datums are static systems
⇨ i.e., the coordinates of the monument points are based on a specific moment in time
 It has been well established that the surface of the earth is dynamic

 In addition, the rotational axis of the earth is continually on the move at a slow but
detectable rate
 The International Earth Rotation Service established the International Terrestrial Reference
Frame, or ITRF.
 The ITRF is essentially a three dimensional reference datum of high accuracy which is
commonly used as a basis for precise GPS orbit determination

 Periodically, WGS84 has been refined so as to closely coincide with the ITRF

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5-7. Horizontal and Vertical Datums

 In order to eliminate the need for separate HARNs for individual states, the National
Geodetic Survey has readjusted the NAD83 datum using GPS and other measurements
connecting the HARN points along with those for the existing NAD83 points
⇨ The result is the unified National Spatial Reference System (NSRS)

 Because of most recent readjustment, the new datum is commonly designated as

NAD83(2011)
⇨ Compared to the location of the earth's mass center in the ITRF, there is a
displacement of approximately 2 m to the NAD83(2011) origin

 Likewise, since WGS84 is periodically updated to the latest ITRF epoch, there is a
displacement of approximately 2 m between WGS84 and NAD83(2011) origins

 A single common reference system should be used in order to produce consistent spatial
data products

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5-7. Horizontal and Vertical Datums

 A vertical datum is a reference system for giving elevations of points relative to the
geoid (i.e., orthometric heights)

 Two primary vertical datums are currently in use in the United States
⇨ the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD29)
the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD88)

 The NGVD29 can be considered to be a mean sea level datum

 The NGVD29 evolved in much the same way as the NAD27 in that many additional
vertical surveys were connected to the network in local areas
⇨ This fact, in addition to distortions in the datum due to measurement errors and
constraint to the tide gauging stations, led to a vertical datum which was not
sufficiently accurate for modern applications
⇨ Also, the increasing use of GPS dictated the use of a vertical datum that more nearly
corresponded to the geoid
⇨ The NAVD88 was established based on a worldwide gravity model which is the geoid,
and the NAVD88 is more compatible with worldwide horizontal datums

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5-7. Horizontal and Vertical Datums

 It is often necessary to convert (transform) points that have been referenced in one
datum to another

 These transformations have become especially commonplace with the increasing use of
geographic information systems

 These systems often utilize information from different dates and different sources, and
frequently the information is based on different reference coordinate systems

 But the information must all be coordinated in a common reference system before
being integrated for analysis and use in a GIS

 A number of different mathematical procedures have been used for making these
conversions

 Unless the transformation procedure appropriately accounts for the distortions in the
datums, however, errors on the order of several meters can result in the converted
positions

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5-7. Horizontal and Vertical Datums

Several examples of conversion programs:

NADCON VERTCON GEOID12A

 To aid in making  A related program called  Another useful program

accurate horizontal VERTCON, performs is GEOID12A which can
datum conversions, the vertical datum be used to compute
NGS has developed a conversions between geoid undulation values
program called NGVD29 and NAVD88 to 𝑁 within the area
NADCON an accuracy of encompassed by the
approximately 2cm NAVD88
 It can convert horizontal
datum coordinates  These programs are
between NAD27 and available from the NGS
NAD83 to an accuracy on their website
of approximately 15cm
with occasional errors
as high as 50cm

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