‭ kay, here are detailed notes on the requested topics related to data representation,‬

O
‭network fundamentals, and transmission techniques:‬

‭Representation of Data and its Flow in Networks‬

‭ ata Representation:‬
D
‭At its core, all data in a computer network is represented in a digital format, fundamentally as‬
‭binary digits (bits), which are 0s and 1s.1 This binary representation is the language that‬
‭computers understand and process. Various methods are used to encode different types of‬
‭data into this binary format:‬
‭●‬ ‭Text Data:‬‭Characters are represented using encoding schemes like ASCII‬
(‭ American Standard Code for Information Interchange) and Unicode.‬‭2‬ ‭ASCII uses‬
‭7 or 8 bits per character, while Unicode supports a much wider range of‬
‭characters from different languages using variable-length encoding (e.g., UTF-8,‬
‭UTF-16).‬‭3‬
‭●‬ ‭Numeric Data:‬‭Integers are directly converted to their binary equivalents.‬
‭Floating-point numbers (numbers with fractional parts) are represented using‬
‭standards like IEEE 754, which defines how to encode the sign, exponent, and‬
‭mantissa of the number in binary.‬‭4‬
‭●‬ ‭Image Data:‬‭Images are typically represented as a grid of pixels. Each pixel's‬
‭color information is stored in binary, often using color models like RGB (Red,‬
‭Green, Blue), where the intensity of each color component is represented by a‬
‭binary value.‬‭5‬ ‭Compression techniques (like JPEG, PNG) are used to reduce the‬
‭amount of data required to represent an image.‬‭6‬
‭●‬ ‭Audio Data:‬‭Sound waves are converted into digital data through a process‬
‭called sampling, where the amplitude of the sound wave is measured at regular‬
‭intervals and converted into binary numbers.‬‭7‬ ‭The sampling rate and bit depth‬
‭determine the quality of the digital audio.‬‭8‬ ‭Compression techniques (like MP3) are‬
‭also common.‬‭9‬
‭●‬ ‭Video Data:‬‭Video is essentially a sequence of images (frames) displayed rapidly,‬
‭combined with synchronized audio.‬‭10‬ ‭It involves digitizing both the visual and‬
‭audio components and often uses compression techniques (like MP4, AVI) to‬
‭manage the large amount of data.‬

‭Data Flow in Networks:‬

‭ hen data is transmitted across a network, it doesn't typically travel as a single,‬

W
‭continuous stream. Instead, it is broken down into smaller, manageable units called‬
‭packets‬‭or‬‭frames‬‭. This process involves several steps:‬
‭1.‬ ‭Segmentation:‬‭The original data (e.g., a file, an email, a web page) is divided into‬
 s‭ maller chunks.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Encapsulation:‬‭Each data chunk is enclosed within headers and trailers that‬
‭contain control information.‬‭11‬ ‭This information includes the source and destination‬
‭addresses, sequence numbers (to help reassemble the data in the correct order),‬
‭error detection codes, and protocol-specific information. This layering of‬
‭information is fundamental to network protocols.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Transmission:‬‭The encapsulated packets are then sent over the network medium‬
‭(wired or wireless) as a series of electrical signals, light pulses, or radio waves.‬‭12‬
‭4.‬ ‭Routing/Switching:‬‭Intermediate network devices like routers and switches‬
‭examine the destination address in the packet headers to determine the best‬
‭path for the packet to reach its destination.‬‭13‬
‭5.‬ ‭Reception:‬‭At the destination, the receiving device receives the packets.‬
‭6.‬ ‭De-encapsulation:‬‭The headers and trailers are removed layer by layer as the‬
‭packet moves up the protocol stack.‬‭14‬
‭7.‬ ‭Reassembly:‬‭The data chunks are reassembled in the correct order based on the‬
‭sequence numbers to reconstruct the original data.‬
‭8.‬ ‭Error Handling:‬‭Error detection mechanisms check for any corruption that may‬
‭have occurred during transmission.‬‭15‬ ‭If errors are detected, retransmission of‬
‭packets may be requested.‬

‭ rotocols play a crucial role in governing this data flow, defining the rules and formats‬
P
‭for communication at each stage.‬‭16‬

‭Various Network Connection Topology‬

‭ etwork topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of nodes (devices) and‬
N
‭connections (links) in a network.‬‭17‬ ‭It defines how devices are interconnected and how‬
‭data travels between them. The choice of topology impacts network performance,‬
‭reliability, scalability, and cost.‬‭18‬

‭Here are the common network topologies:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Bus Topology:‬
‭○‬ ‭Description:‬‭All devices are connected to a single, shared communication‬
‭ edium called a bus or backbone cable.‬‭19‬ ‭Data transmitted by any device‬
m
‭travels along the bus and is received by all devices, but only the intended‬
‭recipient processes it.‬
‭ ‬ ‭Advantages:‬‭Simple to install, requires less cabling than some other‬
○
‭topologies, cost-effective for small networks.‬
‭○‬ ‭Disadvantages:‬‭A break in the main bus cable disrupts the entire network.‬‭20‬
‭Performance degrades as more devices are added due to increased traffic‬
 ‭ ollisions.‬‭21‬ ‭Difficult to troubleshoot.‬
c
‭2.‬ ‭Ring Topology:‬
‭○‬ ‭Description:‬‭Devices are connected in a closed loop, forming a ring. Data‬
‭travels unidirectionally around the ring, passing through each device until it‬
‭reaches its destination.‬‭22‬ ‭Some ring networks use a token-passing mechanism‬
‭to control access to the network.‬‭23‬
‭○‬ ‭Advantages:‬‭Provides ordered access to the network, can perform well under‬
‭heavy load compared to a bus.‬
‭○‬ ‭Disadvantages:‬‭A failure in a single link or device can break the entire ring.‬
‭Adding or removing devices can disrupt the network.‬‭24‬
‭3.‬ ‭Star Topology:‬
‭○‬ ‭Description:‬‭All devices are connected directly to a central hub or switch.‬
‭Communication between any two devices must pass through the central‬
‭device.‬
‭○‬ ‭Advantages:‬‭Easy to install and manage. Device failures only affect the‬
‭connection of that specific device, not the entire network. Easy to add or‬
‭remove devices.‬
‭○‬ ‭Disadvantages:‬‭Highly dependent on the central device; if the hub or switch‬
‭fails, the entire network goes down. Requires more cabling than a bus‬
‭topology.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Mesh Topology:‬
‭○‬ ‭Description:‬‭In a full mesh topology, every device is connected directly to‬
‭every other device in the network.‬‭25‬ ‭A partial mesh topology has some devices‬
‭connected to all others, while others are connected only to a subset.‬‭26‬
‭○‬ ‭Advantages:‬‭Highly fault-tolerant and reliable due to multiple paths for data.‬
‭Provides high bandwidth between devices.‬
‭○‬ ‭Disadvantages:‬‭Very expensive to implement due to the large number of‬
‭connections required (especially in a full mesh). Complex to install and‬
‭manage.‬
‭5.‬ ‭Tree Topology:‬
‭○‬ ‭Description:‬‭A hierarchical structure where devices are connected in a‬
‭tree-like fashion. It combines characteristics of bus and star topologies. There‬
‭is a root node, and other nodes are connected in a branching structure. Often‬
‭used in larger networks to segment them.‬
‭○‬ ‭Advantages:‬‭Allows for easy expansion of the network.‬‭27‬ ‭Fault isolation is‬
‭easier than in a bus topology.‬
‭○‬ ‭Disadvantages:‬‭A failure in a higher-level node can affect a large portion of‬
‭the network. More complex to configure than bus or star.‬
‭6.‬ ‭Hybrid Topology:‬
 ‭○‬ ‭Description:‬‭A combination of two or more different basic topologies. For‬
‭ xample, connecting several star networks using a bus backbone.‬
e
‭ ‬ ‭Advantages:‬‭Inherits the advantages of the combined topologies. Provides‬
○
‭flexibility and scalability.‬
‭○‬ ‭Disadvantages:‬‭Can be complex to design, install, and manage. Cost can be‬
‭higher depending on the complexity.‬

‭Protocols and Standards‬

‭ rotocols:‬
P
‭Network protocols are sets of rules, conventions, and procedures that govern how devices‬
‭communicate with each other over a network.28 They define the format, timing, sequencing,‬
‭and error control of data exchange.29 Protocols ensure that different devices, regardless of‬
‭their underlying hardware or software, can understand and process the data they receive.30‬
‭Key elements of a protocol often include:‬
‭●‬ ‭Syntax:‬‭The structure or format of the data and the order in which it is presented.‬
‭●‬ ‭Semantics:‬‭The meaning of the different parts of the data and how actions are to‬
‭ e interpreted.‬
b
‭ ‬ ‭Timing:‬‭When and how quickly data should be sent, and how devices should‬
●
‭respond.‬

‭Examples of widely used network protocols include:‬

‭●‬ ‭TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol):‬‭The foundational‬
s‭ uite of protocols for the internet.‬‭31‬ ‭IP handles addressing and routing of packets,‬
‭while TCP provides reliable, connection-oriented communication, ensuring data is‬
‭delivered in order and without errors.‬
‭●‬ ‭HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):‬‭Used for transmitting web pages and‬
‭other resources on the World Wide Web.‬
‭●‬ ‭FTP (File Transfer Protocol):‬‭Used for transferring files between computers.‬
‭●‬ ‭SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):‬‭Used for sending email messages.‬‭32‬
‭●‬ ‭UDP (User Datagram Protocol):‬‭A connectionless protocol that provides faster‬
‭but less reliable data transmission compared to TCP.‬‭33‬
‭●‬ ‭Ethernet:‬‭A set of protocols and standards for wired Local Area Networks (LANs),‬
‭defining how data is formatted and transmitted over physical media like‬
‭twisted-pair cable.‬

‭ tandards:‬
S
‭Network standards are agreed-upon specifications and guidelines that promote‬
‭interoperability and compatibility between networking equipment and software from different‬
‭vendors.34 Standards are developed by national and international organizations to ensure‬
t‭ hat products can work together seamlessly, fostering competition and innovation in the‬
‭industry.35‬
‭Key standards organizations include:‬
‭●‬ ‭IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers):‬‭Develops standards‬
f‭ or a wide range of technologies, including many networking standards (e.g., IEEE‬
‭802.3 for Ethernet, IEEE 802.11 for Wi-Fi).‬
‭ ‬ ‭IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force):‬‭Responsible for developing and‬
●
‭promoting internet standards, particularly those in the TCP/IP suite.‬‭36‬
‭●‬ ‭ISO (International Organization for Standardization):‬‭A global body that‬
‭develops standards across various industries, including the OSI model (ISO/IEC‬
‭7498).‬‭37‬
‭●‬ ‭ITU (International Telecommunication Union):‬‭A United Nations specialized‬
‭agency for information and communication technologies,‬‭38‬ ‭involved in developing‬
‭telecommunication standards.‬‭39‬

‭ tandards provide a framework for protocol implementation, ensuring consistency‬

S
‭and allowing for the global interconnectedness we experience today.‬‭40‬

‭OSI Model‬
‭ he OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework that‬
T
‭standardizes the functions of a telecommunication or computing system‬‭41‬ ‭into seven‬
‭abstraction layers.‬‭42‬ ‭Developed by the International Organization for Standardization‬
‭(ISO), it provides‬‭43‬ ‭a clear picture of how data travels from an application on one‬
‭computer to an application on another, even if the underlying hardware and software‬
‭are different.‬‭44‬ ‭Each layer provides services to the layer above it and receives services‬
‭from the layer below.‬‭45‬

‭The seven layers of the OSI model are:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Physical Layer (Layer 1):‬
‭○‬ ‭Function:‬‭Deals with the physical transmission of raw bit streams over the‬
‭ etwork medium. It defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and‬
n
‭functional specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating‬‭46‬ ‭the‬
‭physical link.‬
‭○‬ ‭Examples:‬‭Specifications for cables (e.g., twisted pair, fiber optic),‬
‭connectors (e.g., RJ-45), network interface cards (NICs), and voltage levels. It‬
‭is concerned with transmitting bits (0s and 1s) as signals.‬
‭ .‬ ‭Data Link Layer (Layer 2):‬
2
‭○‬ ‭Function:‬‭Provides reliable data transfer between two directly connected‬
 ‭ odes. It handles framing (dividing the bit stream into frames), physical‬
n
‭addressing (using MAC addresses), error detection and correction for bits‬
‭transmitted on the link, and flow control to prevent a fast sender from‬
‭overwhelming a slow receiver.‬
‭○‬ ‭Sublayers:‬‭Often divided into the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer‬
‭(managing communication protocols) and the Media Access Control (MAC)‬
‭sublayer (managing access to the physical medium).‬
‭○‬ ‭Examples:‬‭Ethernet (IEEE 802.3), Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11), Point-to-Point Protocol‬
‭(PPP).‬
‭3.‬ ‭Network Layer (Layer 3):‬
‭○‬ ‭Function:‬‭Responsible for logical addressing and routing of data packets‬
‭across potentially multiple networks. It determines the best path for data to‬
‭travel from the source to the destination.‬
‭○‬ ‭Examples:‬‭Internet Protocol (IP) - IPv4 and IPv6. Routers operate at this layer.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Transport Layer (Layer 4):‬
‭○‬ ‭Function:‬‭Provides reliable or unreliable end-to-end data transfer between‬
‭processes running on source and destination hosts. It handles segmentation‬
‭of data from the session layer, flow control, error control, and multiplexing‬
‭(allowing multiple applications to share the network connection).‬‭47‬
‭○‬ ‭Examples:‬‭Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) - provides reliable, ordered‬
‭delivery; User Datagram Protocol (UDP) - provides unreliable, unordered‬
‭delivery.‬‭48‬
‭5.‬ ‭Session Layer (Layer 5):‬
‭○‬ ‭Function:‬‭Establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions‬
‭between applications. It provides services like dialogue control (determining‬
‭whose turn it is to transmit) and synchronization.‬
‭○‬ ‭Examples:‬‭Network File System (NFS), Server Message Block (SMB).‬
‭6.‬ ‭Presentation Layer (Layer 6):‬
‭○‬ ‭Function:‬‭Deals with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged‬
‭between two systems. It can provide data translation, encryption/decryption,‬
‭and compression/decompression to ensure that data is in a format that the‬
‭application layer can understand.‬‭49‬
‭○‬ ‭Examples:‬‭JPEG, MPEG, ASCII, encryption standards (SSL/TLS often‬
‭considered to operate here or span layers).‬
‭7.‬ ‭Application Layer (Layer 7):‬
‭○‬ ‭Function:‬‭Provides network services directly to end-user applications. It‬
‭allows applications to access network resources and defines the protocols‬
‭that applications use to exchange data.‬
 ‭○‬ ‭Examples:‬‭HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS (Domain Name System), Telnet.‬

‭Data Flow through the OSI Model:‬

‭ hen data is sent, it originates at the Application Layer, and as it passes down‬
W
‭through each layer, the layer adds its own header (and sometimes a trailer) containing‬
‭control information.‬‭50‬ ‭This process is called‬‭encapsulation‬‭. At the Physical Layer, the‬
‭data is transmitted as bits.‬

‭ hen data is received, it starts at the Physical Layer as bits and moves up through‬
W
‭each layer. At each layer, the corresponding header (and trailer) is removed, and the‬
‭data is passed up to the next layer.‬‭51‬ ‭This process is called‬‭de-encapsulation‬‭. The‬
‭Application Layer at the destination receives the original data.‬

‭ he OSI model is a logical model and not all protocols map perfectly to its layers. The‬
T
‭TCP/IP model, for instance, is a more practical model widely used in the internet,‬
‭which combines several OSI layers.‬‭52‬ ‭However, the OSI model is valuable for‬
‭understanding the different functions involved in network communication.‬

‭Transmission Media‬
‭ ransmission media are the physical pathways or channels through which data travels‬
T
‭from one point to another in a network.‬‭53‬ ‭They can be broadly classified into two‬
‭categories: Guided Media and Unguided Media.‬

1‭ . Guided Media (Wired):‬

‭In guided media, the data signals are directed along a physical path.54‬
‭●‬ ‭Twisted-Pair Cable:‬
‭○‬ ‭Description:‬‭Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together. The‬
t‭ wisting helps reduce electromagnetic interference from external sources and‬
‭crosstalk between adjacent pairs.‬‭55‬
‭ ‬ ‭Types:‬
○
‭■‬ ‭Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):‬‭Most common type, used in Ethernet‬
‭networks. Classified into categories (e.g., Cat 5e, Cat 6, Cat 7) based on‬
‭their data carrying capacity.‬
‭■‬ ‭Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):‬‭Has an additional foil or braid shield around‬
‭the twisted pairs to provide better protection against interference. More‬
‭expensive and harder to install than UTP.‬
‭○‬ ‭Characteristics:‬‭Relatively inexpensive, easy to install, widely available.‬
‭Susceptible to attenuation (signal loss over distance) and interference,‬
‭especially UTP.‬‭56‬ ‭Data rates vary depending on the category.‬
 ‭●‬ ‭Coaxial Cable:‬
‭○‬ ‭Description:‬‭Consists of a central copper conductor surrounded by an‬
i‭nsulating layer, a metallic shield, and an outer protective jacket. The shielding‬
‭provides better noise immunity than twisted-pair cable.‬‭57‬
‭○‬ ‭Applications:‬‭Traditionally used in cable TV networks and older Ethernet‬
‭implementations (e.g., 10Base2, 10Base5).‬
‭○‬ ‭Characteristics:‬‭Offers higher bandwidth and better noise immunity than‬
‭twisted-pair over longer distances. More expensive and less flexible than UTP.‬
‭ ‬ ‭Fiber-Optic Cable:‬
●
‭○‬ ‭Description:‬‭Transmits data as pulses of light through thin strands of glass or‬
‭plastic fiber. It consists of a core, cladding, and a protective jacket.‬
‭○‬ ‭Types:‬
‭■‬ ‭Single-Mode Fiber (SMF):‬‭Has a small core diameter and transmits light‬
‭along a single path. Used for long-distance communication and high‬
‭bandwidth.‬
‭■‬ ‭Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF):‬‭Has a larger core diameter and allows light to‬
‭travel along multiple paths. Used for shorter distances within buildings or‬
‭campuses.‬
‭○‬ ‭Characteristics:‬‭Offers very high bandwidth, low attenuation over long‬
‭distances, immunity to electromagnetic interference, and high security‬
‭(difficult to tap). More expensive than copper cables and requires specialized‬
‭connectors and installation techniques.‬

‭ . Unguided Media (Wireless):‬

2
‭In unguided media, data signals travel through the air or vacuum in the form of‬
‭electromagnetic waves, without a physical conductor.58‬
‭●‬ ‭Radio Waves:‬
‭○‬ ‭Description:‬‭Electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging from roughly 3‬
k‭ Hz to 3 GHz. They are omnidirectional and can penetrate walls and buildings.‬
‭○‬ ‭Applications:‬‭AM/FM radio broadcasting, television broadcasting, cordless‬
‭phones, Wi-Fi (in the 2.4 GHz band), Bluetooth.‬
‭○‬ ‭Characteristics:‬‭Can cover large areas, relatively easy to generate.‬
‭Susceptible to interference from other radio sources.‬
‭ ‬ ‭Microwaves:‬
●
‭○‬ ‭Description:‬‭Electromagnetic waves with frequencies typically ranging from 1‬
‭GHz to 300 GHz. They are directional and require line-of-sight‬
‭communication between antennas.‬
‭○‬ ‭Types:‬‭Terrestrial microwaves (between antennas on the ground) and Satellite‬
‭microwaves (between ground stations and satellites).‬‭59‬
 ‭○‬ ‭Applications:‬‭Point-to-point communication, cellular networks, satellite‬
‭ ommunication, Wi-Fi (in the 5 GHz band).‬
c
‭○‬ ‭Characteristics:‬‭Offer high bandwidth. Susceptible to atmospheric‬
‭conditions (rain fade). Require clear line of sight.‬
‭ ‬ ‭Infrared:‬
●
‭○‬ ‭Description:‬‭Electromagnetic waves with frequencies just below visible light,‬
‭typically in the range of 300 GHz to 400 THz. Used for short-range‬
‭communication.‬
‭○‬ ‭Applications:‬‭TV remote controls, wireless mice and keyboards, infrared‬
‭ports for data transfer over short distances.‬‭60‬
‭○‬ ‭Characteristics:‬‭Line-of-sight is usually required (or can bounce off surfaces‬
‭in a small area). Cannot penetrate opaque objects. Not affected by radio‬
‭frequency interference.‬

‭ he choice of transmission media depends on factors such as the required‬

T
‭bandwidth, distance, cost, installation complexity, and immunity to interference.‬‭61‬

‭LAN: Wired LAN and Wireless LANs‬

‭ Local Area Network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects devices within a‬
A
‭limited geographic area, such as a home, office building, or campus.‬‭62‬ ‭LANs are‬
‭typically owned and managed by a single organization.‬‭63‬

‭Wired LAN (Ethernet):‬

‭ ired LANs predominantly use Ethernet technology, which is based on the IEEE 802.3‬
W
‭standard.‬‭64‬ ‭Ethernet defines the rules for how devices on a wired network access the‬
‭transmission medium and transmit data.‬
‭●‬ ‭How it Works:‬‭Devices in a wired LAN are connected using physical cables,‬
‭ rimarily twisted-pair (UTP or STP) or, less commonly today, coaxial cable.‬‭65‬
p
‭Devices use network interface cards (NICs) to connect to the cable.‬‭66‬ ‭Data is‬
‭transmitted in Ethernet frames.‬
‭ ‬ ‭Access Method:‬‭Older Ethernet used a shared medium and an access method‬
●
‭called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection).‬‭67‬
‭Devices would "listen" to the cable before transmitting (Carrier Sense) and if it‬
‭was clear, they would transmit. If two devices transmitted simultaneously, a‬
‭collision would occur, which the devices would detect (Collision Detection), stop‬
‭transmitting, and wait a random amount of time before trying again.‬‭68‬ ‭Modern‬
‭switched Ethernet largely eliminates collisions by providing dedicated‬
‭connections between devices and the switch.‬‭69‬
 ‭●‬ ‭Components:‬‭Key components of a wired LAN include:‬
‭○‬ ‭Network Interface Cards (NICs):‬‭Hardware installed in devices to connect‬
t‭ hem to the network cable.‬‭70‬
‭○‬ ‭Cabling:‬‭Twisted-pair (most common), coaxial, or fiber optic.‬‭71‬
‭○‬ ‭Connectors:‬‭RJ-45 connectors for twisted-pair.‬‭72‬
‭○‬ ‭Hubs (older technology):‬‭Simple devices that broadcast data received on‬
‭one port to all other ports, leading to collisions in shared Ethernet.‬
‭○‬ ‭Switches (modern technology):‬‭Intelligent devices that forward data only to‬
‭the intended destination port based on MAC addresses, creating dedicated‬
‭segments and reducing collisions.‬‭73‬
‭ ‬ ‭Speeds:‬‭Ethernet speeds have evolved significantly over time: 10 Mbps‬
●
‭(10Base-T), 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet), 1 Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet), 10 Gbps, 40‬
‭Gbps, 100 Gbps, and even higher.‬
‭●‬ ‭Advantages:‬‭Generally provides higher bandwidth and lower latency compared‬
‭to wireless LANs.‬‭74‬ ‭More secure as physical access to the cable is required. More‬
‭reliable and less susceptible to interference.‬
‭●‬ ‭Disadvantages:‬‭Requires physical cabling, which can be inflexible and costly to‬
‭install and reconfigure. Limits mobility.‬

‭Wireless LANs (WLANs):‬

‭ ireless LANs use radio waves to connect devices without physical cables.‬‭75‬ ‭The most‬
W
‭common WLAN technology is Wi-Fi, based on the IEEE 802.11 standards.‬‭76‬
‭●‬ ‭How it Works:‬‭Devices with wireless network adapters communicate with a‬
‭ ireless access point (WAP) using radio waves. The WAP acts as a bridge‬
w
‭between the wireless network and a wired network (like an Ethernet LAN).‬
‭ ‬ ‭Access Method:‬‭WLANs use CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with‬
●
‭Collision Avoidance). Before transmitting, a device listens to the medium. If it's‬
‭busy, it waits. To avoid collisions, devices also use mechanisms like requesting‬
‭permission to send (RTS/CTS - Request to Send/Clear to Send) or acknowledging‬
‭successful reception.‬‭77‬
‭●‬ ‭Standards (IEEE 802.11):‬‭The IEEE 802.11 family of standards specifies the‬
‭different versions of Wi-Fi, each offering different speeds, frequencies, and‬
‭features:‬‭78‬
‭○‬ ‭802.11b:‬‭Operates in the 2.4 GHz band, speeds up to 11 Mbps.‬‭79‬
‭○‬ ‭802.11a:‬‭Operates in the 5 GHz band, speeds up to 54 Mbps.‬‭80‬
‭○‬ ‭802.11g:‬‭Operates in the 2.4 GHz band, speeds up to 54 Mbps, backward‬
‭compatible with 802.11b.‬
‭○‬ ‭802.11n (Wi-Fi 4):‬‭Operates in both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz, introduced MIMO‬
 (‭ Multiple-Input Multiple-Output) for increased speed and range, speeds up to‬
‭600 Mbps.‬
‭○‬ ‭802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5):‬‭Operates in the 5 GHz band, provides significantly higher‬
‭speeds through wider channels and more spatial streams, speeds often in the‬
‭Gbps range.‬‭81‬
‭○‬ ‭802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6):‬‭Operates in 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and the new 6 GHz band‬
‭(Wi-Fi 6E). Improves efficiency and performance in crowded environments,‬
‭supports more devices simultaneously, speeds up to 9.6 Gbps.‬
‭ ‬ ‭Components:‬
●
‭○‬ ‭Wireless Network Adapters:‬‭Built into or added to devices to enable wireless‬
‭connectivity.‬
‭○‬ ‭Wireless Access Points (WAPs):‬‭Devices that connect wireless devices to a‬
‭wired network.‬
‭○‬ ‭Antennas:‬‭Used by WAPs and wireless adapters to transmit and receive radio‬
‭waves.‬
‭●‬ ‭Advantages:‬‭Provides mobility and flexibility.‬‭82‬ ‭Easy to install (no need for‬
‭extensive cabling).‬
‭●‬ ‭Disadvantages:‬‭Lower bandwidth and higher latency compared to wired LANs in‬
‭many cases.‬‭83‬ ‭Susceptible to interference from other wireless devices and‬
‭physical obstacles. Security can be a concern if not properly configured‬
‭(encryption is essential). Range is limited.‬

‭Connecting LANs and Virtual LAN‬

‭Connecting LANs:‬

‭ ANs can be connected to each other and to larger networks (like Wide Area‬
L
‭Networks - WANs, and the internet) using various networking devices:‬‭84‬
‭●‬ ‭Repeaters:‬‭Operate at the Physical Layer.‬‭85‬ ‭They regenerate weak signals to‬
‭ xtend the reach of a network segment. Do not segment network traffic or reduce‬
e
‭collisions (in shared media).‬
‭ ‬ ‭Hubs:‬‭Operate at the Physical Layer. They connect multiple devices and‬
●
‭broadcast incoming data to all connected devices. Create a single collision‬
‭domain (in shared Ethernet).‬
‭●‬ ‭Bridges:‬‭Operate at the Data Link Layer.‬‭86‬ ‭They connect two or more network‬
‭segments and forward frames based on MAC addresses.‬‭87‬ ‭They can filter traffic‬
‭and divide collision domains.‬
‭●‬ ‭Switches:‬‭Operate primarily at the Data Link Layer (some have Network Layer‬
‭capabilities).‬‭88‬ ‭They connect multiple devices and forward frames intelligently‬
 ‭ ased on MAC addresses, creating separate collision domains for each port.‬‭89‬
b
‭This significantly improves network performance compared to hubs.‬
‭ ‬ ‭Routers:‬‭Operate at the Network Layer. They connect different networks (LANs,‬
●
‭WANs) and forward packets based on IP addresses.‬‭90‬ ‭They determine the best‬
‭path for packets to travel between networks and create broadcast domains.‬
‭●‬ ‭Gateways:‬‭Can operate at any layer and are used to connect networks that use‬
‭different protocols.‬‭91‬

‭ witches and routers are the most fundamental devices used for connecting and‬
S
‭managing modern LANs. Switches are used within a single LAN to connect devices‬
‭efficiently, while routers are used to connect different LANs and provide access to‬
‭external networks.‬‭92‬

‭Virtual LANs (VLANs):‬

‭ Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a logical grouping of devices on a network that are not‬
A
‭restricted to a single physical switch.‬‭93‬ ‭VLANs allow administrators to segment a single‬
‭physical network into multiple logical broadcast domains.‬‭94‬ ‭Devices within the same‬
‭VLAN can communicate with each other as if they were on the same physical‬
‭network‬‭95‬ ‭segment, regardless of their actual physical location or the switch port they‬
‭are connected to.‬‭96‬
‭●‬ ‭Purpose of VLANs:‬
‭○‬ ‭Improved Performance:‬‭By creating smaller broadcast domains, VLANs‬
r‭ educe unnecessary broadcast traffic, improving network performance.‬‭97‬
‭○‬ ‭Enhanced Security:‬‭VLANs isolate traffic between different groups of users‬
‭or devices, preventing unauthorized access to sensitive information on other‬
‭VLANs.‬‭98‬
‭○‬ ‭Flexibility and Scalability:‬‭VLANs make it easier to manage and reconfigure‬
‭the network as users and devices move.‬‭99‬ ‭Devices can be added or moved to‬
‭different physical locations without requiring changes to the network's‬
‭physical cabling structure; their VLAN membership is configured in the switch.‬
‭○‬ ‭Simplified Administration:‬‭VLANs can simplify network administration by‬
‭allowing policies and security settings to be applied to entire groups of users‬
‭or devices at once.‬‭100‬
‭ ‬ ‭How VLANs Work:‬‭Switches that support VLANs are configured to assign ports‬
●
‭or devices to specific VLANs.‬‭101‬ ‭When a switch receives a frame, it examines the‬
‭VLAN tag (an extra field added to the Ethernet frame) to determine which VLAN‬
‭the frame belongs to.‬‭102‬ ‭The switch then forwards the frame only to ports that are‬
‭members of the same VLAN. To communicate between different VLANs, a Layer 3‬
 ‭ evice (like a router or a Layer 3 switch) is required.‬‭103‬
d
‭ ‬ ‭Types of VLANs (Common Implementations):‬
●
‭○‬ ‭Port-Based VLANs:‬‭The most common type, where each switch port is‬
‭statically assigned to a specific VLAN.‬‭104‬ ‭Any device connecting to that port‬
‭becomes a member of the assigned VLAN.‬
‭○‬ ‭MAC-Based VLANs:‬‭Devices are assigned to VLANs based on their MAC‬
‭addresses. This allows devices to be automatically placed in the correct VLAN‬
‭regardless of which port they connect to (requires the switch to learn MAC‬
‭addresses).‬
‭○‬ ‭Protocol-Based VLANs:‬‭Devices are assigned to VLANs based on the‬
‭protocol being used (e.g., IP, IPX).‬‭105‬

‭ LANs are a powerful tool for managing and segmenting networks, providing benefits‬
V
‭in terms of performance, security, and flexibility, especially in larger and more complex‬
‭LAN environments.‬‭106‬

‭Techniques for Bandwidth Utilization: Multiplexing‬

‭ ultiplexing is a technique that allows multiple data streams or signals to share a‬
M
‭single common transmission medium (like a cable or a wireless channel)‬
‭simultaneously.‬‭107‬ ‭This effectively increases the utilization of the available bandwidth.‬
‭At the transmitting end, a device called a‬‭multiplexer (MUX)‬‭combines the multiple‬
‭input signals into a single composite signal.‬‭108‬ ‭At the receiving end, a‬‭demultiplexer‬
‭(DEMUX)‬‭separates the composite signal back into the original individual signals.‬‭109‬

‭ here are several multiplexing techniques, each suitable for different types of signals‬
T
‭and media:‬‭110‬
‭1.‬ ‭Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):‬
‭○‬ ‭Description:‬‭FDM is an analog multiplexing technique used when the‬
‭ andwidth of the transmission medium is greater than the combined‬
b
‭bandwidth of the individual signals to be transmitted. The available bandwidth‬
‭is divided into multiple distinct frequency bands (channels), and each signal is‬
‭modulated onto a different carrier frequency.‬‭111‬ ‭These modulated signals are‬
‭then combined and transmitted over the shared medium.‬
‭ ‬ ‭How it Works:‬‭Each signal is assigned its own unique frequency range within‬
○
‭the overall bandwidth. To prevent interference between adjacent channels,‬
‭small unused portions of the spectrum called‬‭guard bands‬‭are placed‬
‭between the channels.‬‭112‬
‭○‬ ‭Applications:‬‭Analog television broadcasting, FM radio broadcasting, older‬
‭telephone systems.‬
 ‭○‬ ‭Characteristics:‬‭Suitable for analog signals. Requires careful filtering to‬
s‭ eparate channels. Inefficient if a channel is not actively transmitting data, as‬
‭its allocated frequency band remains unused.‬
‭ .‬ ‭Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):‬
2
‭○‬ ‭Description:‬‭TDM is a digital multiplexing technique used to combine multiple‬
‭digital signals into a single high-speed digital stream.‬‭113‬ ‭Instead of dividing the‬
‭bandwidth by frequency, TDM divides the transmission time into discrete time‬
‭slots.‬‭114‬ ‭Each input signal is allocated a recurring time slot in the combined‬
‭stream.‬
‭○‬ ‭How it Works:‬‭The multiplexer takes a small segment of data from each input‬
‭signal in a round-robin fashion and combines them into a frame. These‬
‭frames are then transmitted sequentially over the shared medium. The‬
‭demultiplexer at the receiving end separates the data based on the time slot‬
‭it occupies in the frame.‬
‭○‬ ‭Types:‬
‭■‬ ‭Synchronous TDM:‬‭Each input line is given a fixed time slot, even if it has‬
‭no data to send.‬‭115‬ ‭This can be inefficient if many channels are idle.‬
‭■‬ ‭Asynchronous (Statistical) TDM:‬‭Time slots are allocated dynamically to‬
‭input lines that have data to send.‬‭116‬ ‭This is more efficient as bandwidth is‬
‭not wasted on idle channels, but it requires addressing information within‬
‭the frame to identify which channel the data belongs to.‬
‭○‬ ‭Applications:‬‭Digital telephone systems (like T1/E1 lines), cellular networks‬
‭(GSM).‬
‭○‬ ‭Characteristics:‬‭Suitable for digital signals. More efficient than FDM when‬
‭input signals are not continuous. Requires synchronization between the‬
‭multiplexer and demultiplexer.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM):‬
‭○‬ ‭Description:‬‭WDM is a multiplexing technique used in fiber-optic‬
‭communication.‬‭117‬ ‭It is analogous to FDM but applied to light waves. Multiple‬
‭data streams are transmitted simultaneously over a single optical fiber by‬
‭using different wavelengths (colors) of light for each stream.‬‭118‬
‭○‬ ‭How it Works:‬‭Each data stream is modulated onto a light signal with a‬
‭specific wavelength generated by a laser.‬‭119‬ ‭A multiplexer combines these light‬
‭signals with different wavelengths onto a single fiber. At the receiving end, a‬
‭demultiplexer (like a prism or a grating) separates the light back into its‬
‭individual wavelengths, and photodetectors convert the light signals back into‬
‭electrical signals.‬
‭○‬ ‭Types:‬
‭■‬ ‭Coarse WDM (CWDM):‬‭Uses a smaller number of wavelengths with wider‬
 s‭ pacing.‬
‭■‬ ‭Dense WDM (DWDM):‬‭Uses a larger number of wavelengths with much‬
‭narrower spacing, allowing for significantly higher data carrying capacity.‬
‭ ‬ ‭Applications:‬‭High-capacity long-haul fiber-optic networks, metropolitan‬
○
‭area networks.‬
‭○‬ ‭Characteristics:‬‭Achieves very high bandwidth utilization over fiber optic‬
‭cables. Different wavelengths do not interfere with each other. Passive WDM‬
‭can be relatively simple, while DWDM systems are complex and expensive.‬

‭ ultiplexing is essential for efficiently using expensive transmission infrastructure by‬

M
‭allowing multiple users or services to share the same physical medium.‬‭120‬

‭Concepts on Spread Spectrum‬

‭ pread spectrum is a communication technique where the transmitted signal is‬
S
‭intentionally spread over a much wider frequency band than the minimum bandwidth‬
‭required to transmit the information.‬‭121‬ ‭This spreading is achieved by multiplying the‬
‭data signal with a pseudorandom noise (PN) code, which is independent of the‬
‭data.‬‭122‬ ‭At the receiver, the same PN code is used to "despread" the signal and recover‬
‭the original data.‬

‭The key concepts behind spread spectrum are:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Bandwidth Spreading:‬‭The process of making the transmitted signal occupy a‬
s‭ ignificantly larger bandwidth than the original message signal.‬
‭ .‬ ‭Pseudorandom Noise (PN) Code:‬‭A sequence of bits that appears random but‬
2
‭is generated deterministically.‬‭123‬ ‭This code is crucial for both spreading at the‬
‭transmitter and despreading at the receiver.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Processing Gain:‬‭The ratio of the spread bandwidth to the original message‬
‭bandwidth. A higher processing gain provides greater resistance to interference‬
‭and jamming.‬

‭Why use Spread Spectrum?‬

‭●‬ ‭Resistance to Interference and Jamming:‬‭Spreading the signal makes it appear‬
‭ s low-power noise to narrowband interference or jammers, making it difficult to‬
a
‭disrupt the communication.‬‭124‬
‭ ‬ ‭Security (Low Probability of Intercept/Detection - LPI/LPD):‬‭The spread‬
●
‭signal is difficult to detect and intercept by unauthorized receivers because it is‬
‭spread over a wide band and its power spectral density is very low (it appears as‬
‭background noise).‬‭125‬
‭●‬ ‭Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):‬‭Spread spectrum techniques can be‬
 ‭ sed to allow multiple users to share the same frequency band simultaneously.‬‭126‬
u
‭Each user is assigned a unique PN code, and their signals are spread using that‬
‭code. At the receiver, the desired signal is despread using the corresponding‬
‭code, while signals from other users (with different codes) remain spread and‬
‭appear as low-level noise.‬‭127‬
‭ ‬ ‭Increased Capacity:‬‭In CDMA systems, the capacity is not strictly limited by‬
●
‭frequency allocation but rather by the level of interference that the system can‬
‭tolerate.‬

‭Main Spread Spectrum Techniques:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):‬
‭○‬ ‭Description:‬‭The data signal is multiplied by a high-speed PN code sequence‬
(‭ often called a chipping code).‬‭128‬ ‭The rate of the chipping code is much higher‬
‭than the data rate, which directly spreads the spectrum of the transmitted‬
‭signal.‬‭129‬
‭○‬ ‭How it Works:‬‭A '1' in the PN code might represent a specific short pulse‬
‭waveform, and a '0' might represent an inverted version of that waveform. The‬
‭data bit determines whether the PN code sequence is sent as is or inverted.‬
‭At the receiver, the signal is multiplied by the same PN code; the original data‬
‭is recovered due to the properties of the PN code.‬
‭○‬ ‭Applications:‬‭Early Wi-Fi (802.11b), GPS, some cellular systems (CDMA).‬
‭ .‬ ‭Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):‬
2
‭○‬ ‭Description:‬‭The transmitter rapidly switches (hops) the carrier frequency of‬
‭the narrowband signal over a wide range of frequencies according to a‬
‭pseudorandom sequence known only to the transmitter and receiver.‬‭130‬
‭○‬ ‭Types:‬
‭■‬ ‭Slow Hopping:‬‭The carrier frequency changes at a rate slower than the‬
‭data rate.‬
‭■‬ ‭Fast Hopping:‬‭The carrier frequency changes at a rate faster than the‬
‭data rate (multiple hops per data bit).‬
‭○‬ ‭How it Works:‬‭Both the transmitter and receiver use the same PN code to‬
‭determine the sequence of frequencies to hop to. The receiver tunes to the‬
‭same frequency as the transmitter at each time interval to receive the data.‬
‭○‬ ‭Applications:‬‭Bluetooth, some military communication systems, older‬
‭cordless phones.‬

‭ pread spectrum techniques, particularly DSSS and FHSS, have been fundamental in‬
S
‭the development of various wireless communication technologies, providing‬
‭robustness against interference and enabling multiple access schemes like CDMA.‬‭131‬

‭ hese notes cover the essential concepts for each of the topics you requested,‬
T
‭providing a detailed overview of data representation, network structures,‬
‭communication rules, transmission methods, and bandwidth utilization techniques.‬