Industrial Automation and Control (PE-EC802B), ECE-8th Semester

Module-2
Control action, controller tuning and implementation

1
INTRODUCTION

A controller compares its measurement to its set point (r) and, based on the difference between
them (e=error), generates a correction signal to the final control element (e.g., control valve) in
order to eliminate the error. The way a controller responds to an error determines its character,
which significantly influences the performance of the closed-loop control system.

The different ways in which a controller may behave are the different control modes. They
include on/off, floating, proportional (P), integral (I), differential (D), and many others.

A controller is called direct acting if its output increases when its measurement rises and is called
reverse acting if its output decreases when its measurement rises.

ON/OFF CONTROL

The oldest control strategy is to use a switch for control. For example, if the controlled process is
the room temperature, the switch would turn on the heat source when the temperature is low and
turn it off when the desired comfort level is reached. A perfect on/off controller is “on” when the
measurement is below the set point. Under such conditions the manipulated variable is at its
maximum value. When the measured variable is above the set point, the controller is “off ” and
the manipulated variable is at its minimum value.

if  e  0 then m= max
e  0 then m= min (1)
In most practical applications, due to mechanical friction or to the arcing of electrical contacts,
the error must exceed a narrow band (around zero error) before a change will occur. This band is
2
known as the differential gap, and its presence is usually desirable to minimize the cycling of the
process. Figure 8 shows the response of an on/off controller to a sinusoidal input.

Fig.8. Response of two position control action

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
 Performance analysis of PID control action
1. Introduction:
A proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID controller) is a generic control loop
feedback mechanism (controller) widely used in industrial control systems. A PID controller
attempts to correct the error between a measured process variable and a desired setpoint by
calculating and then outputting a corrective action that can adjust the process accordingly.
The basic control loop can be simplified for a single-input-single-output (SISO) system as in
Fig.1. Here we are neglecting any disturbance present in the system

Fig. 1. A close loop single input single output (SISO) system

The controller may have different structures. Different design methodologies are there for
designing the controller in order to achieve desired performance level. But the most popular
among them is Proportional-Integral-derivative (PID) type controller. In fact more than 95% of
the industrial controllers are of PID type. As is evident from its name, the output of the PID
controller u(t) can be expressed in terms of the input e(t), as:
 de(t ) 1
t

u (t ) = K p e(t ) +  d +  e( )d  (1)
 dt i 0 

and the transfer function of the controller is given by:

 1 
C ( s) = K p 1 +  d s +  (2)
 is 

The terms of the controller are defined as: K p = Proportional gain,  d = Derivative time, and  i =
Integral time. For the sake of simplicity, we consider the transfer function of the plant as a simple
first order system without time delay as:
K
P( s ) = (3)
1+ s

23
 2. Theoretical performance analysis:
The effects of the individual components- proportional, derivative and integral control
action on the closed loop response with first order system without time delay can easily be
determined as follows:

2.1. Proportional (P) control:

c( s ) KK p
Closed loop transfer function can be expressed as: = (2)
r ( s ) 1 + KK p +  s

(1 + e )
AKK p − s / 
Time response for step input of amplitude A is c(t ) = (3)
1 + KK p


Where   =
1 + KK p

The steady state error

1+ s A A
ess = Lt = (4)
t → 1 + KK +  s s 1 + KK p
p

Time response improves in close loop but

offset generates.

Fig. 2 . Response with proportion (P) control

2.2. Proportional plus Integral (P-I) control:

The closed loop transfer function with Integral (I)
c( s ) K
control action = (5)
r ( s ) K + + i s +  i s 2
Steady state error due to step input reduces to
zero.

P-I action provides the dual advantages of fast

response due to P-action and the zero steady state
error due to I-action.
Fig 3. Transient response with P, I and P-I
control
The error transfer function with P-I control
24
 e( s )  i s(1 +  s)
= 2 (6)
r ( s) s  i + (1 + KK p ) i s + KK p
Damping constant (  P − I ) for P-I control
 1 + KK p  i
 P−I =   (7)
 2  KK p
Damping constant (  I ) for I control alone
 1  i
I =   (8)
 2  K
We can conclude that by using P-I control, the steady state error can be brought down to
zero, and simultaneously, the transient response can be improved.

2.3. Proportional plus Derivative (P-D) control:

K
P-D control for the process transfer function P( s) = apparently is not very useful, since
1+ s
it cannot reduce the steady state error to zero. But for higher order processes, it can be shown
that the stability of the closed loop system can be improved using P-D controller. For this, let
1
us take up the process transfer function as P( s) = 2 . With P control only the close loop
Js
transfer function is given by
c( s ) K
= 2 p (9)
r ( s) Js + K p
It gives the oscillatory response. But with P-D controller, the closed loop transfer function is:
c( s ) K (1 +  d s )
= 2 p (10)
r ( s ) Js + K p (1 +  d s )
whose characteristics equation is Js 2 + K p d s + K p = 0 that will give a stable closed loop
response.

Fig.4. Improvement of transient response with P-D control

25
 2.4. Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control:
It is clear from above discussions that a suitable combination of proportional, integral and
derivative actions can provide all the desired performances of a closed loop system. The
transfer function of a P-I-D controller is given by:
 1 
c( s ) = K p 1 +  d s +  (11)
 is 
The order of the controller is low, but this controller has universal applicability; it can be
used in any type of SISO system, e.g. linear, nonlinear, time delay etc. Many of the MIMO
systems are first decoupled into several SISO loops and PID controllers are designed for each
loop. PID controllers have also been found to be robust, and that is the reason, it finds wide
acceptability for industrial processes.

Integration windup and Bumpless transfer

Two major issues of concern with the close loop operation with P-I-D controllers are the
Integration Windup and the requirement of providing Bumpless Transfer. These two issues are
briefly elaborated below. The methodologies for providing Anti-integration Windup and
Bumpless Transfer would be discussed in the next lesson.

Integration Windup
A significant problem with integral action is that when the error signal is large for a significant
period of time. This can occur every time when there is large change in set point. If there is a
sudden large change in set point, the error will be large and the integrator output in a P-I-D
control will build up with time. As a result, the controller output may exceed the saturation limit
of the actuator. This windup, unless prevented may cause continuous oscillation of the process
that is not desirable.
What is Integral Wind Up ?
The PID controller plays a major role in controlling the process parameters in process industries.
It consists of Proportional term, Integral term and Derivative term which combinedly reduces the
transient error and steady state error. In steady state condition, i.e when the error tends to zero the
output of PID is equal to the integral term of PID.
If the error = 0
then
PID = Kc * error + Ki(previous integral + error) + Kd(error – last)
= 0 + Ki (previous integral + error) + 0
= Ki (previous integral + error)
by the above analysis it is proved that the output of PID controller at the steady state is equal to
integral term which acts as reset component of the controller. This illustrates the importance of
integral controller in PID controller. With the advantage of reset rate of controller and
minimizing the error to zero at steady state, there is major drawback in the integral term i.e wind-
up of integral component.

26
Integral wind-up:
Integral windup is the process of accumulating the integral component beyond the saturation
limits of final control element. The formula for integral component in PID is
Integral component = (Ts/Ti) * error
Where Ts = time cycle
Ti = Integral time constant or reset rate
If the set point raises suddenly or the actual value drops suddenly then there will be large error
between the set-point and actual value. This error causes the integral component to accumulate
with the time period to bring back the actual value near to the set-point. As a result the controller
output may exceeds the saturation limits of final control element. The integral component still
may accumulate beyond the saturation limits of the final control element because of error.
Whatever the integral value the final element or actuator cannot open/close beyond its saturation
value. This concept is explained by the following example
Consider a PI control is placed for controlling the liquid level in the controller which controls the
inlet flow to the tank by adjusting the inlet valve position. Now if the set-point is raised by the
operator from control room then the PI controller calculates the new actuator position according
to the error. The integral component of the PI controller which adds the reset rate will
accumulates according specified time cycles. If the output of PI controller is 120 % to the
adjuster which is the above saturation limit of the actuator because actuator cannot open beyond
100 % position. In full position of valve also still if the error is existing will further increases the
integral component value.
At this time if the set-point is lowed by the operator, the controller cannot close the valve to
reduce the flow because high accumulation of integral value. Once the integral component
reaches its normal value with negative error accumulation than only the PI output will drive the
actuator in close direction. This integral accumulation beyond the saturation limits of the final
control element is called integral windup which gives a poor response of controller under
dynamic conditions.

27
Prevention of Integration Windup
If there is a sudden large change in set point, the error between the set point and the process
output will suddenly shoot up and the integrator output due to this error will build up with time.
As a result, the controller output may exceed the saturation limit of the actuator. This windup,
unless prevented may cause continuous oscillation of the process.
There exits several methods through which integration windup can be prevented. Before we go to
the actual methods, let us consider the input-output characteristics of an actuator as shown in Fig.
1. Its characteristics is similar to of an amplifier, where the output varies linearly with the input
till the input is within a certain range; beyond that the output becomes constant either at the
maximum or the minimum values of the output. The upper and lower limits of the output may
correspond to the flow rates of a control valve when the valve is at fully open and fully closed
position.

The first method uses a switch to break the integral action, whenever the actuator goes to
saturation. This can be illustrated by Fig. 2. Consider schematic arrangement of a controller
shown in the figure. When the switch is closed, transfer function of the controller can be obtained
as:

28
So when the switch is closed, the controller acts as a P-I controller. On the other hand, if the
switch is open, it is a simple P- controller. The switch is activated by the position of the actuator.
If the actuator is operating in the linear range, the switch is closed, and the controller is in P-I
mode. But whenever the actuator is in the saturation mode, the switch is automatically opened;
the controller becomes a P-controller. As a result, any windup due to the presence of integral
mode is avoided.
Another technique for antiwindup action is illustrated in Fig.3. Here we assume that the slope of
the actuator in the linear range is unity. As a result, when the actuator is operating in the linear
range the error eA is zero, and the controller acts as a PI controller. But when the actuator is in
saturation mode, the error eA is negative for a positive e. This will reduce the integral action in the
overall control loop.

Other anti-windup precautions are:

(i) Closing the I-action only when the error is small (say 5% to 10% of the range),
(ii) Limiting the output of the I-action block.

29
 However, application of these techniques require an intimate knowledge of the plant behaviour.
Bumpless Transfer
When a controller is switched from manual mode to auto-mode, it is desired that the input of
the process should not change suddenly. But since there is always a possibility that the
decision of the manual mode of control and the auto mode of control be different, there may
be a sudden change in the output of the controller, giving rise to a sudden jerk in the process
operation. Special precautions are taken for bumpless transfer from manual to auto-mode.
What is PID Controller Bumpless Transfer ?
Bumpless Transfer
It is quite normal to set up some processes using manual control initially, and once the process is
close to normal operating point, the control is transferred to automatic mode through
auto/manual switch. In such cases, in order to avoid any jerk in the process the controller output
immediately after the changeover should be identical to the output set in the manual mode. This
can be achieved by forcing the integral output at the instant of transfer to balance the
proportional and derivative outputs against the previous manual output; i.e.
Integral output = {(previous manual) – (proportional + derivative) output}.
Similarly, for automatic to manual transfer, initially the manual output is set equal to the
controller output and the difference is gradually reduced by incrementing or decrementing the
manual output to the final value of the manual signal and thus effecting a change over.
Another way to transfer from Auto to Manual mode in a bumpless manner, the set point may be
made equal to the present value of the process variable and then slowly changing the set point to
its desired value.
The above features can be easily be implemented if a digital computer is used as a controller.
This provision eliminates the chance of the process receiving sudden jolt during transfer.
Bumpless transfer is either a manual or automatic transfer procedure used when switching a PID
controller from auto to manual or vice versa. Its aim is to keep the controllers output the same
when switching auto/manual, that is if the controller is at 50% output in auto it should retain that
50% output as you switch it to manual. If you switch from manual to auto the same should apply.
Most modern PID controllers have bumpless transfer built in, including PLC and DCS PID
controllers.
The term bumpless transfer refers to the process being controlled, meaning that the process is not
disturbed when switching the PID controller from Auto to manual or from manual to auto.
“Bumpless transfer” is a term used to describe the desired action a controller (PID, for example)
is expected to maintain when transferring from manual to auto mode, or vice-versa.

30
In auto mode, the controller calculates a deviation between the desired setpoint and the actual
value of the process variable, and adjusts the signal to the output to reduce the value of the
deviation (or error).
However, in manual mode, the operator decides what this output signal will be, bypassing the
auto mode settings, and this value could be different than what the controller has calculated.
In this case, when the operator switches from manual to auto,the controller applies its calculated
output value to the process, and since there is a good chance the auto and manual outputs do not
match, there will be a “bump” in the process: valves will open/close suddenly, pumps will
increase/ decrease in speed abruptly… until the controller adapts the output values again. This is
bad for the process (sudden jumps in actual value shows lack of overall control) and can affect
adversely the process actuators (valves and pumps and motors do not like being forced to change
control values quickly; repeated fast changes can even damage the actuators).
To produce a bumpless transfer, the PID controller will force the manual mode output value to
the output in auto mode (no bump) and then ramp slowly the auto output to the value calculated
by the controller in auto. This way passage from manual to auto is gradual, the process shows no
abrupt changes and the process actuators are not affected.

Bumpless Tuning
In this case, without a bumpless tuning feature, the bump occurs due to changing controller gain
or derivative settings during controller tuning.
It is because of the bump in controller output caused by changing tuning settings that it is good
practice to place a controller in manual mode momentarily while making tuning changes.
Because most controllers have bumpless transfer, it eliminates the bump when switching the
controller back to auto after making the tuning changes in manual mode. However, this becomes
a problem if the tuning settings are changed, as in the case of gain scheduling.
Bumpless tuning can be achieved without the need to place the controller in manual mode by
calculating how much the controller output will jump due to the new proportional and derivative
settings, and subtracting an equal quantity from the integral term, so that the sum of the three
terms (the controller output) remains unchanged. Similar to bumpless transfer, bumpless tuning
can also be achieved by using a velocity algorithm.

Conclusion :
The basic functions of a P-I-D controller have been explained. Most of the industrial
controllers are P-I-D in nature. The major reasons behind the popularity of P-I-D controller are

31
its simplicity in structure and the applicability to variety of processes. Moreover the controller
can be tuned for a process, even without detailed mathematical model of the process. However,
proper tuning of the controller parameters requires extensive experimentation.
Crudely speaking, the desired closed loop performances, such as fast response, zero steady state
error and less overshoot are achieved through incorporation of P,I and D actions respectively.
But the choice of P-D, P-I or P-I-D structure depends on the type of the process we intend to
control.

Tuning of Controllers:

32
33
The importance of P-I-D controller and the features of P, I and D actions were elaborated in the
last lesson. It was also mentioned that the controller could be easily incorporated in a process,
whatever be the type of a process: linear or nonlinear, having dead time or not. It is needless to
say that the controller parameters influence heavily the performance of the closed loop system.
Again, the choice of the value of the P, I and D parameters is very much process dependent. As a
result, thorough knowledge about the plant dynamics is important for selection of these
parameters. In most of the cases, it is difficult to obtain the exact mathematical model of the
plant. So, we have to rely on the experimentation for finding out the optimum settings of the
controller for a particular process. The process of experimentation for obtaining the optimum
values of the controller parameters with respect to a particular process is known as controller
tuning.
It is needless to say, that controller tuning is very much process dependent and any improper
selection of the controller settings may lead to instability, or deterioration of the performance of
the closed loop system. In 1942 two practicing engineers, J.G. Ziegler and N.B. Nichols, after
carrying out extensive experiments with different types of processes proposed certain tuning
rules, there were readily accepted and till now are used as basic guidelines for tuning of PID
controllers. Subsequently, G.H. Cohen and G.A. Coon in 1953 proposed further modifications of
the above techniques. Still then, the methods are commonly known as Ziegler-Nichols method.
Substantial amount of research has been carried out on tuning of P-I-D controllers since last six
decades. Several other methods have also been proposed. Most of them are model based, i.e. they
assume that the mathematical model of the system is available to the designer. In fact, if the
mathematical model of the system is available, many of them perform better than conventional
Ziegler-Nichols method. But the strength of the ZN method is that it does not require a
mathematical model, but controller parameters can simply be chosen by experimentation. We
would be discussing the three experimental techniques those come under the commonly known
Ziegler-Nichols method.
The closed loop system can be described as shown in Fig. 1.

34
35
Drawbacks
• Time-consuming
▫ If the process dynamics are slow
• The process is pushed to the stability limits
▫ Risk of plant damage
• For first-order and second-order model without
time delays the ultimate gain does not exist
▫ Because the closed-loop system is stable for all values of Kp. However, in practice, it is
Unusual for a control loop not to have an ultimate gain.

36
37
Z-N Open-loop Method

15

38
39
 Controller Design
INTRODUCTION TO PNEUMATIC CONTROL
The word „Pneuma‟ means breath or air . Pneumatics is application of compressed air in
automation. In Pneumatic control, compressed air is used as the working medium, normally at a
pressure from 6 bar to 8 bar. Using Pneumatic Control, maximum force up to 50 kN can be
developed. Actuation of the controls can be manual, Pneumatic or Electrical actuation. Signal
medium such as compressed air at pressure of 1-2 bar can be used [Pilot operated Pneumatics] or
Electrical signals [ D.C or A.C source- 24V – 230V ]can be used [Electro pneumatics]
Characteristics of Compressed Air
The following characteristics of Compressed air speak for the application of Pneumatics

40
ON/OFF action pneumatic controller
FIG. 1 shows a pneumatic furnace control system using a pneumatic ON/OFF controller. In this
case the furnace temperature sensor moves a flap per that controls the air flow from a nozzle.
When the temperature in the furnace reaches its set point the sensor moves the flapper toward the
nozzle to stop the air flow and allow pressure to build up in the bellows. The bellows operates an
air control relay that shuts OFF the air flowing to the control valve turning OFF the fuel to the
furnace. When the temperature in the furnace drops below a set level the flapper is opened by the
sensor, reducing the air pressure in the bellows, which in turn opens the air control valve
allowing the air pressure to drop and the control valve to open, turning ON the fuel to the
furnace.

41
FIG. 1 Pneumatic ON/OFF furnace controller.
Pneumatic Proportional Controller
Consider the pneumatic system shown in Fig 2.24. It consists of several pneumatic components
The components, which can be easily identified, are: flapper nozzle amplifier, air relay, bellows
and springs, feedback arrangement etc. The overall arrangement is known as a pneumatic
proportional controller. It acts as a controller in a pneumatic system generating output pressure
proportional to the displacement e at one end of the link. The input to the system is a small linear
displacement e and the output is pressure Po. The input displacement may be caused by a small
differential pressure to a pair of bellows, or by a small current driving an electromagnetic unit.
There are two springs K2 and Kf those exert forces against the movements of the bellows A2 and
Af. For a positive displacement of e (towards right) will cause decrease of pressure in the flapper
nozzle. This will cause an upward movement of the bellows A2 (decrease in y). Consequently
the output pressure of the air relay will increase. The increase in output pressure will move the
free end of the feedback bellows towards left, bringing in the gap between the flapper and nozzle
to almost its original value. We will first develop the closed loop representation of the scheme
and from there the input output relationship will be worked out. The air is assumed to be
impressible here.

42
Pneumatic PID Controller
Many pneumatic PID controllers use the force-balance principle. One or more input signals (in
the form of pneumatic pressures) exert a force on a beam by acting through diaphragms, bellows,
and/or bourdon tubes, which is then counter-acted by the force exerted on the same beam by an
output air pressure acting through a diaphragm, bellows, or bourdon tube. The self-balancing
mechanical system “tries” to keep the beam motionless through an exact balancing of forces, the
beam‟s position precisely detected by a nozzle/baffle mechanism.

43
The action of this particular controller is direct, since an increase in process variable signal
(pressure) results in an increase in output signal (pressure). Increasing process variable (PV)
pressure attempts to push the right-hand end of the beam up, causing the baffle to approach the
nozzle. This blockage of the nozzle causes the nozzle’s pneumatic backpressure to increase, thus
increasing the amount of force applied by the output feedback bellows on the left- hand end of
the beam and returning the flapper (very nearly) to its original position. If we wished to reverse
the controller’s action, all we would need to do is swap the pneumatic signal connections
between the input bellows, so that the PV pressure was applied to the upper bellows and the SP
pressure to the lower bellows. Any factor influencing the ratio of input pressure(s) to output
pressure may be exploited as a gain (proportional band) adjustment in this mechanism. Changing
bellows area (either both the PV and SP bellows equally, or the output bellows by itself) would
influence this ratio, as would a change in output bellows position (such that it pressed against the
beam at some difference distance from the fulcrum point). Moving the fulcrum left or right is
also an option for gain control, and in fact is usually the most convenient to engineer.
Derivative and integral actions
Interestingly enough, derivative (rate) and integral (reset) control modes are relatively easy to
add to this pneumatic controller mechanism. To add derivative control action, all we need to do
is place a restrictor valve between the nozzle tube and the output feedback bellows, causing the
bellows to delay filling or emptying its air pressure over time:

44
 Fig 2.26 Proportional + Derivative Controllers
If any sudden change occurs in PV or SP, the output pressure will saturate before the output
bellows has the opportunity to equalize in pressure with the output signal tube. Thus, the output
pressure “spikes” with any sudden “step change” in input: exactly what we would expect with
derivative control action.
If either the PV or the SP ramps over time, the output signal will ramp in direct proportion
(proportional action), but there will also be an added offset of pressure at the output signal in
order to keep air flowing either in or out of the output bellows at a constant rate to generate the
force necessary to balance the changing input signal. Thus, derivative action causes the output
pressure to shift either up or down (depending on the direction of input change) more than it
would with just proportional action alone in response to a ramping input: exactly what we would
expect from a controller with both proportional and derivative control actions.

Integral action requires the addition of a second bellows (a “reset” bellows, positioned opposite
the output feedback bellows) and another restrictor valve to the mechanism

45
Fig 2.27 Proportional + Derivative + Integral
This second bellows takes air pressure from the output line and translates it into force that
opposes the original feedback bellows. At first, this may seem counter-productive, for it nullifies
the ability of this mechanism to continuously balance the force generated by the PV and SP
bellows. Indeed, it would render the force-balance system completely ineffectual if this new
“reset” bellows were allowed to inflate and deflate with no time lag. However, with a time lag
provided by the restriction of the integral adjustment valve and the volume of the bellows (a sort
of pneumatic “RC time constant”), the nullifying force of this bellows becomes delayed over
time. As this bellows slowly fills (or empties) with pressurized air from the nozzle, the change in
force on the beam causes the regular output bellows to have to “stay ahead” of the reset bellows
action by constantly filling (or emptying) at some rate over time.

46
Pneumatic Integral Controller

Fig 2.28 Pneumatic Integral controllers

Here, the PV and SP air pressure signals differ by 3 PSI, causing the force-balance mechanism to
instantly respond with a 3 PSI output pressure to the feedback bellows (assuming a central
fulcrum location, giving a controller gain of 1). The reset (integral) valve has been completely
shut off to begin our analysis The result of these two bellows‟ opposing forces (one
instantaneous, one time-delayed) is that the lower bellows must always stay 3 PSI ahead of the
upper bellows in order to maintain a force-balanced condition with the two input bellows whose
pressures differ by 3 PSI. This creates a constant 3 PSI differential pressure across the reset
restriction valve, resulting in a constant flow of air into the reset bellows at a rate determined by
that pressure drop and the opening of the restrictor valve. Eventually this will cause the output
pressure to saturate at maximum, but until then the practical importance of this rising pressure
action is that the mechanism now exhibits integral control response to the constant error between
PV and SP

47
 Fig 2.29 Integral Control Action
The greater the difference in pressures between PV and SP (i.e. the greater the error), the more
pressure drop will develop across the reset restriction valve, causing the reset bellows to fill (or
empty, depending on the sign of the error) with compressed air at a faster rate2, causing the
output pressure to change at a faster rate. Thus, we see in this mechanism the defining nature of
integral control action: that the magnitude of the error determines the velocity of the output
signal (its rate of change over time, or dm/dt ). The rate of integration may be finely adjusted by
changing the opening of the restrictor valve, or adjusted in large steps by connecting capacity
tanks to the reset bellows to greatly increase its effective volume.

48
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC CONTROLLERS

A controller is a comparative device that receives an input signal from a measured process
variable, compares this value with that of a predetermined control point value (set point), and
determines the appropriate amount of output signal required by the final control element to
provide corrective action within a control loop. An Electronic Controller uses electrical signals to
perform its receptive, comparative and corrective functions.

Two Position controller using OPAMP

Fig. 2.30 represents the OPAMP implementation of ON/OFF controller with adjustable neutral
zone.

Fig 2.30 A two position controller with neutral zone made from op amps and a Comparator

Assume that, if the controller input voltage, Vin reaches a value VH then the comparator output
should go to the ON state, which is defined as some voltage V0. When the input voltage falls
bellow a value VL the comparator output should switch to the OFF state, which is defined as 0
V. This defines a two position controller with a neutral zone of NZ = VH - VL as shown in the
Fig. 2.31

Fig. 2.31. Two position controller response in terms of voltages

Assume that, in the beginning, the comparator is in the OFF state. i.e. the voltage, V1 at the input
of the comparator is less than the setpoint voltage, Vsp. Hence,
Vout = 0 (2.17)
The comparator output switches states when the voltage on its input, V1 is equal to the set point
value Vsp Analyzing this circuit,

49
As mentioned before, Fig 2.31 shows typical two position relationship between input and output
voltage for the circuit. The width of the neutral zone between VL and VH can be adjusted by
variation of R2. The relative location of the neutral zone is calculated from the difference
between the equations (2.19) and (2.23).
The inverter resistance value in Fig. 2.30 can be chosen as any convenient value. Typically it is
in the 1 to 100 K Ω range.

Three position Controllers

Fig. 2.32 shows how a simple three position controller can be realized with op amps and
comparators.

50
 Fig 2.32 Three Position Controller
Fig. 2.32 A three position controller using two comparators and op amps Assume that, the output
of the comparators is 0 V for the OFF state and V0 volts for the ON state. The summing
amplifier also includes a bias voltage input, VB which allows the three position mode response
to be biased up or down in voltage to suit particular needs. The inverter is needed to convert the
sign of the inverting action of the summing amplifier.
When Vin < VSP1 , Comparator C1 is OFF, C2 is OFF (Because VSP1< VSP2) Outputs of both
comparators are 0 V. Thus, Vout = VB
When VSP1 < Vin< VSP2 , Comparator C1 is OFF, C2 is ON Outputs of comparator

51
Proportional Mode
Implementation of this mode requires a circuit that has the response given by:
P = Kpep + P0 (2.24)
Where P = controller output 0 – 100 %
Kp = Proportional gain
ep = error in percent of variable range
P0 = Controller output with no error

Implementation of P – Mode controller using OPAMP

If both the controller output and error expressed in terms of voltage, then the above Eq. 2.24 is a
summing amplifier. F ig.2.34 shows such an electronic proportional controller.

Fig.2.34. An op amp proportional mode controller

Now, the analog electronic equation for the output voltage is:
Vout = GpVe + V0 (2.25)
Where, Vout = output voltage
Gp = R2/R1 = gain
Ve = Error voltage
V0 = output with zero error
To use the circuit of Fig.2.34 for proportional mode, a relationship must be established with the
characteristics of the mode, defined already, in chapter 1. In Eq. 2.35, the error is expressed as
the percent of measurement range, and the output is simply 0 % to 100%.
Yet Fig. 2.34 deals with voltage on both the input and output. Thus, first identify that the output
voltage range of the circuit, whatever it is, represents a swing of 0% to 100%. Thus, if a final
control element needs 0 to 5 V, then a Zener is added as shown in the Fig.2.35 so that the op amp
output can swing only between 0 and 5V.

Fig.2.35. A zener diode used to clamp the output swing of an op amp controller

52
Integral Mode
The general representation of integral controller is

If KI is made too large, the output rises so fast that overshoots of the optimum setting occur and
cycling is produced.

Derivative mode
The derivative mode is never used alone because it cannot provide a controller output when the
error is zero or constant. The control mode equation is given by

53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
Discrete PID Controller

64