APPLIED CHEMISTRY

STUDY MATERIAL

FOR THE STUDENTS OF I/II SEM. B.E.

(BIT AUTONOMOUS SCHEME - 2024)
For CS, AIML, DS, IC and IS Branches

Dr. N. Suresha.
M.Sc., B.Ed., M.Phil., Ph.D.
Department of Chemistry
Bangalore Institute of Technology, B`lore
 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

Module-III
Materials for Memory and Display Systems
Syllabus
[Memory Devices: Introduction, Classification of electronic memory devices – based on materials used and data
storage.

Organic Semiconducting materials: Introduction, properties, advantages and applications of Photoactive materials
– poly (3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and Electroactive materials; Poly (9-vinylcarbazole) (PVK). Properties and
applications of pentacene (p-type) and perfluoropenetacene (n-type) molecules. Properties and applications of
triphenylamine (donor type) and phthalimide (acceptor type) molecules.

Conducting Polymers: Introduction, synthesis of Polyacetylene. Mechanism of conduction in polyacetylene.

Biodegradable Polymer: Synthesis, properties and applications of polylactic acid (PLA).

Display Systems: Optoelectronic devices – working principle – conversion of light energy to electrical energy (Si
based solar cell), conversion of electrical energy to light energy (organic molecule based LED). Liquid crystals
(LC’s) - introduction, classification, properties and applications of Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD’s). Working
principle of LCD. Working principle, properties and application of Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED’s) and
Quantum Dot Light Emitting Diodes (QLED’s)].

Memory Devices:

An electronic memory device is a form of semiconductor storage which is fast in response and
compact in size. It is a piece of hardware used to store data. Most electronic devices such as
computers, mobile phones, tablets, etc., have a storage device that stores data and/or programs.

In order to achieve a greater density of data storage and faster access to information, more
components are deliberately packed onto a single chip. To improve the performance of electronic
gadget, capacity of data storage device needs to be improved. The feature size of memory device
has decreased from 130 nm in the year 2000 to 32 nm at present. Reduction in the size of memory
devices below certain level increases power consumption and leads to heat generation. Silicon-
based memory technologies cannot satisfy the requirements for information storage due their
power consumption, unwanted heat generation and less stability below 22nm. Organic and
polymer electronic memory devices have appeared in new data storage technologies as they
possess good processability, low-power operation, more stability, no heat generation, miniaturized
dimensions and large capacity for data storage.

The advantages of organic and polymer electronic memory devices include;

i. They can be processed easily and their production cost is low.

ii. Their dimension can be miniaturized.
iii. They consume less power.
iv. They can be staked in 3D and store large amount of data.

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

Classification of electronic memory devices – based on data storage: The electronic memory
can be classified as follows

Volatile memory: It loses the stored data eventually when the power is switched off. It needs to
be refreshed periodically. Ex. RAM, DRAM, SRAM, etc.
Non-volatile memory: It retains the data even in the event of power failure. Ex. ROM, WORM,
PROM, EPROM, etc.
Primary memory: It is the main internal memory of electronic gadget like computer, laptop, etc,
and can be directly accessed by the processor. It is integral part of the device and its storage
capacity is limited. There are two types of primary memory:

1. Random Access Memory(RAM)

2. Read-Only memory(ROM)

1. Random-access memory (RAM): It is a read/write memory used to store data which is

directly accessible by the CPU. It is volatile as the data stored in RAM is lost when the power
is turned off.There are two types of RAM:

i. Static RAM (SRAM): It is a type of volatile memory and needs to be periodically

refreshed. It uses transistors to directly store data, making it faster but also more power-
intensive and less dense than DRAM. A common example is the memory used in CPU
caches.
ii. Dynamic RAM (DRAM): It is also a type of volatile memory uses capacitors and
transistors to store the data. Due to the discharge of capacitors, they need to be
periodically refreshed otherwise data will lost. Due its high density and fast responding
performance it is being used as a main memory for most computers.

2. Read-only memory (ROM): It is the data or program stored by the manufacturer during
fabrication. It allows read-only operations and is non-volatile. Therefore the data stored on it is
not lost even when the power is switched off. Data stored on ROM cannot be altered or
programmed after fabrication. There are four types of ROM:
i. WROM: It is write once read multiple memory. Once the data is written on it, cannot be
altered. It is used to store data for long period of time.
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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

ii. PROM - Programmable ROM: It can only be programmed once by the user. It is not
erasable.
iii. EPROM - Erasable programmable ROM: It is a memory device whose content can be
erased by exposing it to UV light. It allows users to write new data on it after erasing.
iv. EEPROM - Electrically Erasable and Programmable ROM: The content on EEPROM
can be programmed and erased electrically.

Secondary memory: It is the external memory and is not directly accessible by the processor. To
access the data from this device, it needs to be connected to the system. It is a non-volatile
memory so the data is retained even in the event of power failure. It can store large amount of
data when compared to main memory. Some common examples of secondary memory include:
i. Hard disk drives (HDD): It is a non-volatile magnetic storage device that uses
mechanical platters to store data and a moving read/write head to access data.
ii. Solid-state drive (SSD): It is a non-volatile storage device used to store data. It is better
than hard disks as it doesn’t contain any moving components. Thus they are faster,
consume less power and do not produce noise during operation.
iii. Optical disks: It uses optical storage techniques and technology to read and write data.
The most commonly used forms of optical disk are:
i. CD-ROM - Compact Disc Read-Only Memory: It is an optical disk containing
audio, video or data added by a manufacturer. Computers can only read but not write
or alter the contents of a CD-ROM.
ii. CD-RW - Compact Disk Re-Writable: It is an erasable disc that can be reused.
The data on a CD-RW can be erased and recorded over again.
iv. USB flash drive: It is a data storage device that includes a flash memory and an integrated
Universal Serial Bus (USB) interface. Most USB flash drives are removable, rewritable
and smaller than optical disks. They store data depending on storage capacity like 2GB,
4GB, 8GB, 32GB, 64GB and 128 GB.
v. SD card: It is also known as Secure Digital Card. It is a small flash memory card designed
to provide high capacity memory in a small size.
vi. Magnetic tape: It is a medium for magnetic storage made up of a thin, magnetizable
coating on a long narrow strip of plastic film. It was widely used before CDs and DVDs
were introduced.
vii. Floppy disk: It is a storage medium made of a thin and flexible magnetic storage medium
in a square plastic enclosure lined with a fabric that removes dust particles from the
spinning disk.

Classification of memory devices based on device structure: Electronic memory devices can
be classified into the following types based on device structure.

1. Transistor-Type Electronic Memory

2. Capacitor-Type Electronic Memory
3. Resistor-Type Electronic Memory

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

4. Charge Transfer Effect type

1. Transistor-Type Electronic Memory:

A transistor type semiconducting electronic memory device contains a fine electronic circuit
including transistor and capacitor. They have become the nerve cells of the information system.

Inorganic transistors have been widely used in conventional semiconductor memory devices. But
in recent years, organic transistors also have great potential for memory applications due to their
integrated structure, lightweight and flexible device design. It is composed of source, drain, gate
electrodes, a dielectric insulator layer and an active semiconductor layer. Source and drain
electrodes are fabricated on semiconductor layer. An electrical signal applied to the base (gate)
influences the semiconductor material’s ability to accumulate charge carriers (electrons or holes)
at the interface between the organic semiconductor and the dielectric layer. This accumulated
charge forms a conductive channel responsible for data storage. The charge carriers flow between
the emitter (source) and collector (drain).The electrodes can be Au, Pt, or other metals. Among
the many possible memory devices, organic field-effect transistor (OFET) memory is an emerging
technology with the potential of light weight, low-cost, flexible charge storage media. An OFET
memory device consists of at least one polymeric material either in its dielectric insulator layer or
active semiconductor layer or both. These devices can be either static (SRAM) or dynamic
(DRAM).

2. Capacitor-Type Electronic Memory:

Capacitors can store data between two parallel plate electrodes under the influence of an applied
electric field. Charge generation (polarization) between the electrodes by the applied electric field
is responsible for data storage. If the material used between the electrodes is ferroelectric in
nature, a permanent electric polarization can be maintained and longer retention time can be
achieved i.e. data retains for long period of time. Thus, memory based on ferroelectric capacitors
(FeRAM) is non-volatile memory.

Capacitors containing organic and polymeric ferroelectric materials can be used in DRAM and
FeRAM applications. FeRAM structures, including 1T1C (T – transistor, C – capacitor), 2T2C,
1T2C and others, have been developed. The simplest DRAM and FeRAM cells have similar
structures, both utilizing 1T1C (Shown in fig a) as the building components. The upper electrode

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

of the capacitor is made of Pt, Ir, Ru, and the lower electrode is Pt/Ti. Tin is used to interconnect
between the access transistor and the storage node of the capacitor.

[Note: A Word Line provides current to select which row of bits is to be read or written. The Bit
Line either reads the bit on that Word Line or it allows a current applied to the Bit Line to
program the bit]

3. Resistor-Type Electronic Memory:

Devices incorporating switchable resistive materials are generally classified as resistor-type

memory, or resistive random-access memory (RRAM). RRAM is a type of non-volatile random-
access (RAM) memory that works by changing the resistance across a dielectric solid-state
material typically a metal oxide layer — placed between two electrodes. The resistance change
allows the device to store information. These are often referred to as mersisters. The mersister can
be in one of two states: a high-resistance state (HRS, off) or a low-resistance state (LRS, on).

Resistor-type electronic memory has a simple structure with an organic/polymer/metal oxide thin
film sandwiched between two electrodes on a glass/silicon wafer/plastic. The top and bottom
electrodes can be aluminum, gold, copper, p- or n-doped silicon, and ITO. The application of
positive potential on top electrode creates a conductive filament, a low-resistance state (LRS). A
reverse voltage breaks the filament, to a high-resistance state (HRS). Once the mersister is
switched to either HRS or LRS, it retains that resistance value even when the power is turned off,
making it a non-volatile memory.

The basic configuration of resistor type memory device is shown in figure

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

4. Charge Transfer Effects type:

A charge transfer (CT) complex is defined as an electron donor–acceptor (D–A) complex, formed
by the electronic transition to excited state in which a partial charge transfer occurs from the
donor moiety to the acceptor moiety. The conductivity of this CT complex is dependent on the
ionic binding between the D–A components. As illustrated in below figure-

i. If the donor has small size and low ionization potential, a strongly ionic salt forms and a
complete transfer of charge (with the CT degree value, δ > 0.7) occurs from the donor to
the acceptor, making the ionic salt insulating.
ii. If the donor is very large and has a high ionization potential, a neutral molecular solid (δ <
0.4) forms, which is also insulating.
iii. If the donor has intermediate size and moderate ionization potential, it tends to form a
weakly ionic salt with the acceptor, which possess incomplete charge transfer (0.4 < δ <
0.7) and is potentially conductive.

The formation of such a conductive CT complex (stores data) is employed to design electronic
memory devices.

Many organic CT systems, including organo-metallic complexes, carbon allotrope (fullerene,

carbon nanotubes and graphene)-based polymer complexes, gold nanoparticle–polymer
complexes etc., have been explored for memory applications.

Organic Semiconducting materials:

These are the compounds primarily composed of carbon and other elements, exhibiting
semiconducting properties. They are gaining popularity in various applications, particularly in
electronics and optoelectronics, due to their unique characteristics.

Types of Organic Semiconductors;

1. Small Molecules: These include organic compounds with low molecular weight, often
used in devices like organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) and organic solar cells.
2. Polymers: Larger macromolecules that can be processed easily into films. Common
examples include polythiophenes and poly (phenylenevinylene).

Photoactive materials:
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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

Photoactive materials are the materials that have the ability to interact with the light radiations
and produce chemical transformations. Ex. elemental semiconductors like silicon, complex
compounds like CdTe or GaAs, metal oxides like TiO2 and ZnO, liquid crystals, etc, are well
known photoactive materials.

Principle: When the photoactive material is irradiated with light having energy equal or higher
the material band gap, it generates electrical current due to the jump of electrons from the valence
band to the conduction band. The photo-generated electrons and holes are exploited in a different
way for applications like acceleration of chemical reactions, degradation of pollutants in gas and
liquid phase, decomposition of contaminants, etc.

Poly (3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT): It is a poly-alkyl-thiophene based donor type semiconducting

polymer. It is used in organic electronics primarily because of its regular end-to-end arrangement
of side chain. It is hydrophobic at neutral state and has π-π conjugation in its backbone. It has a
hole mobility in the range of 10-3-10-1 cm2V-1s-1.

Properties: Following are the properties of P3HT favorable for optoelectronic devices

 Electrical Properties: P3HT has an efficient inter chain p-stacking of the conjugated
backbones allows for the optimum transport of positive charge carriers (holes), making it
effective for transporting holes (positive charge carriers) in electronic devices.
 Optical Properties: It has a strong absorption in the visible spectrum, making it suitable
for light-harvesting applications. Its band gap is around 1.9 eV, allowing it to absorb a
significant amount of sunlight.
 Stability: It has high environmental stability, high capacitance, low cost,
high conductivity, excellent mechanical stability, high thermal and chemical stability.
 Field effect: It exhibits high field-effect mobility up to 0.012 cm2/V/s.

Applications:

 Organic Photo voltaics (OPVs): P3HT is commonly used as the donor material in bulk
hetero junction solar cells, often blended with acceptor materials like fullerene derivatives.
This combination allows for efficient exciton generation and charge separation.
 Organic Field-Effect Transistors (OFETs): P3HT can be used as the active layer in
OFETs, demonstrating decent mobility and stability, making it suitable for low-cost,
flexible electronic devices.
 Organic Light-Emitting Diodes (OLEDs): Although not as common as other materials,
P3HT can also be employed in certain types of OLEDs due to its luminescent properties.

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

Electroactive materials:
Electroactive materials are the materials which exhibit a change in size or shape when
stimulated by an electric field. Ex. Ferroelectric polymers, liquid crystalline polymers, ionic
polymer-metal composite, etc. They possess unique properties such as high mechanical flexibility,
low density, structural simplicity and low cost. These materials change reversibly their volume,
optical, mechanical and other properties by very small alterations in the applied electric field.
Principle: When electric field is applied through an organic light-emitting diode containing a
thin-film semiconducting polymer sandwiched between two electrodes (anode and cathode).
electrons and holes are injected from the electrodes. The recombination of 1 electron and 1 hole
results in the release of a photon which is emitted in form of light.

Poly [9-vinylcarbazole] (PVK): It is a organic semiconducting material consisting of linear

chains of repeated molecular units (CH2-CH)n with pendant 9H-carbazole side groups. It is a well-
known p-type thermoplastic π-conjugated semiconducting polymer. It is an efficient hole
transport material (HTM) and hence used as a main basis in electronic and optical material
devices like light emitting diodes. PVK can be used at temperatures of up to 160 - 170 °C and is
therefore a temperature-resistant thermoplastic polymer. The electrical conductivity changes
depending on the illumination. For this reason, PVK is classified as
a semiconductor or photoconductor. It is resistant to acids, alkalis, polar solvents and aliphatic
hydrocarbons.

Properties: Following are the properties of PVK favorable for optoelectronic devices:

 Electrical Properties: PVK has good hole mobility, making it effective for transporting
positive charge carriers in devices. Its energy levels can be tuned by modifying the
molecular structure, allowing for optimized performance in electronic applications.
 Optical Properties: PVK exhibits strong photoluminescence, with a characteristic
emission in the blue to green range, making it suitable for applications requiring light
emission.
 Proccessability: PVK film is hydrophobic, thermally stable with a relatively high glass
transition temperature (Tg = 200 °C) and can be easily deposited without any doping and
post treatments.
 Stability: It has long-term stability in air as well as good photochemical and thermal
stability.

Applications:

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

 Organic Light-Emitting Diodes (OLEDs):PVK is commonly used as a hole transport

layer (HTL) in OLEDs, improving the efficiency of light emission by facilitating the
movement of holes toward the emissive layer.
 Organic Photovoltaics (OPVs): In OPVs, PVK can function as a hole transport material,
enhancing charge separation and collection at the electrode interface.
 Photodetectors: PVK's sensitivity to light makes it suitable for use in photodetection
applications, where it can help convert light into electrical signals

Pentacene (p-type):
Pentacene (C22H14) is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon consisting of five linearly-fused benzene
rings. It is one of the most commonly studied conjugated organic molecules since its hole
mobility i.e., p-type semiconductor nature in which holes are the majority carriers.

When an electric field is applied, it generates excitons and exhibits high field-effect mobility. The
planar shape of pentacene facilitates easy crystal packing and the π-system extends over
pentacene molecules, enabling the intermolecular overlapping.

Properties:

 It has monoclinic crystal structure with strong π-π stacking, enhancing charge transfer
ability.
 It is primarily a p-type (hole transport) material due to its low ionization energy (~5.0–5.3
eV).
 It has a charge carrier mobility of 1 cm²/V·s in high-quality films, making it suitable for
organic field-effect transistors (OFETs).
 It has strong absorption in the visible range (~600-700 nm), making it useful in organic
photovoltaics (OPVs).

Applications:

 It is used in Organic Field-Effect Transistors (OFETs) due to its high mobility (~1-3
cm²/V·s) and low operating voltage.
 It is used in Organic Photo Voltaics (OPVs) due to its strong visible absorption (~600-700
nm) and power conversion efficiency typically around 2-5%.
 It is used in light weight, flexible solar cells for wearable, IoT, and space applications.
 It is used in gas and chemical sensors due to surface sensitivity.
 It finds limited usage in Organic Light-Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) due to weak
fluorescence.

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

Perfluoropentacene (n-type):

Perfluoropentacene is a well-known n-type organic semiconductor in which electrons are the

majority carriers. It can be obtained by the fluorination of pentacene. Introduction of fluorine
atoms enhances electron density on the structure and possess high electron field-effect mobility.

Properties:

 It has a band gap of 1.7–1.9 eV (narrower than pentacene)

 It is a n-type (electron transport) material due to strong electron affinity (5.6 eV).
 It has electron mobility up to 0.1–1 cm²/V·s in thin films, making it suitable for logic
circuits when paired with p-type semiconductors like pentacene.
 It has strong absorption in the visible range (550–700 nm), suitable for organic
photovoltaics (OPVs).
 It forms charge-transfer complex type memory device when paired with pentacene.
 It is more stable than pentacene in air due to fluorination, which reduces oxidation and
degradation.

Applications: PFP has several important applications, including:

 Organic Field-Effect Transistors: PFP exhibits high charge carrier mobility and
stability, making it suitable for use in organic electronics, including flexible and printed
circuits.
 Organic Photovoltaics: Its strong electron affinity and stability under ambient conditions
make PFP a potential n-type semiconductor in organic solar cells.
 Organic Light-Emitting Diodes: PFP can be used in OLEDs as a charge transport or
emissive material.
 Thin-Film Transistors: The stability and strong π-π stacking interactions in PFP make it
suitable for thin-film electronics

Triphenylamine (donor type):

Triphenylamine (TPA) is an organic compound consisting of a nitrogen atom bonded to three
phenyl groups. It is widely used in organic electronics and materials science due to its strong
electron-donating ability, good thermal stability, and high hole-transporting properties.

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

Properties:

 It has a π-conjugation structure with phenyl rings enhancing its charge mobility.
 It acts as an excellent electron donor material in charge transfer complexes and
optoelectronic devices.
 It has high thermal and oxidative stability, making it suitable for long-term applications.
 Exhibits strong fluorescence, making it useful in OLEDs and sensors.
 It has high glass transition temperature ensures stability in OLEDs and solar cells.

Applications: Due to its strong electron-donating ability, good thermal stability, and high hole-
transporting properties.

 It is used in the making of organic light-emitting diodes, solar cells, organic photovoltaics,
organic field-effect transistors and chemical sensors.

Phthalimide (acceptor type):

Phthalimide is a heterocyclic organic composed of a benzene ring (C₆H₄) fused to an imide (-CO-
NH-CO) functional group. It belongs to the imide family, characterized by two carbonyl (C=O)
groups attached to a nitrogen atom. It has highly planar structure with delocalized π-conjugating
system extending over the benzene and imide moieties. This conjugation enhances its electron-
withdrawing nature and influences its optical and electronic properties.

Properties:

 It has planar π-conjugated structure which enhances electron delocalization, making it

useful for charge transport in electronic devices.
 The imide functional group contributes to high thermal and chemical stability, an
essential feature for materials used in electronic devices.
 It exhibits high optical absorption and emission characteristics, making them useful in
photonic applications.
 Due to the presence of electron-withdrawing carbonyl groups, it exhibits good electron-
accepting properties, essential for organic semiconductors
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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

Applications:

 It is used as charge transport material in OLEDs due to its good fluorescence and charge
mobility.
 As an electron acceptor, it is used in donor-acceptor systems to enhance light absorption
and charge separation in solar cells.
 It is used in organic transistors due to its conjugated system and stability.
 It is used as active layers in photodetectors due to its light absorption properties.
Conducting Polymers:
Polymers possess properties which are comparable with those of metals are strength, elasticity,
plasticity, toughness and frictional resistance. The most important advantages polymers over the
metals are lighter weight, greater workability, resistance to corrosion and lower cost. As a result,
these materials have not only replaced metals but have also intervened in our day-to-day life from
most common consumer goods to highly specialized applications in space and aeronautics.
However, one important fundamental property which distinguishes metals from polymers is
electrical conductivity. Metals generally have very high conductivity of the order 10 6 to 108 S/m
(e.g. copper and silver), while for polymers, it is of the order 10-12 S/m (e.g., Teflon and
Polystyrene). This low electrical conductivity makes polymers to use them extensively in making
insulators and dielectric substances.

Conducting polymers have been intensively investigated due to their fundamental physical
properties, chemical properties and their applications in various fields such as electronic devices,
optoelectronic devices, chemical and biological sensors and secondary batteries. The electronic
properties of conducting polymers are of great interest due to their applications such as Diodes,
Transistors, Light Emitting Diodes, Solar cells, Sensors, Photo-detector etc.

In polymer, electrons are localized and do not take part in conduction and also there is a wide
energy gap between valence band and conduction band. This makes polymer exhibit poor
conductivity. But doping can delocalize the electrons responsible for conduction. The insulating
polymer with conjugated backbone consisting of alternative double and single carbon-carbon
bonds, can be converted into a conductor by doping it with either an electron acceptor such as I2,
FeCl3 (oxidative dopant) or an electron donor such as sodium naphthalide (reductive dopant) or a
protonating agent like HCl.

i. Oxidative dopant takes away electrons from the ᴨ-backbone of polymer and creates holes
in the chain.These holes are free to move along c-chain, resulting in the increase of
conductivity of polymer. Ex- Polyacetylene
ii. Reductive dopant donates electrons to ᴨ-backbone of the polymer. These electrons are free
to move along c-chain, resulting in the increase of conductivity of polymer. Ex-
Polyacetylene.
iii. Protonating agent creates positive and negative charges in the polymer chain, resulting in
the increase of conductivity. Ex- Polyaniline.

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Polyacetylene:

Synthesis:

Several methods have been developed to synthesize polyacetylene from pure acetylene and other
monomers. One of the most common methods uses Ziegler–Natta catalyst, such as
Ti(OC3H7)4/Al(C2H5)3, with gaseous acetylene. Acetylene undergoes polymerisation in the
presence of Ziegler-Natta catalyst to give polyacetylene.

Mechanism of conduction in Polyacetylene

The conductivity of polyacetylene is 4.4x10-3 S/m. But the doped polyacetylene shows the
conductivity of 4x104 S/m. When polyacetylene is partially oxidized with an oxidative dopant like
I2 in CCl4, it takes away an electron fromthe ᴨ-backbone of polyacetylene chain producing a free
radical and positive charge (hole). This combination of charge site and free radical is called
polaron. On further oxidation, a bipolaron is formed. This would create new localized electronic
state in the energy gap. If the polyacetylene chain is heavily oxidized, polarons condense pair-
wise to form solitons which merge with the edges of conduction bond (CB) and valence bond
(VB) exhibiting conductivity.

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

Biodegradable Polymer:
Biodegradable polymers are a special class of polymers that breaks down after their intended
purpose is over by bacterial decomposition process to result in natural by-products such as gases
(CO2, N2), water, biomass and inorganic salts. These polymers are available both naturally
and synthetically, largely consist of ester, amide and ether functional groups. They are non-toxic
and capable of maintaining good mechanical integrity until degraded. Therefor there is a
significant increase in the development of biodegradable polymers from agriculture products such
as starch, cellulose, wood, sugar, etc., to reduce their environmental impact. The examples include
Polyglycolic acid (PGA), Polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB), Polycaprolactone (PCL), Nylon-2-nylon-
6 and Polylactic acid (PLA).

Polylactic acid (PLA): PLA is considered as the biodegradable and bio-based thermoplastic
polymer because it is produced from renewable sources. It is made up of lactic acid units, which
are small organic acids similar to those found in many foods like sourdough bread, yogurt, soya
sauce, corn, etc.

Synthesis: PLA can be synthesized by two methods, namely (i) direct condensation of lactic acid
at 200oC and (ii) ring-opening polymerization of lactide in presence of metal catalysts such as tin
octoate by solution polymerization method. The monomer lactic acid is obtained from fermented
plant starch such as corn, sugarcane or sugar beet pulp.

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PLA produced by direct condensation of lactic acid is brittle and achievable molecular weight is
incomplete due to the removal of water. The pure and high molecular weight PLA is produced
in the ring opening polymerization of lactide.

Properties:
 It has excellent mechanical and moulding properties.
 It has favourable physical properties such as transparency (∼91.7%), high elastic modulus
(2222.9 MPa) and high melting temperature (160 – 170 oC).
 It is a bio-degradable, biocompatible and compostable thermoplastic.

Applications:

 PLA is widely used material in biomedical and pharmaceutical fields as controlled drug
release, prosthesis, bone fixation screws, sutures and scaffolds for tissue engineering.
 PLA can be reinforced with carbon fibres to produce bio-composites of high mechanical
strength.
 PLA and its copolymers have been used to replace metal and other non-absorbable
polymers as therapeutic aids in surgery like pins, suture anchors and stents.
 PLA can be used as food packaging material for vegetables, fruits, containers, drinking
cups, ice- cream cups, salad cups etc., because the amount of lactic acid released into food is
much lower than the amount of lactic acid used in common food ingredients.
 It is used in agriculture for making sandbags, planting pots, binding tape and ropes

Display systems:
In recent years, the display technology is more advanced. The organic materials exhibit both
optical and electrical properties similar or superior to inorganic semiconductor materials have
been using in display technology because of their easy processability, synthesis, structure
modifications and low cost. The display systems designed using organic semiconductor materials

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

have several advantages like light in weight, flexible, low cost, good quality image, wide viewing
angle, etc., over the systems constructed using inorganic semiconductor materials.

Optoelectronic devices:
Optoelectronic devices are the special types of semiconductor devices that are able to convert
light energy to electrical energy or electrical energy to light energy. Solid crystalline minerals,
which are heavier than insulators but lighter than metals, are used to make these devices. Ex.
light-emitting diodes (LED), Solar cells, Photodiodes, optical fibers and laser diodes.

Properties:

 They can be easily fabricated.

 They are cost-effective.
 They have the compact size.
 They consume less power.

Working principle: i. when the device converts light energy into electrical energy; Ex
Solar cell.

 When the light (photons) of energy greater than the band gap of the semiconductor is
falls on the solar cell, the energy of the photons gets transferred to the cell.
 Electron-hole pairs are generated near the depletion region of the p-n junction diode.
 These electrons and holes are separated from each other due to the electric field of the
depletion region and do not recombine.
 Electrons move toward the n-side and holes move toward the p-side of the
semiconductor.
 Due to this movement, an emf is observed.
 When an external load is connected to a solar cell, the flow of current can be observed
in the load.

Working principle: ii. When the device converts electrical energy into light energy; Ex
Light Emitting Diode (LED).

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

 LED consists of a heavily doped p-n junction diode and is used in forward bias.
 p-side is rich in holes and the n-side is rich in electrons.
 When current is applied in forward bias, the electrons from the n-side of the diode
move towards the p-side which has holes.
 The combination of 1 electron and 1 hole results in the release of a photon which is
emitted in form of light that we see in LED.

Applications:

1. LEDs are used in indication lights, computer components, medical devices, watches,
instrument panels, switches, fiber-optic communication, consumer electronics, household
appliances, traffic signals.
2. The solar cells are applicable in rural electrification, telecommunication systems, ocean
navigation aids, electric power generation in space and remote monitoring and control
systems.
3. Photodiodes are used in many types of circuits and different applications such as
cameras, medical instruments, safety equipments, communication devices and industrial
equipments
4. Optical fibers are used in telecommunications, sensors, fiber lasers, bio-medicals and in
many other industries.
5. The laser diodes are used in fiber optic communication, optical memories, military
applications, CD players, surgical procedures and Local Area Networks.

Liquid Crystals:
Liquid crystal is a state of matter between highly ordered crystalline and disordered liquid states.
Their properties are between those of conventional liquids and solid crystals. That is, a liquid
crystal may flow like a liquid, but its molecules may be oriented in a crystal-like way.

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

In 1888, Friedrich Reinitzer, Austrian botanist, discovered the liquid crystal. He found that
cholesteryl benzoate on heating to 145.4 °C becomes a cloudy liquid, which on further heating to
178.5 °C turns into a transparent liquid. This phenomenon is reversible, i.e. on cooling, first it
becomes cloudy liquid and then solid at the same temperatures. Thus, cholesteryl benzoate has
two melting points and exists as a liquid crystal between 145.4 °C and 178.5 °C.

In crystalline state, not only do the molecules occupy specific positions but also tend to orient in
a preferred direction. Thus the molecules have both positional and orientational order.

In liquid state, the molecules neither occupy specific positions nor are oriented in any particular
direction. The molecules are free to move at random and collide with one another abruptly
changing their positions thus losing both positional and orientational order.

In liquid crystal state, the molecules are free to move but are oriented in a particular manner.
Thus the molecules have no positional order but retain some orientational order.

Liquid crystals exhibit optical anisotropy, i.e. they show different optical properties when light
incident in different directions. This makes the liquid crystals to find applications in the field of
electrical and electronics.

Classification of liquid crystals: Liquid crystals are classified as follows.

1. Thermotropic liquid crystals: Compounds that have liquid crystal behaviour with the
variation of temperature alone are called thermotropic LCs. Ex. Cholesteryl benzoate (145.5
– 178.5 oC), p-Azoxyphenetole (137 – 167 oC), p-Azoxyanisole (116 – 135 oC), etc.

Thermotropic LCs can be further classified into four categories.

i. Nematic LCs: Nematic liquid crystals haveelongated, rod-like shape and molecules are
arranged in parallel chains. They have orientational order but no positional order. In
Nematic LCs, the molecules are aligned in a single direction resulting in a non-layered
structure. Ex. p-Azoxyanisole.
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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

ii. Cholesteric LCs: Cholesteric crystals haveelongated shape and the molecules are
arranged in such a way that they form a helical structure. They are also called as twisted
nematic LCs. Ex. Cholesteryl benzoate.
iii. Smectic LCs: Smectic LCs are also haveelongated, rod-like shape but the molecules
are arranged in layers. They have a small orientational order and also positional order.
Ex. Terephthalylidene-bis-4-n-butylamine.
iv. Discotic LCS: Discotic LCs have disc-like or plate-like structures. They have
orientational order but no positional order. In discotic LCs, most molecules tend to
position themselves in columns arranged in hexagonal lattice. The arrangement
resembles stacked coins. Ex. Benzene-hexa-n-alkanoate.

2. Lyotropic liquid crystal: Compounds that show liquid crystal behaviour with the variation
of concentration and temperature are called lyotropic LCs. They contain a lyophilic end and
lyophobic end, that is, they are amphiphilic in nature.

They can be prepared by mixing a compound containing both lyophilic and lyophobic ends in a
solvent and increasing the concentration of compound till liquid crystal phase is observed. Ex.
Soap-water mixture, Phospholipid-water mixture, etc.

Opto-electric properties of liquid crystals:

Optical property: The molecules in liquid crystals are oriented in preferred direction. This is
called orientational order. Because of this preferred orientation, when a plane polarised light is
passed through the liquid crystal, the plane of polarised light rotates through certain angle (θ).
The molecule that has the ability to rotate the plane polarised light is called optically active
molecule. Nematic liquid crystals exhibit this property.

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

Liquid crystal is placed between two polarizers (1 & 2). Polarizer-2 is crossed (inclined) with
respect to polarizer-1 through an angle same as the angle of ration of PPL by liquid crystal. The
PPL obtained from polarizer-1 passes through the liquid crystal and gets rotated by an angle (θ)
due to the orientation of molecules in liquid crystal. The rotated PPL passes trough polarizer-2
and emerges out. Hence, the display above polarizer-2 looks brighter.

Electrical Property: When electricity is applied trough the liquid crystal, the preferred
orientation of molecules in LC is lost and they try to orient themselves in the direction of applied
field. As a result, liquid crystal undergoes deformation.

When electric field is applied through the polarizers, the molecules in liquid crystal rearrange
themselves in the direction of applied electric field and the rotation of PPL is also get affected as
shown in below figure. The light passes from polarizer-1 cannot passes through polarizer-2.
Hence, the display above polarizer-2 looks darker.

Thus display appears brighter and darker in absence and presence of electric field respectively.
This type of optical and electrical property of a material is called optoelectronic property. Liquid
crystals exhibit this property and therefore are used in DISPLAY system.

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

Construction and working of LC display:

Construction: A simple numeric display as in calculators, watches, etc., consisting of seven

segments (pixels) which are filled with liquid crystal mixture is placed between bottom and top
glass plates. The electrode patterns are also drawn on glass plates to pass electricity. The distance
between top and bottom glass plats is cell thickness which is usually in the range of 4 to 8 μm.
The seven segments labelled as a, b, c, d, e, f and g are electrically interconnected and controlled
independently to display the ten digits is shown in the below figure.

Working: Case-i: When electricity is applied to only back light source by pressing the “ON”
button on calculator, light passes through polarizer-1 to give plane polarized light (PPL) which
then passes through the liquid crystal wherein, plane of the polarized light get rotates through
certain angle. Then the rotated PPL passes through polarizer-2. As a result, display appears
brighter without displaying any number (fig.-1).

Case-ii: Depending on the application of electric field to the segments a, b, c, d, e, f and g and
also to the back light source, corresponding digit can be seen on the display. For example, if
electricity is applied to the segments a, b, d, e and f, by pressing the button “2” on calculator, the
liquid crystal molecules in these segments align to the applied field and change the rotation angle
of light and prevent the passing of light through polarizer-2. Hence, the segments a, b, d, e and f
looks darker and digit “2” can be seen on display. Meanwhile, since the electricity is not applied
to the segments c and g, PPL gets rotate through certain angle by liquid crystal which then passes
out of polarizer-2. Hence, segments c and g looks brighter. Therefore, digit “2” can be seen on
display (fig.-2).

Similarly, by applying electricity to the segments a, b, c, d, e, digit 3 can be seen on display. By

applying electricity to the segments b, c, digit 1 can be seen on display. If electricity is applied to
all the segments, number 8 will be shown.

Properties:

 Liquid crystals can flow like liquids due to the loss of positional order.
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 Liquid crystals are optical anisotropic due to their orientational order.

 Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, instead, use a backlight or reflector to produce
images in colour or monochrome.
 LCDs can easily be made into different shapes using liquid crystals, have a lower response
time, infinite colour contrast and wide viewing angles, lower weight and potentially lower
power consumption.

Applications:

 LCs are used in a wide range of applications, including LCD televisions, computer
monitors, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, etc.
 They are commonly used in LCD projectors and portable consumer devices such
as digital cameras, watches, calculators and mobile telephones.
 They are used in pH meters, conductometers, colorimeters, thermometers, traffic signals.
etc.

Organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs):

In recent years, the display industry has progressed rapidly. One of the most important
developments is the ability to build flexible, transparent and very thin displays for electronic
gadgets. This led the researchers to find OLEDs.

“Organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) are monolithic devices consist of a series of organic thin
films sandwiched between two thin-film conductive electrodes that emits light under the influence
of an electrical field”.

Working of OLEDs:

 Substrate – Foundation of the OLED, can be plastic, glass or metal foil.

 Cathode - Negatively charged particles transfer from cathode to EML with the help of
ETL.
 Electron Injection layer (EIL) - It receives electrons from the cathode and injects them
deeper into the device.
 Electron Transport Layer (ETL) – Supports the transport of electrons across it so that
they can reach the emissive layer.
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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

 Anode – Positively charged particles transfer from anode to EML with the help of HTL.
 Hole Injection Layer (HIL) – It receives holes from the anode and injects them deeper
into the device.
 Hole Transport Layer (HTL) – This layer supports the transport of holes across it so that
they can reach the emissive layer.
 Emissive Layer (EML) – It converts electrical energy into light energy. It is the heart of
the device where electron and hole recombine to form excitons having high energy. These
excitons falls to lower energy by emitting light (electroluminescence).

Properties of OLEDs: OLEDs exhibits the properties of self-emission, great image quality,
bright colors, very high contrast, wide viewing angle, fast response time, simple structure and low
power consumption.

Applications of OLEDs:The organic light-emitting diode (OLED) is one of the most promising
technologies for display and lighting applications compared with existing liquid crystal display
(LCD) technology.

OLEDs are used to create digital displays in devices such as television screens, computer
monitors and portable systems such as smart phones, tablets, light panels and handheld game
consoles.

Quantum dot light emitting diodes (QLEDs):

QLEDs are a new form of light emitting technology based on nanoparticles and their structures
are similar to the OLED technology. In this technology, a layer of quantum dots is placed between
electron and hole-transporting layers to form a sandwiched structure. Electrons and holes are
accumulated in the quantum dot layer by an applied electric field. Then, they will recombine and
emit light. This technology is a novel innovation to help the display industry. They are
recognized as great alternatives to organic light-emitting diodes due to their enhanced
performances.

“Quantum dot light emitting diodes (QLEDs) are devices consist of a nano-scale crystals
sandwiched between two thin-film conductive electrodes that emits light under the influence of an
electrical field”.

Working principle in QLEDs: The emission mechanism of QLED is similar to OLED. In

QLED, the emitter is a semiconductor nanoparticle, while in the OLED, the emitter is an organic
material.

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -3: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., B.Ed,. M.Phil., Ph.D. BIT, B`lore

In QLED, a layer of cadmium-selenium quantum dots is sandwiched between inorganic electron-

transporting (ETL) and hole-transporting (HTL) layers. When electric field is applied, electrons
are injected from cathode and move to QDs (EML) through ETL. Holes are injected from anode
and move to QDs (EML) through HTL. Electrons and holes captured in the quantum dots are
recombine to form excitons having high energy. These excitons falls to lower energy by emitting
light (electroluminescence).

Note: In a typical QLED, ZnO nanoparticles with high electrical conductivity are used in the
electron transport layer and V2O5 nanoparticles are in the hole transport layer. Colloidal
CdSe/ZnS (quantum dots) have high quantum yield and high photo stability at room temperature,
are used as emitters.

Properties of QLEDs: They are cost-effective, more brightness, more efficient, high color purity
with low power consumption, high quantum yield, low weight, more stable and environmental
friendly.

Applications of QLEDs:

 used to create digital displays in devices such as television screens, computer monitors and
portable systems such as smart phones, tablets and light panels.
 used in phototherapy to treat the skin disorders (psoriasis, skin allergy, wound healing)
and various cancers including skin, head and neck, tongue and breast cancers.
 used in biomedical applications such as, bio-imaging and medical diagnosis.
 used in optoelectronic applications.
 used in the manufacturing of photovoltaic cells.
 used in photo detectors for detecting both infrared and visible light.

Question Bank:

1. Mention

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