Calculus (MATH ZC 233/PE ZC 233)

Session-1

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee

BITS Pilani K K Birla Goa Campus, Goa.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Course Objectives

Explain and apply basics of Calculus using simulation

software such as Matlab.

Apply important methods for solving ordinary and partial

differential equations exactly.

Solve differential equations approximately by numerical

methods.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Text Book

Dennis G. Zill and Warren S. Wright, Advanced Engineering

Mathematics,Sixth Edition, Jones & Bartlett, 2011.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Reference Books

George B. Thomas, Maurice D Weir and Joel Hass,

Thoma’s Calculus, 14th edition, Pearson education, Oxford
University Press, 2010.

Rudra Pratap, Getting Started with MATLAB: A Quick

Introduction for Scientists and Engineers, 2010.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Contents to be covered

One dimensional calculus

Fourier series

Partial derivatives

ODE-Analytical methods

ODE-Numerical methods

PDE-Analytical methods

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Learning Outcomes

At the end of the course, the student will be able to

Apply calculus to solve problems in engineering.

Use graphical simulations to understand problems

encountered in engineering applications.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Real Numbers and the Real Line

The real numbers can be represented geometrically as points

on a number line called the real line.

The symbol R denotes either the real number system or

equivalently, the real line.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Subsets of R

We distinguish three special subsets of real numbers:

The set of natural numbers N = {1, 2, . . . n, . . .}.

The set of integers Z = {0, ±1, ±2, . . . , ±n, . . .}.

The set of rational numbers Q, namely the numbers that

can be expressed in the form of a fraction m
n , where m and
n are integers, and n ̸= 0.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Note

Real numbers that are not rational are called irrational numbers.
√
Example: π, 2, . . .

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Intervals

A subset of the real line is called an interval if it contains at

least two numbers and contains all the real numbers lying
between any two of its elements.

Example: −2 ≤ x ≤ 5.

Intervals of numbers corresponding to line segments are

finite intervals.

Intervals corresponding to rays and the real line are infinite

intervals.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Intervals (contd...)

A finite interval is said to be closed if it contains both of its

endpoints.

Half-open if it contains one endpoint but not the other, and

Open if it contains neither endpoint.

The endpoints are also called boundary points.

The remaining points of the interval are interior points.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Types of intervals

(a, b) = {x : a < x < b}.

[a, b] = {x : a ≤ x ≤ b}.
[a, b) = {x : a ≤ x < b}.
(a, b] = {x : a < x ≤ b}.
The above are called finite intervals.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Types of intervals (contd..)

The following are called infinite intervals.

(a, ∞) = {x : x > a}.

[a, ∞) = {x : x ≥ a}.
(−∞, b) = {x : x < b}.
(−∞, b] = {x : x ≤ b}.
(−∞, ∞) = R

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Absolute Value

The absolute value of a number x, denoted by |x|, is defined by


x, x ≥ 0,
|x| =
−x, x < 0.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Intervals and Absolute Values

If k is any positive number, then

|a| < k ⇔ −k < a < k

and
|a| ≤ k ⇔ −k ≤ a ≤ k .

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Example 1

Solve the inequality |x − 5| < 9.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Solution

|x − 5| < 9 implies that

−9 < x − 5 < 9

this gives

−9 + 5 < x < 9 + 5 ⇒ −4 < x < 14.

The solution set is the open interval (−4, 14).

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Example 2
Solve the inequality
2
5− < 1.
x
Solution:

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Example 3
Solve the inequality
|2x − 3| ≤ 1.
Solution:

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Example 4

Area of a circle A = πr 2 .
The volume V of a ball (solid sphere) of radius r is given by
the function V (r ) = 43 π r 3 .
Area of a rectangle A = L × B.
Average of n objects x1 , x2 , . . . , xn .

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Functions

Functions are the major tools for describing the real world in
mathematical terms. Let

y = f (x).

Here the symbol f represents the function.

Here x is called the independent variable, represents an input

value from the domain of f , and y the dependent variable,
represents the corresponding output value f (x) in the range of
f.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Definition

A function from a set A to a set B is a rule that assigns a unique

element f (x) in B to each element x in A.

Here A = D(f ) is the domain of the function f and B = R(f ) is a

set containing the range of f .

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Note

Functions whose domains and ranges are sets of real numbers,

then we say real-valued functions.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Graphs of functions
The graph of a function f is the graph of the equation

y = f (x).

It consists of the points in the Cartesian plane whose

coordinates (x, y ) are input-output pairs for f .

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Note

Not every curve is the graph of a function.

Example: A circle cannot be the graph of a function.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Domain an Range of the Functions

Determine the domain and range of the following real-valued

functions:
√
y = x.
√
y = 4 − x.
y= √1 .
4−x
y= 2
x .
1
y= x−2 .

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Solution:

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Example

How does the function

x2 − 1
f (x) =
x −1
behave near x = 1?

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Solution

The given formula defines f for all real numbers x except x = 1

(we cannot divide by zero).

For any x ̸= 1 we can simplify the formula by

(x − 1) (x + 1)
f (x) = = x + 1 for x ̸= 1.
(x − 1)

Even though f (1) is not defined, it is clear that we can make the
value of f (x) as close as we want to 2 by choosing x close
enough to 1.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Solution (contd...)

x 2 −1
Values of x below and above 1 f (x) = x−1 = x + 1, x ̸= 1
0.9 1.9
1.1 2.1
0.99 1.99
1.01 2.01
0.999 1.999
1.001 2.001
0.999999 1.999999
1.000001 2.000001
↓ ↓
1 2

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Solution (contd...)

We say that f (x) approaches arbitrarily close to 2 as x

approaches 1 (or)

more simply, f (x) approaches the limit 2 as x approaches 1.

We write this as
x2 − 1
lim f (x) = 2 (or ) lim = 2.
x→1 x→1 x − 1

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Note
The existence of a limit as x → x0 does not depend on how the
function may be defined at x0 .

−1 2
Example: f (x) = xx−1 . The function f has limit 2 as x → 1
eventhough f is not defined at x = 1.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Example

(
x 2 −1
x−1 , x ̸= 1
g(x) =
1, x = 1.
The function g has limit 2 as x → 1 even though 2 ̸= g(1).

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Example

h(x) = x + 1.
The function h is the only one whose limit as x → 1 equals its
value at x = 1.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Note

Sometimes
lim f (x)
x→x0

can be evaluated by calculating f (x0 ).

This holds whenever f (x) is a algebraic combination of

polynomials and trigonometric functions for which f (x0 ) is
defined.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Example

limx→2 4
limx→3 x
limx→2 (5 x − 3)
3x+4
limx→−2 x+5

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Note

If f is the identity function f (x) = x, then for any value of x0 ,

limx→x0 f (x) = limx→x0 x = x0 .
If f is the constant function f (x) = k then for any value of
x0 , limx→x0 f (x) = limx→x0 k = k .

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Example

Sometimes limits can fail to exist.

Discuss the behavior of the following functions as x → 0.


0, x < 0
(a) U(x) =
1, x ≥ 0.
1

x, x ̸= 0
(b) g(x) =
0, x = 0.

0, x ≤ 0
(c) f (x) =
sin x1 , x > 0.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
(a) Solution

The unit step function U(x) has no limit as x → 0 because its

values jump at x = 0.

For negative values of x arbitrarily close to zero, U(x) = 0.

For positive values of x arbitrarily close to zero, U(x) = 1.

There is no single value L approached by U(x) as x → 0.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
(b) Solution

g(x) has no limit as x → 0 because the values of g grow

arbitrarily large in absolute value as x → 0 and do not stay
close to any real number.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
(c) Solution

f (x) has no limit as x → 0 because the function’s values

oscillate between +1 and −1 in every open interval containing
0.

The values do not stay close to any one number as x → 0.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Theorem
The following rules hold if

lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M

x→c x→c

where L and M are any real numbers.

(1)
lim [f (x) + g(x)] = L + M.
x→c
The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their
limits.
(2)
lim [f (x) − g(x)] = L − M.
x→c
The limit of the difference of two functions is the difference
of their limits.
Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus
Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Examples

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Illustrations

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction
Conclusions

We have learnt about the core objective of the course

We have understood the concept of functions.
We have understood the concept of limit of fuctions.
Some Results and Formulae.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Functions, Matlab-Introduction