Data Item : is a single unit of values. 1 Group Items : Data itmes those can divided into sub itmes. Ex. Full Name : First Name , Middle Name, Last Name Address iplace, city, district, state, country Date of Birth : Day, Month, Year 2. Elemenrty Items : Data items those can not be divided into sub items. Ex. Age: 7 Mobile: 98 9xxxxxxx Pincode: 442907Anentity : An entity is something, that has certain attributes or properties: which assigned values. Name ; Vinit Sharma Values can be Age: 17 numeric, Gender : Male non numeric. or Class: th alpha numeric Every attribute has certain value. The collection of ail entities form an entity set16 Age = 16 The term “information” is also used for data with given attributes. Information means meanigful data. Age = -45more attritbutes ] Class : City : ] Gender : ] Mobile No. Feild: Field’ is single elementary unit of information representing an attribute of entity.Feild: ‘Field’ is single elementary unit of information representing an attribute of entity.Record : A recordis a collection of field values of a given entity File ; A file is a collection of records of the entities.‘So data can be stored in feilds, records and files. Apart from fields, records and files, the data can also be organised into more complex types of structures. Data can be organised in different ways. “ The logical or mathematical model of a particular organisation is called a Data structure.” yy Linear Data structure Non-Linear Data structureis called a Data structure." Linear Data structure — Larray Non-Linear Data structure 2 Ponter array LTree ‘1. Record 2 Binary Ty 4 Linked istData Structure operations 3 Array $ Collection of homogenious(same type) elements is called as Array. (8, 10, 5, 36, 7,32, 4.) without decimal point (Integer Numbers) { 1.2, 6.3, 0.5, 9.5, 8.9} with decimal point Eg. Data Size / Length= 5 Index Number ——) 1 52 14 2 Datatl\ = 52 Data[2] = 14 Data[3] = 23 Data[4]=7 Data[5] = 27 (Real Numbers) 23 7 27 3 4 4 5Data Structure Operations : there are total six data structure operations. 1. Traversing : Accessing each element of Array(Structure) once so that it can be processed. 2. Inserting : Adding new element into the structure 3. Deleting : — Removing element from the structure 4. Searching : Finding the location of element 5.Sorting: Arranging elements in some logical order { 7, 12, 14, 23, 27, 52] 6.Merging: Combining two files into single file. { 4,8, 3, 10 } { 7, 12, 14, 23, 27, 52, 4, 8, 3, 10}gorithimic notation An algoritm is a finite step by step list of well defined instructions for solving a particular problem, 7 First Part Name of the Algorithm Addition of two int numbers lst of the variables Let A and Bare two int numbers. This algorithm will calculate SUM of these two numbers. Purpose of the Algorithm Step 1. Start > Second Part AandB A= 10 B=20 List of steps 3. Calculate SUM = A+B Su = 10+ 20 Steps are executed one after 4. Display SUM 30 the other Data /values may assigmed to variables 5. Stop. by using read statement Stop statment complete the algorithm Display statments displayed result or value of the variableControl St res There are three types of flow of control (or logic) 1. Sequential flow (Sequential / linear logic) 2. Conditional flow (Selection logic) 3. Repetitivel flow (Iteration logic) 1. Sequential flow (Sequenti: ar logic) In sequential flow the modules are executed one after the other Each modeule is a set of steps Diagram [ Module A] Eg. 1, Addition of any two numbers 2. Area of circle / triangle / rectangle etc. [ Module B 3. Average of three numbers [ Module c ]2. Conditional flow (Selection logic) In conditional flow, one or other module is selected upon depending on condition. There are three conditional structures i) Single alternative (Simple if) Form / Syntax Diagram IF (condtions), then : [MODULE A] [End of IF structure | aForm / Syntax Diagram IF (condtions), then; x [MODULE A] a voor | [End of IF structure } WY ji) Double alternative (if..else) Form / Syntax Diagram IF (condtions), then ; [MODULE A} Soap woot | ELSE: [ MODULE B] ss [End of IF structure ] Lb [_woowen ] Liii) Multiple alternative (Nested if.else) Form / Syntax IF (condtion 1), then : [MODULE A] ELSE : IF (condition 2), then MODULE B] ELSE: [ MODULE C) [End of IF structure ]3. Repetitive flow (Iteration logic) Here certain Module is executed repetdly unity condition satisfies. i) While loop Form / Syntax Diagram Intialize counter Repeat MODULE A While (condtion) [Lintiatze counter J [MODULE A] Increment /Decrememt counter [End of While] iromsat conte {te [croment comer] y | [Cocoon]li) for loop Form / Syntax Repeat for K=R toS By T [MODULE] [End of for loop) Here K is index varibale. (loop / Counter variable) Initial value of K is R and final value is S. T is increment. Working and diagram of for loop is same as the while loopRoots of quadratic equation ax2+ bx + C= 0 where a is not equal toO X1 and X2 = 2a Roots and their nature = d = b’b-4*a*c i) If d< Oi.e. negative :roots are imaginary sqrt(-ve) sqrt(-4) ? ii) If d == Oi.e. zero: roots are realand equal sqri(O) x1=x2=-b/(2*a) iii) If d> O1.e. positive : roots are real and different sqrt(4) +2 +2Roots of quadratic equation: Let A, Band € are coefficient of quadratic equation and this algorithm will find real roots of quad. Equation. 1) Start 2) Read A, B,C 3) IF (A == 0) then i) Display its linear equation ELSE: IF (D == 0) then i) Display Roots are Real and equal li) Calcualte Xi = X2 = -B/ (2* A) iii) Display X1 and X2 ii) X=-C/B iii) Display X ELSE ELSE i) Display Roots are real and different. ii) Calculate X1 = (-B + sqrt(D)) / (2* A) i) Caclulate D = B*B-4*A*C iii) Caleulate X2 = (-B - sqrt(D)) / (2 * A) ii) IF(D ¢ o' then iv) Display X1 and X2 a) Display Roots are Imaginar: ) Display ginary 4) StopTo Display Word "Computer Science" 5 times 1) Start 2) Display "Computer Science” 3) Display "Computer Science” 4) Display "Computer Science" 5) Display "Computer Science" 6) Display “Computer Science" 7) Stop kTo Display Word "Computer Science" 5 times 1) Start 2) Initialize Counter setK =1 K =1,2,3,4,5 3) Repeat steps ath and 5th While (K <= 5) 4) Display "Computer Science" 5) Increment Counter K=KetTo Display Word "Computer Science” 5 times 1) Start 2) Initialize Counter setK=1 K=1,2,3,4,5 3) Repeat steps 4th and 5th While (K <= 5) 4) Display "Computer Science" 5) ee Counter K=K+1 one rk ated 6) Stop = ‘YES NOTo Display Word "Computer Science" 5 times 1) Start 2) Initialize Counter setK =1 K = 1,293, 4,5 3) Repeat steps 4th and 5th While (K <= 5) 4) Display "Computer Science” 5) Increment Counter KeKe4 K=Ket is Ste = 6) Stop r 2 4) Start 2) Repeat step 3rd for K=1toSby1 3) Display "Computer Science" 4) Stop YES NO[Arrays ] 1) Its the one of the linear data structure. 2) It is also called as Linear Array 3) It is a collection of finite n numbers of homogeneous data elements. 4) Data elements are of same type. 5) The elements of array ferenced by respectively by an index numbers. a The elements of array are stored respectively in successive memory locations. [ 25 is 14 is 2 [ 7 } The total number of elements N is called as length o anil size of the array index numbers 2 r[ Arrays | 1) Its the one of the linear data structure. 2) It is also called as Linear Array 3) It Is a collection of finite n numbers of homogeneous data elements. 4) Data elements are of same type. 5) The elements of array are referenced by respectively by an index numbers. m ‘The elements of array ai tored respectively in successive memory locations. E 25 ie 4 Is | 7 ] The total number of elements Nis called as length o a size of the array inter mame 4 The length of array canbe obatined by using formuls [Length = ua. tB + 2 =@-1e2 It here LB * Othen UB = 3 Low er Bound UB =3¢+1 #3001 maiiost tadex Mumbe: Upper Bound Smallost index Highest index Number = 4 “4 ®[Arrays | 1) Its the one of the linear data also called as Linear Array collection of finite n numbers of homogeneous data elements. 4) Data elements are of same type. 5) The elements of array ai enced by respectively by an index numbers. = The elements of are stored respectively in successive memory locations. ie | 14 is 2 L 7 a of array canbe denoted by subscript notaion wee Marks, , Marks, , Marks ,, Marks, ructure. nde numb: 7 Marks([3), Marks[4) town us Marks[1| = 25 er Bound ‘Upper Bound iY Mark s/[2) = 14 Smaitont index Number 4g Sere eo umber therk oft} © 2 Marks[4] = 7Representation of linear arrays in memory 1) Elements of inear array are stored in successive memory cells / blocks 2) The number of cells required depends on type of data elements. *uls[e]* [=|] t2'3. 4 8 Memory Address ~ 1000 1001 wo2 1003 1004 1005 1006 i C—™ Memory Location Fig, Memory representation of arggyRepresentation of linear arrays in memory 1) Bements of inear array are stored in successive memory cels / blocks 2) The number of cels required depends on type of data elements. 3) Comnputer keep track of address of the first element of array. | 2 | | 26 | 22 | 4) Here LA is inear array and address of first element s denoted by 2 Base (LA) and caled as base address of LA. 5) Using Base address computer caicuates the address of any elements of LA by using formkia - LOC ( LA [K}) = Base(LA) + W(K -LB)) 304¢6¢S5Representation of linear arrays inmemory 1) Bements of inear array are stored in successive memory cells / blocks 2) The number of cels required depends on type of data elements. 3) Computer keep track of address of the first element of array. 4) Here LA 6s inear array and address of first element is denoted t Base (LA) and called as base address of LA, 5) Using Bace address computer caicuates the address of any lerments of LA by using fornia - LOC (LA[3])=1000+1(3-1) — Wemumber of wort (bytes) = 000+2 pe memory cot = 1002 Memory Location Fig Memory representation of arrayTravesrsing Linear Arrays Accessing each element of array only once so that it can be processed. Algorithm : Traversing Linear Array. Let LA is a Iinear array with lower bound LB and upper bound UB. This algorithm wil apply PROCESS to each element of LA. Stops: 4) Start ta [12 ]42[34 [25] 2) Initialize counter 12 3 4e« set K=LB K=u— ie 3) Repeat Steps 4th and 5th While (K<=UB)]K=4 LAL] 12 OepiyLary : sera? esl Oe LAI2) 42 4) Visit Element see K=3 ars) 34 Apply PROCESS to LAK} K=4 LA) 25 5) Increment Counter 7 ye K=5 K=K+1 6) StopSum of all the elements of the array ta [70 |50|80 |10 | 4 12 3 Sum = 70 + 50 + 80 + 10 Sum = 210 Display Sum Se, Sum = 70 + 50 + 60 + 10 Sum = 210 Display SumSum of all the elements of the array “[ | | [J 123 4 SUM =0 +70 SUM = 70 + 50 ‘SUM = 120 + 80 SUM = 200+ 10 SUM = 210 SUM = SUM + LA[1] = 7 SUM = SUM + LA[2] K = 2 SUM = SUM +LA[3] K=3 SUM = SUM + LA[4] K = 4Average of all the elements of the array Let LA iis a linear array of size N with lower bound and upper bound UB, this algorithm will find 1a[70 | 50|80 {10 | N=4 AVG all the elements of the array. gt 2 34 ¥ Steps : 1) Start 2) Initialize SUM = 0 ict ae aa LAK) 3) Initialize Count . . MtKee see yes SUM= 0+ LALA) 4) Repeat steps Sth & 6th while <= U8)] «9 aah 5) calculate SUM = SUM + LA[K] a SUM = SUM + LAK) 6) Increment Counter oust SUM = 70 + LA[2) Renee AVG= Kea SUM = 70 +50 7) Display SUM N 4<= 4) 2 YES SUM = 120 + LA(3} 8) St K=5 SUM = 120 + 80 ) Stop eaa)te SUM = 200 +LA4) ‘SUM = 200 +10 SUM = 210 kAverage of all the elements of the array and upper bound UB, the agortn wil fred | EA 70 [50|80 [10 ] N=4 AVG all the elements of the array. gt 2 8 go v ‘Steps : 1) Start 2) Initialize SUM = 0 SUM =0 3) Initialize Counter sei ‘SUM = SUM + LA[K] set K=LB (tend) ?YES SUM = 0 + LA[T) 4) Repeat steps Sth & 6th whileK<=U8)| «oo eeu 5) calculate SUM = SUM + LA[K’ 2<= 4)? YES ee 6) increment Counter } K=3 Ss otal + LAK K=K+1 sum | 3<4)?vEs SUM = 70 + LA[2] AVG = Ke4 SUM = 70 +50 7) Display SUM N | iceayoves SUM™120 +LA[3) 8) Calculate AVG= 20/4] kes SUM = 120 + 80 AVG = SUM/N AVG = 525 (8<=4)7NO See 9) Display AVG aaa 40) StopInserting a new element into Array N«4 [80 | 40] 50 |70 ]40] 1 2 3 4 5 TEM =40 K=5 Where K <= Nel LA[S]= 40 = N=4+1=5 | LA[K] = ITEM | | N=N+1Inserting a new element into Array N«4 ts [80 | 10] 40 |70 | 1 2 3 4 TEM =40 K=3 Where K <= Nel LA3] = 40 | LAIK] = ITEMInserting a new element into Array Neg [80 [10] 40 |70 | ea at 2 ITEM = 40 K=3 Where K <= Nel LA(3] = 40 | LA(K] = ITEMInserting a new element into Array Ne4 [80] 40] 40 |70 | a a | ITEM =40 K=3 Where K <= Nel LA(3] = 40 | LA[K] = ITEM 404 * cas 1 3 4 5Inserting a new element into Array N=4 [80 10/40 70 | i 2) 3a te TEM = 40 K=3 Where K <= Nel | wea pe sy etInserting a new element into Array J=Ne4 [8o0]10|/50| — ]70) 1 2 3j=4 5 ITEM = 40 K=3 LAS] = 70 LA[S] = LA[4) LAL J #1) = LAL ry HattInserting a new element into Array N«=4 ws [80 [40/50 |" 70) 1 2 3 4 5 TEM =40 K=3 LA\s] = 70 LA[S] = LA[4) LAL Nei} =LALN) tatInserting a new element into Array Joneg uw [8o0]10/50| ]70) 1 2 3J=4 5 TEM =40 K=3 LAS] = 70 LAIS] = LALA] LAL) +1) = LALJ) Byes? 1¢!Inserting a new element into Array J=Nh4 w[8o]40| —|50]70) 1 2 3J=4 5 TEM = 40 K=3 LA'S] = 70 Lass} = Lagay | Lai y +t) =Laty) | LAI] =50 Je J-1 =LA3) 232K TiftInserting a new element into Array J=Nka [80 |10| ‘60 ]70 1 2 3 J=4 TEM =40 K=3 LAIS] = 70 Laps) = LA(4) | LAU +1) = LAU LAs) = . [j=s-1] LAB) | j= As 4} spigtInserting a new element into Array J=Ne4 [80] 10/40 | 5070) 2 3 J=4 ame ® K=3 fee ITEM = (40; LAs] = 70 LAIS] = Lala] [Lays +1) = LAL) | LAI4] = 50 j=)-1] =LAB) | j=3-K] tHAftInserting a new element into Array INSERT (LA.NITEM K) Let LA is a inear array of size N, this algorithm wil insert ITEM at the Kth position of LA, WhereK= K) ing 50 Tee mt 4) Move Ith element downword =LAB) j=3=k) LAUT = LAU) “— 5) Decrement Counter JeJ-1 6) Insert ITEM AK] = ITEM 7)ResetN=N+1 8) StopDeleting a element from Array N=4 ts [80[10|50 [70] 1 2 3 4 K=4 ITEM=70 [TEM=LA/4] [Tem = LIK) JDeleting a element from Array N=4 ts [80[10/50 1 2 3 K24 ITEM =70_ ITEM=LAlA ITEM = LAIK]Deleting a element from Array N=4 ts [80 [10[50 |n ewes 1 2 3 K=4 {TEM=70 _(TEM=LA(4) ITEM = LAK]Deleting a element from Array N=4 ts [80[10]50 [70 ] 1 2 3 4 K=2 ITEM=10 ITEM=LA(2 ITEM = LA[K]Deleting a element from Array N=4 w[so{ [50 |70] 1 23 4 K=2 ITEM = 10 _ITEM=LA\2] r [ITEM = LAIK] |Deleting a element from Array N=4 is[80] |50|70] 1 2 3 4 K=2 (TEM =10 _ITEM=LA(2] [eM = LAKDeleting a element from Array N=4 80| |50|70] 2 03 «4 1 K 2 ITEM = 10 _ITEM=LA\2] ITEM = LAIK] pe ttDeleting a element from Array N=4 [so] |50/70] 1 2 3 4 K=2 ITEM=10 _ITEM=LA(2j [em = Lak) | | > 1 ttDeleting a element from Array N=4 w[8o| |50{70] 1 2 3 4 K=2 ITEM=10 ITEM= LA/2) [Tem = Lai! J ‘ff [— 3 4 hDeleting a element from Array N=4 [so] [50 [70] 1 2 3 4 K=2 MEM=10 _(TEM=LA(j ITEM = LAIK]Deleting a element from Array N=4 [8o[50| |70] 1 Je2 3 4 | J=Kl=2 ITEM =10 _ITEM=LA(2] ITEM = LA(K] | Lal2]=50 LA2] = LAI3) LAU] = LAL + 1] Set 1 2Deleting a element from Array [80|50|70| |] 1 J=2 2 4 J=kl=2 ITEM = 10 _ITE ITE LA[2] = 50 LA] = LAB LAB aTe _ (tasuden) PARISDeleting a element from Array Ne=4 80 |50 | 70 ] 1 Ja2 3 4 | J=K|= 2 ITEM =10 _ITEM=LA(2) ITEM = LAK] ] LA[3] = 70 LA(3] = te J=J+1)[J=3=N-1 LA(2] = 50 LAI2] = LAI) _ [a= Laue tl} |DELETE(LA, N, ITEM, K) Let LA is a linear array of size N, this algorithm |, will delete element ITEM from Kth position. where K is any positive integer such that K <=N ‘Steps : 1) Start 2) set ITEM =LA[K ] 3) Initialize counter set J=K 4) Repeat Sth & 6th step while J<=N-1 5) Move J+1 th element upword LA[J] = LA[J+1] 6) Increment Counter Jaut1 7) Reset N=N-1 8) Stop N=3 [80 [50 |70 1 2 3 K= 2 ITEM=10 J=k J=2 J<=N-1 2<23 YES LAfJ] = LA[J+1] LA[2] = La[2+1) LAI2] = LA[3] LAI2] = 50 J=3 J<=N-1 3<=3 yES LA[J] = LA[J+1] LA[3] = LA[4] LAI3] = 70 J=4 J<=N-1 4<=3 NO ————OE~_—Algorithm : Searching Finding the location of element in array is called as searching. 1} Linear search DATA ee ieaisl LOC S14 -2"\.3 N=5 CTEM = 15 Loc=3 siniiai is 6 == 12? NO F (15 == 12) Loc =1 | F(meM==paTai)} LOC =2. | FIITEM==DATA(2})] F( 1% == 39) NO ITEMis found atLOC. LOC =3 | F(ITEM==DATA({3)]}] . F(15==15) YESLINEAR( DATA, N, ITEM, LOC ) Let DATA is a linear array of size N. N=5 Wacerchisuneuccessiult wilsat LOC MLL DATA | alse] 6 | 26 [36] 1 3.4 5 Steps : 1) Start ec* 2) Initialize LOC (TeM=39 LOC=? Set LOC =14 3) Repeat steps 4th & Sth while LOC <= N is (LOC <=N) ? 4) Compare ITEM 1 N) then eee rie Display ITEM Is not foundLINEAR( DATA, N, ITEM, LOC ) Let DATA is a linear array of size N. N=5 this algorithm wal find the LOC of ITEM in DATA and if search s unsuccessfulit wilset LOG =NULL ATA | 12| 39] 45 | 26 |35] - orl ¥ 3 45 mi bialze LOC TeM=85 LOC=? = 3) Repeat steps 4th & Sth While LOC <= N Sees 4) Compare ITEM LOC =2 30 NO” IF( ITEM == DATA [LOC] ), then LOC =3 85==15 NO i) Display ITEM is found at Li LOC =4 85 ==26 NO 7 eo LOC =5 85 ==35 NO LOC =LOC +4 are a NO 6) F (LOC > N), then Display ITEM is not found 7) StopAlgorithm : Searching finding the location of element in the array is called searching 2) Binary search Im this search technique array (DATA) should be sorted. vara] 40 [20|30]40|[50| 60/70/80] N=8 wesre? 7 * * 3 © opie” ITEM= 40 LOC =? MID = INT(BEG + END) / 2 MID = INT( 1+8) /2 MID = INT 9/2 MID = INT(4.5) MID= 4Algorithm: Searching finding the location of element in the array is called searching 2) Binary search in this search technique array (DATA) should be sorted. paral 40 20 [30 | 40 50 me a) N=8 bec -\8?" . Bon Fe ee? ITEM=40 LOC =? MID = INT(BEG + END) / 2 MID =INT( 1+8)/2 MID = INT 9/2 MID = INT(4.5) MID = 4Algorithm : Searching finding the location of element in the array is called searching 2) Binary search Im this search technique array (DATA) should be sorted. cara 10 [20] 30 [/40\[50 | 6] 70[80] N=8 12_3 4 ITEM=40 LOC =? ‘Ast Half 2nd Half 1 BEG =\8* MID = |NT(BEG+ END) /2 — St Half (10, 20,30) < 40 DATA (MID) MID = INT( 1+ 8) /2 2nd Half (50, 60, 70,80) > 40 DATA [MID] MID = INT 9/2 MID = INT(4.5) MID= 4 DATA(MID] = 40Algorithm : Searching finding the location of element in the array is called searching 2) Binary search i this search technique array (DATA) should be sorted. oara[ 40 | 20] 30 [[40][50] 60[70[80] N=8 eeca\s*” = 3 ot 5 Saw ® ITEM= 40 LOC =? MID = INT (BEG + END) / 2 4st Half (10,20,30) < 40 DATA [MID] MID = INT( 1#8)/2 2nd Half (50,60, 70,80) > 40 DATA (MID) =INT9/2 Compare MID = INT(4.5) {| F(iTem == ataimm)) } MD = 4 IF( 40 == DATA[4]) - IF( 40 == 40) YES DATA[MID] = 40 ITEM is found at LOC = MIDparal 10 | 20| 30 50 | 60|70|[80] N=8 2 $__8 Lye? S erirgad item =20 Loc =? 2nd Half END = 2 3 \a BEG =\8° ea WO Mid = INT (BEG + END MID = INT( 1+8) /2 MID = INT 9/2 MID = INT(4.5) MID = 4 BALAMID] = 40 4st Half (10, 20,30) < 40 DATA [MID] 2nd Half (50, 60, 70,80) > 40 DATA [MID] Compare IF( ITEM == DATA[MID] ) IF( 20 == DATA[4] ) IF( 20 = 40) NOnual 10 | 20] 30 [(40)[50 | 60 [70 [80] N=8 8 secs?! aaa 3 ot 5 hese ITEM = 20 Loc = 2 Cast Half Di, 20, 30) < 40 DATA [MID] 2nd Half (50, 60, 70,80) > 40 DATA (MID) MID = INT (BEG + END MID T(1+8)/2 MID = INT 9/2 Compare = INT(45) IF ITEM == DATA[MID] ) MID= 4 IF( 20 == DATA(4]) IF( 20 == DATA[2] ) IF( 20 == 40) NO IF( 20 == 20) YES ‘A[MID] = 40 1 | IF( ITEM < DATA[MID] ) ] ITEM is found at LOC = MID =(1+3)/2 1F(20<40) YES SETEND=MID-1 4-1 =3 MID= 4/2 MID = 2 NSparal 40. 20| 30 [/40\| 50 | 60 70[80] N=8 o1__2 3 \4/ 5 6 7 8 ITEM = 60 Loc =: = —_—_—= ~~ Nb We a u th BEG =\3° tna 2nd Half END 2 GstHalfDo, 20,30) < 40 DATA [MID] Mid = it (BEG + END MID = INT( 1+ 8) /2 2nd Half)50, 60, 70, 80) > 40 DATA [MID] ID = INT 9 / 2 Compare“ INT(4.5) IF( ITEM > eT yao IF(60 == DATA[4]) AlMiD] = 40 160 s540) IFITEM < DATA[MID]) | (60<40) NO | FU ITEM > DATA[MID]) | IF( 60> 40) YESven] [20] 30 [|| 50] 60 [70]0] w=2 teem ITEM = 60 Loc =? BEG =\8° wi 2nd Half END = V8 4st Half 10, 20,30) < 40 DATA [MID] Cand 50, 60, 70,80) > 40 DATA [MID] Compare“ IF( ITEM = Marae ) 1F(60 == DATA[4]) (60 == 40) NO EM < DATA[MID]) | MID = INT(5+8)/2 (60< 40) NO Sn mete ce) | F( ITEM > DATA[MID} ) J al ae (60> 40) YES SetBEG=MID+1 4+4 =5 MID = INT (BEG + END MID = INT( 1+8) /2 MID =INT9/2 D = INT(4.5)wos Tens esse [me og Lae ss om LOC =? 1 . BEG = 8 ce Half # amar ND SVS 2 Gast Half D0, 20, 30) < 40 DATA {MID} C2nd Halt)50, 60, 70,80) > 40 DATA [MID] Compare WA MID = INT(4.5) 1F( ITEM. Ge [MiD] ww oie IF(60 == DATA[4] ) IF( 60 == DATA(6] ) . (60 == 40) NO IF{ 60 == 60)YES EM < DATA[MID]) } "is found at Loc = Mio MID = INT(5+8)/2 (60<40) NO adalah L | IF( ITEM > DATA[MID} ) | MID = INT (6.5) ‘ a ae (60> 40) YES SetBEG=MID+1 4+4 =5BINARY(DATA, N, ITEM, LOC) Let DATA is sorted linear array with size N, with lower bound LB and upper bound UB. BEG denotes begining and END denotes ending and MID denotes middle segment of the array. This algorithm will find LOC of ITEM in DATA and if search is unsuccesfull then it will set LOC = NULL Steps ; 1) start 2) initialize BEG = LB and END = UB 3) Repeat step 4th & 5th while BEG <= END 4) Calculate MID = (INT) (BEG + END) / 2 5) Compare ITEM IF(ITEM == DATA [MID] ) i) Display ITEM is found at LOC = MID ii) go to step (stop) N=3 vara[ 10 | go | 30] 4 2.008 ITEM=20 LOC =? BEG=1 §END=3 is(BEG <= END) ? (1<=3)? YES MID=(1+3)/2 = 4/2 =2 IF( ITEM == DATA(2}) IF( 20 == 20) YESBINARY (DATA, NN, ITEM, LOC) Let DATA is sorted linear array with size N, with lower bound LB and upper bound UB. BEG denotes begining and END denotes ending and MID denotes middie segment of the array. This algorithm will find LOC of ITEM in DATA and if search is unsuccesfull N=3 then it will set LOC = NULL vata| 10 | 20 | 30] Steps : 1) start VA ) Initialize BEG = LB and END = UB) 1 28 ) Repeat step 4th & Sth while BEG <= ay SE eee 4) Calculate MID = (INT) (BEG + END) / 2 is(BEG <= END) ? 5) Compare ITEM |“ (1<=4)? YES IF(ITEM == DATA [MID] ) a MID=(1+1)/2 = 2/2 =4 i) Display ITEM is found at LOC = MID IF( ITEM == DATA) gotostep(stop) hk IF 10 == 10) YES ELSE IF(ITEM < DATA[MID] ) Set END=MID-4BINARY (DATA, N, ITEM, LOC) Let DATA is sorted linear array with size N, with lower bound LB and upper bound UB. BEG denotes: begining and END denotes ending and MID denotes middle segment of the array. This algorithm will find LOC of ITEM in DATA and if search is unsuccesfull then it will set LOC = NULL Steps ; 1) start A Initialize BEG = LB and END = UB’ ) Repeat step 4th & 5th while BEG <= 4) Calculate MID = (INT) (BEG + END) / 2 5) Compare ITEM |“ (ITEM == DATA [MID] ) Al Display ITEM is found at LOC = MID lf go to step (stop) SE IF(ITEM < DATA[MID] ) Set END = MID-1 ELSE Set BEG = MID+ 1 4 VA N=3 pata 10 | 20 [0] 1 2 \y JEM= 30 Loc=? BEG=1 END=3 is(BEG END) i) Display ITEM is NOT found, Set LOC = NULL MID=(14+3)/2 = 4/2 =2 IF( ITEM == DATA[2)) IF 30 == 20) NO ELSE IF(30< 20) NO ELSE Set BEG= 2+ 1=3 BEG = END = MID = 3 IF 30 == DATA(3})Difference between Linear search and Binary search Linear search Binary search 4) In linear search array (data) may or may not be sorted. ie. it is not neccessary that data should be sorted. 4) in binary search array (data) should be sorted, 2) Item to be search is compared with every element of array starting from first location, 2) Item to be search is compared with middle value of array. 3) Its less efficient than binary search 3) Its more efficient than linear search 4) Time complexity of linear search is O(n) 4) Time complexity of binary search is Ollog 4n) 5) ExampleAlgorithm : Sorting arranging elements in some logical order is called Bubble sort: Eg. Reration/ pai DATA NeGKeL PROS DATA NeS Ke2 Pree DATA N#=5 Ke 3 PIRe? 1.33 22 22 22 22 2 2 2 2.22 33-33 33 33 33-533 33 3.44) 44-44-44 44 4-4-1 prme*4.55) 55 55°" 55-41 mu oles 5 (ay) 11 11 11-88 55 55 «65 DATAIPTR) DATA PTR +a) e DATA (3) DATA (2) K=12,3,4 so om K=1to4 \k =iton- 4 DATA (PTR) > DATA (PTR + 1) ) ves Interchange their values PTR © PTR oDAlgorithm : Sorting arranging elements in some logical order is called as sorting. Bubble sort : Eg. Reration pas: DATA N=SK=i pm DATA N=S K=2 PIR=3) DATAN=5 K=3 Pim=2 aGG3)22 22 2 aGz} 22 22 22 1 (22) 22 2fz2}—3333 33 2[33p/ 33-33 330 pm-2 [33}~39. PETiMe eet) pm= 3044) 4446-11 3iaa) om-4/55| 85 55-55 af) 1a dias 44a) 44 Sia) aa aa as 555 55 55 55 5 ss 65 DATAIPTR| DATA (PTR +4) re eke DATA [| DATA(2) Koh 8,06 sn neee 33 22 [ksitea 7 om-1 22)—48 site fiat ta DATA [PTR|> DATA (PTR + 1)) | Yes | ral S [pre ser | Interchange their a & | ah “4 535) 55BUBBLE (DATA, N) Let DATA is a linear array of size N and this algorithm will sort DATA in accending order. Steps : 1) Start DATA N=S Kei.2.3.4 2) Repeat steps 3rd and 4th for K = 1toN- 1by 1 1[33}22 22 22 22 3) Set PTR=1 2 [22}/33-33 33 33 4) Repeat and 6th while PTR <= Nk a owe qcopatacae * a ee pres [ia] 41 11 11-~ss IF(DATA[PTR] > DATA[PTR + 1) then, — Interchange their values is (PTR <=N-K)? i) Set TEMP = DATA[PTR] TMP = 33 ig ig cS. 4)? i) Set DATA[PTR] = DATA[PTR+1] OATAIN=22 js (5 <= 4)? NO oe SRTArRCs= ver PATARI“33 eDATAIPTR] > DATAIPTR + 1) 6) Increment counter F(DATA[4) > DATAIS)) pre =PTR +4 (55> 19) YES 7) Display Sorted DATABUBBLE (DATA, N) Let DATA is a linear array of size N and this algorithm will sort DATA in accending order. ‘Steps : 1) Start DATA NeGKw1 2.3.4 2) Repeat steps 3rd and 4th for K = 1toN-1by 1 1 [G3}22 22 22 22 3) Set PTR=4 2 (aah 33-83 33 33 aiepeatvep snandemeaermeanck 3 EES 5) Compare elements water I(DATAIPTR] > DATAIPTR + 1) then, viele i aelhegliaallibad Interchange thelr values is (PTR <= N-K)? i) Set TEMP = DATA[PTR) TEMP*33 ig (g ce. 4)? ii) Set DATA[PTR] =DATA[PTR+1] OATAIR"22 is (g ce 4) ? NO i) Set DATA|PTR+1) = TEMP DATAIZ +33 IF(DATA[PTR] > DATAIPTR + 1]) ona IF(DATA[4] > DATA[S)) = | 1) 7) Display Sorted DATA ee 8) Stop iPointer Array: In array if each elements are pointer then its called as pointer array. Pointer is a variable which contain the address of the elements. Pointer points to an element in list. Let we have four groups. Each group consist of list of members. Membership list is to be stored in memory. The most efficient method is to form two [s | arrays. One is members consisting of all members one after the other. Ls | and another pointer array group contaning |_10_| the starting locatons of different groups. [ 12 | Observe that the elements of pointer array are starting addresses of each group Xil Class : Students (Members) MB=4 cs=3 rT =2 ELE=2Pointer Array : In array if each elements are pointer then its called as pointer array. Pointer is a variable which contain the address of the elements. Pointer points to an element in list. _- ooo n—25 _] c001H eo / coosH| 58 | { PTR1, PTR2, PTR3...} Addresses fig. Memory locations Pointer ArrayPointer Array : In array if each elements are pointer then its called as pointer array. Pointer is a variable which contain the address of the elements. Pointer points to an element in list. a : cooo Zool 24 ]2 ao = index pret conan 67 ]3 mnbers coo1n | -- 7 con] 58 | pra coal 38 5 { PTR14, PTR2, PTR3... } Addresses fig. Memory locations Pointer ArrayRecords : Its a collection of fields. Record may contain non-homogeneous data.Records : Its a collection of fields. Record may contain non-homogeneous data. ie. data items in record may have different Eg. data types. 4. Student The elements in record are described by 2. Roll No, level numbers. 2. ra ane i First Name // in record natural odering of elements is not possible 3 hocee thonal The number to left of each variable is called level number. 3.Last Name Each group item is followed by its subitem. 2. Gender The level of subitem is 1 more than the level of group item. 20 ‘Any particular field in record can be accessed by 3. Benth period{dot) Student Full Name.Last Name 2 ater 4. Student(15) It indicates 15 records ina file. Any particular field in file can be accessed by Student.Age(5] »Representation of records in memory Eg. +.student 2. Roll No. Records contain non homogeneous data. 2. Full Name To store record in memory we need parallel linear arrays. 3. First Name for this example of student record, we requires 5 linear 3. Last Name arrays such as Roll No., First Name, Last Name, Age 2.Age and Class _<_— one array for each elements of data item. K __RollNo FirstName Last Name Age ClassRepresentation of records in memory Eg. 4. Student 2. Roll No. Records contain non homogeneous data. 2. Full Name To store record in memory we need parallel linear arrays. 3. First Name for this example of student record, we requires 5 linear 3. Last Name arrays such as Roll No., First Name, Last Name, Age 2.Age and Class 2. Class ‘one array for each elements of data item. Roll Nok], First Name[K], Last Name{k], Age{K], Class[K] h must be belongs to same record RollNo FirstName _Last Name Age ClassLinked list ; Its a linear collection of data elements, called nodes. linear order is given by means of pointer. each node is divided into two parts, first part contains the information part of the elements and second part contains the address of the next node in the list Information part \\ Pointer of next node / (Link part) EPO EHE RHEE HE BH Start ‘fame (Head) L-Linked list ; Its a linear collection of data elements, called nodes. linear order is given by means of pointer. each node is divided into two parts, first part contains the information part of the elements and second part contains the address of the next node in the list Information part Pointer of next node / (Link part ) is [eH se [see le Ti] Fig. Linked list al 6 Sie. NULL te Start /Hame (Head)Linked list : Its a linear collection of data elements, called nodes. linear order is given by means of pointer. each node is divided into two parts, first part contains the information part of the elements and second part contains the address of the next node in the list \ per 7 oe v ¥ = ‘PHEEHE RHE [eH HE fk 8 4 2 6 3 Fig. Linked list with 6 nodes, The left part represents the information part of node. The right part represent pointer field of node. The arrow is drawn from this field to next node. pointer field of last node conatin null pointer. The address of first node in list called as start or name. We need only this address to trace the linked list.Representation of linked list in memory (aL pot er * FeCl He [2 HE Ti) [a 3 START Linked list can be represented by two parallel linear arrays. ‘One is INFO containing information part and other is LINK containing nex t pointer field. The name of link ed list, start, contains beginnings of the list. STARTRepresentation of linked list in memory . ae alge] Atle bh Ts Linked list can be represented by two parallel linear arrays. ‘One is INFO containing information part and other is LINK containing next pointer field. The name of linked list, start, contains beginnings of the list. START points to 5th element INFO[5] = A and LINK[S]=8 so next node address is 8 INFO[8] = B and LINK[8]= 4 so next node address is 4 INFO[4] = C and LINK(4]=2 so next node address is 2 INFO[2] = D and LINK[2]=6 so next node address is 6 INFO[6] = E and LINK[6]=3 so next node address is 3 INFO[3] = F and LINK(3] = NULL The list is ended here.Tree sts a non linear data structures. It used to represent data containing hierachical relationship between elements. > Root ®) Root / College _ ay | Ne ay 8 Arts ©) Commerce Science A Binary tree Tis defined as a finit 7 of elements, called nodes, such that - a) Tis empty ( null tree b) T contains a distiguished node R, called root of T and the remaining nodes of T form an ordered pair of disjoint binary trees T1 and T2. 7 Root Eg. T R Here T conatins root R and T4 and T2 are subtrees of R _/ \_ lf 11 is non empty, then its root is called as left 1 {2 successor of R and if T2is non empty, then its ~ root is called as right successor of R.a) Tis empty ( null tree or empty tree ) or b) T contains a distiguished node R, called root of T and the remaining nodes of T form an ordered pair of sjoint bin 'y trees T1 and 12. 7p) Roo! Eg. T R) Hi conatins root R and Ti and ¥2 are subti a non empty, then its root Is cal ay (T2) sue T2is non empty, left - a right root is Successor of Any node in binary tree has 0, 1 or 2 successor. The nodes with no successor (child) are called as termin: Pg Pia nodes, It is also called as leaf. \) Root : The node which has no parent. T r Sibling : children of the same parent. ~ The two binary tree are said to be similar if they have T: Binary tree same stucture. Y RootAlgebriac ex pression and binary tree the algebraic expression can be represented by binary tree. Eg. E=(@B/(Cer a Fe) Sparc nmer eh se i os * 3 Np ae ONS or wo[(a+b)*e]/[a*((b-¢)+a)] oor Ooa+2b at2*bC=(X+Y)°-(5A+B') C=(X+Y)43-(5*A+B42)Binary tree : parent and child Suppose Nis node in T with left successor S1 and right successor s2, then Nis called as parent (father) of s1 and s2. T parent The line drawn from node N toa successor is called an edge. Sequence of consecutive edges is called a path. et child N-$2-A-D Gi ($2, Terminal node is leaf and path ending in a leaf is called a branch — av The depth (height) of a tree Tis the maximum number of nodes: aa (B) ina branch of T. left childThe Tis said to be complete / symmetric if allits levels except the last, have maximum number of possible nodes. (RY bevero Depth (n) = 3 Cc a) leveld ifn=4 totalnodes=2 oo, B ifm=2 totalnodes=3 Level? QO © F ifn=3 totalnodes=7 = ne? ar ifn=4 totalnodes = 15 7 T: 2tree / extended binary tree Max Nodes =2"-4 ifm=5 totalnodes = 31 The tree T is said to be a 2 tree or an extended binary tree if each node N has either 0 or 2 childeren. the node with 2 children are called are internal nodes. the node with 0 children are called are external nodes.4) Linked representation Eg Let T be a binary tree root re [51/2] ~ ] “ ®) Fe [xiB]x] 7 [xDix] (x[E[x] —_— The linked representation uses three parallel arrays, INFO, LEFT, RIGHT and pointer variable ROOT. Each node N of T will corresponds to a location K such that: 4. INFO[K] contains the data at node N 2. LEFT[K] contains the location of left child of node N. 3. RIGHT[K] contains the location of right child of node N.1) Linked representation Eg, Let T be a binary tree [e|¢l4] 5 . [XBix] —[x/E[x] area 6 4 The linked representation uses three parallel arrays, INFO, LEFT, RIGHT and pointer varigble ROOT. Each node N of T will corresponds to a location K such that: 1. INFO[K] contains the data at node N 2. LEFT[K] contains the location of left child of node N. 3, RIGHT[K] contains the location of right child of node N. 4. ROOT will contain location of root R of T.1) Linked representation root 5|Al2 (ig) (sigia) ——(xiBIx) 5 2 [xD|x} [x] Ex] X= NULL 6 4 The linked representation uses three parallel arrays, INFO, LEFT, RIGHT and pointer variable ROOT. Each node N of T will corresponds to a location K such that: 4. INFO[K] contains the data at nocle N i 2. LEFT[K] contains the location of left child of node N. 3. RIGHT[K] contains the location of right child of node N. 4, ROOT will contain location of root R of T. Linked representation of binary tree2) Sequential representation Eg. Let Tbe a binary tree In sequential representaion a linear array is used. The root A is stored in TREE[1]. If anode N occupies TREE[K], then — its left child is stored in TREE[2 * K] and its right childis stored in TREE[2*K+ 1) © TREEIZ] Kea ( NAQRWN=2) Sequential representation Eg. Let T be a binary tree TREE root 7. 1Ta] ZK oO ae] oo OG 38 = 4 In sequential representaion a linear array is used. : | The root A is stored in TREE[1}. 7 -_] If anode IN occupies TREE[K], then its left child is stored in TREE[2 * K] and its right child is stored in TREE[2*K+4] © TREE[1] Kei Left Child C ; TREE[2 * K| TREE(2* 1) TREE (2) Right Child B : TREE[2 * K + 1] TREE[3]2) Sequential representation Eg. Let T be a binary tree : root(@) demas 1LA | atc | 3{_B | 4{_p | , onak . 5 E | In sequential representaion a linear array is used. 6p *_| The root Ais stored in TREE[1]. 7L If anode N occupies TREE[K], then its left chid is stored in TREE[2 * K] and its right child is stored in TREE[2 * K + 1] C TREE[2] K=2 Left Child D : TREE[2 * K] TREE[2* 2] TREE [4] Right Child E : TREE[2 * K + 4] TREE([5]Stack and Queue: fa [™ [a7] 1 2 3 4 Item = 56 K=123,4,5 item can be inserted at first position, last position as well as at middle position. Item = 14 K=2,1,3,4 item can be deleted from first position, last position as well as from middle position. If we want to restrict inseration and deletion operations, so that they can take place only at beginnig or the end of list, not in the middle. Then data structure stack and queue art useful in such situation.Stack : A stack is a data structure in which items may be PUSH POP added or removed only at one end. \ / the item can removed or added only from TP! Front the top of the stack, [46 _| Last item added = 46 ‘st item to be deleted = 4 "PUSH" is the term used to insert an element into stack | 14 "POP" is the term used to delete an element from stack __35_| A stack is also called as LIFO.( Last In First Out ) a Bottom / Rear jueue : rStack : A stack is a data structure in which items may be PUSH PoP added or removed only at one end. Top !Front| ¥ / the item can removed or added only from iP the top of the stack. [46 _| Last tem added = 46 first item to be deleted = 46 "PUSH" is the term used to insert an element into stack [| 14 | “POP" is the term used to delete an element from stack A stack is also called as LIFO. ( Last In First Out ) Bottom / Rear Queue : ‘A queue is a linear list in which items may be added por PUSH only at one end and items may be removed only at 27 | 35 | 14 | 46 / other end. r 2 3 4 The queue is also called as FIFO. ( First In First Out ) Front Rear r