Modern Algebra Notes

Falguni Mahata

December 2024

1 Preliminaries
Relation on a set: A subset of A × A defines a relation on A, and suppose |A| = n.

Types of Relation
2
The number of relation on A = 2n

(i) Identity: I ⊆ A × A defines an identity relation if I = {(a, a) : a ∈ A} ,

the number of identity relation on A = 1,

(ii) Rreflexive: If S ⊆ A × A such that I ⊆ S, S is called reflexive,

2 −n
the number of reflexive relation on A = 2n

(iii) Irreflexive: If S ⊆ A × A such that I ∩ S = ϕ, S is called irreflexive,

2 −n
the number of irreflexive relation on A = 2n

(iv) Symmetric: Let S ⊆ A × A and if (a, b) ∈ S =⇒ (b, a) ∈ S, then S is called symmetric,

n2 +n
the number of symmetric relation on A = 2 2

(v) Asymmetric: If (a, b) ∈ S ⊆ A × A =⇒ (b, a) ̸∈ S, then S is called asymmetric,

n2 −n
the number of asymmetric relation on A = 3 2

(vi) Antisymmetric: If (a, b), (b, a) ∈ S ⊆ A × A =⇒ a = b, then S is called antisymmetric,

n2 −n
the number of antisymmetric relation on A = 2n .3 2

(vi) Transitive: If (a, b), (b, c) ∈ S ⊆ A × A =⇒ (a, c) ∈ S, then S is called transitive.

Partition: Let A be a set and F be a family of subsets of A F ⊆ P(A) , then F defines a partition
of A if for any Ai , Aj ∈ F,

(i) Ai ∩ Aj = ϕ, ∀i ̸= j,
S
(ii) Aλ = A.
Aλ ∈F

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Equivalence Relation: A relation on a set is said to be an equivalence relation if it is reflexive,
symmetric, transitive.

Equivalence Class: Let R be an equivalence relation on A and a ∈ A, then the equivalence class
of ‘a’ by R is denoted by cl(a) or a or [a], and defined as

cl(a) = {x ∈ A : xRa} (⊆ A)

Theorem 1.1 (Fundamental theorem of equivalence relation). Every equivalence relation partitioned
the set into equivalence classes and conversely.

Theorem 1.2 (Eulers theorem). If gcd (a, n) = 1, then aϕ(n) = 1 (mod n).

Theorem 1.3 (Willson theorem). (p − 1)! + 1 ≡ 0 (mod p) iff p is prime.

If n = pα1 1 .pα2 2 · · · pαk k , where p1 , p2 , · · · , pk are prime numbers and α1 , α2 , · · · , αk ∈ N.

    
• ϕ(n) = n 1 − p11 1 − p12 · · · 1 − p1k ,

• τ (n) = (α1 + 1)(α2 + 1) · · · (αk + 1),

• ϕ(n) is even for n > 2,

• If pk /n! such that pk+1 ∤ n!, then

   
n n
k= + 2 + ······
p p

• nh n i hni hni hni o

Number of zero in n! = min + + ······ , + + ······
5 52 2 22

Results and properties of order an element The smallest n ∈ N such that an = e is defined as
the order of a. Let G be a group and a ∈ G, then the following holds
O1. e is the only element of order 1 in G,

O2. O (a) = O a−1 ,

O3. If am = e =⇒ O (a) /m,

n
O4. If O (a) = n, then O (ar ) = gcd (r,n) ,

O5. Number of element of order 2 in any finite group is finite.

O6. The number of elements of order m in any finite group = kϕ(m), for some k ∈ N,

O7. O xax−1 = O (a) ,

O8. In (C∗ , .), there are exactly ϕ(n) elements of order n, for any n ∈ N,

O9. In (R∗ , .), there are exactly −1, 1 elements of order finite.

Theorem 1.4. If

(i) O(a) = m, O = (b) = n

(ii) ab = ba,

(iii) < a > ∩ < b >= {e},

then O(ab) = lcm{m, n}.

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 Cyclic Group: A group G is said to be cyclic if ∃a ∈ G such that G =< a >, a is called a
generator.

Result and properties:

(i) If G =< a >, then G =< a−1 >,

(ii) A finite group G is cyclic if and only if there exist an element a ∈ G such that O(a) = |G|.

(iii) If G =< a >, O = n, then

a. G =< ar >; gcd (a, r) = 1,

b. there is ϕ(n) number of generators of G.

(iv) For every d/n, G has exactly ϕ(d) element of order d.

(v) Every cyclic group is abelian but not conversely.

Quaternion Group (Q8 ): A group G of the form G = {1, −1, i, −i, j, −j, k, −k}, where

e = 1, i.i = j.j = k.k = −1, i.j = k, j.k = i, k.i = j, j.i = −1, k.j = −i, i.k = −j,

Q8 is a non-abelian group of order 8.

External direct product: Let (G1 , ∗), (G2 , ◦) be two groups.

Define G = G1 × G2 = {(a, b) : a ∈ G1 , b ∈ G2 } and the binary operation ⊗ on G defined by

X ⊗ Y = (a1 ∗ a2 , b1 ◦ b2 ), where X = (a1 , a2 ), Y = (b1 , b2 ) ∈ G.

Then (G, ⊗) forms a group, which is called the external direct product.

Properties:

(i) If G is finite iff G1 , G2 both are finite and O(G) = O(G1 ) × O(G2 ).

(ii) If G is abelian iff G1 , G2 both are abelian.

(iii) If a ∈ G1 , b ∈ G2 of finite order and X = (a, b) ∈ G, then O(X) = lcm {O(a), O(b)}.

(iv) If G1 , G2 are finite cyclic group of order m, n respectively, then G = G1 × G2 is cyclic iff
gcd (m, n) = 1.

(v) The number of elements of order 2 in Zm1 × Zm2 × · · · × Zmk = 2n − 1, where n is the number
of even among m1 , m2 , · · · , mk .

Subgroup: Let (G, ∗) be a group and H ⊆ G, then H is called a subgroup of G if (H, ∗) is a group
itself, denoted by H ≤ G.

Properties:

(i) For any G, (G, ∗), ({e}, ∗) ≤ G are called an improper subgroup of G.

(ii) Let H(̸= ϕ) ⊆ G, H ≤ G if and only if ∀a, b ∈ H =⇒ ab−1 ∈ H.

(iii) Arbitrary intersection of subgroups of G is also a subgroup of G.

(iv) Every subgroup of an abelian group is abelian.

Note: It is possible for a non-abelian group to have every proper subgroup be abelian.
Ex. Q8 , S3

(v) Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

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 (vi) Every non-abelian finite group always has a proper abelian subgroup.
Note: Every abelian group may not have a proper abelian subgroup.
|H|×|K|
(vii) Let H, K ≤ G be two finite subgroups of G, then |HK| = |H∩K| .
number of elements of order m
(viii) Number of cyclic subgroups of order m in G = ϕ(m)
Theorem 1.5 (Lagrange). For any finite group G and H ≤ G, then O(H)/O(G).
Group of Symmetries: Let X be a non empty set. Defines
n o
one−one
SX = f | f : X −−−−−→ X
onto
= The set of all the symmetries.
If X is finite, then |SX | = n! , where |X| = n. If X = {a1 , a2 , · · · , an }, then every arrangement of
those n elements corresponds one and only one of these symbols in SX , is called a permutation of
degree n, written as   
a1 a2 ··· an
Sn = : f ∈ SX
f (a1 ) f (a2 ) ··· f (an )
= The set of all permutation of degree n.
Properties of Sn :
(i) Sn forms a group with respect to the binary operation ⊗, defined by
     
a1 a2 ··· an a1 a2 ··· an a1 a2 ··· an
⊗ =
f (a1 ) f (a2 ) · · · f (an ) g(a1 ) g(a2 ) · · · g(an ) g ◦ f (a1 ) g ◦ f (a2 ) · · · g ◦ f (an )
 
a1 a2 · · · ar ar+1 · · · an
(ii) Cycle: Let σ ∈ Sn and σ = . Then σ is called a cycle of
a2 a3 · · · a1 ar+1 · · · an
length r or r-th cycle.
(iii) Disjoint Cycle: A group of cycles with no common symbol is called a disjoint cycle. For
example σ1 = (1, 2, 4), σ2 = (3, 5, 7) ∈ S10 are disjoint cycles.
(iv) Every r-th cycle can be expressed as a product of disjoint cycles.
(v) Transposition: A cycle of length 2, is called transposition.
n!
(vi) The number of r-th cycle on n symbols = r(n−r)!

(vii) Cycle Decomposition of Permutation: Let f ∈ σn be expressed as f = C1 .C2 · · · Ck ; where

Ci ’s are disjoint cycles of length n1 , n2 , · · · , nk respectively. If n1 + n2 + · · · + nk = n, then
{n1 , n2 , · · · , nk } is called C.D of f.
(vii) Two permutations are said to be similar if and only if they have the same C.D.
(viii) The relation of similarity of Sn is an equivalence relation and its partioned P(n) number of
equivalence classes.
f = C1 · C2 · · · Ck (including length 1), αi = no of cycle inf of length i
then
n!
|cl(f )| =
· 1α1 2α2
· · · α1 ! · α2 ! · · ·
O(f ) = lcm {O(C1 ), O(C2 ), . . . , O(Ck )}
(ix) Every even permutation can be expressed as a product of 3-cycle and every odd-ordered permu-
tation is an even permutation.
(x) Let S = {(1, 2), (1, 3), . . . , (1, n)}. Every element in Sn can be expressed as the product of
elements of S.
(x) Every element of σ ∈ Sn can be expressed as the product of elements of S = {(1, 2), (1, 2, . . . , n)}.

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 Order Number of subgroups
1 1 (cyclic)
2 9 (all cyclic)
3 4 (all cyclic)
4 7 (3 cyclic+4 non-cyclic)
6 4 (non-abelian)
8 3 (non-abelian)
12 1 (non-abelian)
24 1 (non(-abelian)

Table 1: S4

Order No. of Subgroup

1 1
2 3
3 4
4 1
12 1

Table 2: A4

Homomorphism: Let (G, ∗) and (G′ , ◦) be two groups. Then a map f : G → G′ such that
∀a, b ∈ G, f (a ∗ b) = f (a) ◦ f (b), is called a homomorphism.

(i) f (G) ≤ G′ , called the holomorphic image of G.

(ii) f (e) = e′

(iii) O(f (a))/O(a)

(iv) f (a−1 ) = (f (a))−1

(v) The number of homomorphisms from Zm to Zn =gcd{m, n}

(
0, if m ∤ n,
(vi) The number of 1-1 homomorphisms from Zm to Zn =
ϕ(m) if m/n
(
0, if n ∤ m,
(vii) The number of onto homomorphisms from Zm to Zn =
ϕ(n) if m/n

(vii) Any two cyclic groups of the same order are isomorphic.

(viii) Every infinite cyclic group isomorphic to Z.

Let S be the set of all groups of order n. Then the relation of being isomorphic over S is an equivalence
relation. Hence partitioned as into equivalence classes. Hence each class consists of an isomorphic
group of order n. The groups are different classes are non-isomorphic.

Number of this equivalence class of this relation = The number of non-isomorphic groups of order n
= The number of groups upto isomorphism of order n

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 Order Upto isomorphism
1 1, {e}
2 1, Z2
3 1, Z3
4 2, K4 , Z4
5 1, Z5
6 2, S3 , Z6
7 1, Z7
8 5, Q8 , D4 , Z2 × Z4 , Z8 , Z2 × Z2 × Z2
9 2, Z3 × Z3 , Z9
p 1, Zp
p2 2, Zp2 , Zp × Zp
(
p ∤ q − 1, Zpq
p.q 2,
p/q − 1

Table 3: Isomorphishm

Self-Conjugate: An element a ∈ G is said to be self-conjugate if ∀x ∈ G, xax−1 = a, a commutes

with all elements of x.

Centre: Z(G) = {g ∈ G : gx = xg ∀x ∈ G}, Z(G) ≤ G, O(Z(G))/O(G).

• G is abelian ⇔ G = Z(G).

• If a ∈ G is unique element of order 2, then a ∈ Z(G).

• a ∈ Z(G), then cl(a) = {xax−1 } = {a}; a ∈ Z(G) ⇔ cl(a) = {a}.

• Number of conjugate classes in an abelian group of order n = n.

• Z(G1 × G2 ) = Z(G1 ) × Z(G2 ).

• Z(Q8 ) = {−1, 1}, Z(Sn ) = {e}, n ≥ 3, Z(An ) = {e}, n ≥ 4

k
• Class Equation: Let G be a finite group of order n, The expression n =
P
|cl(ai )|, is called
i=1
the class equation, where cl(ai )’s are all the distinct conjugate classes.

Expressing the order of a finite group as the sum of the cardinality of distinct conjugate classes
is defined as a class equation.

Q8 : 1 + 1 + 2 + 2 + 2, S3 : 1 + 2 + 3, K4 : 1 + 1 + 1 + 1, G : 1 + 1 + · · · + 1 (n-times),

where G is abelian group of order n.

• Number of conjugate class in Sn = P(n), number of partitions.

• N (a) = {x ∈ G : xax−1 = a},

T
N (a) = Z(G), Z(G) ≤ N (a) ≤ G.
a∈G

• If a ∈ Z(G) ⇔ N (a) = G.

• If a ̸∈ Z(G), then Z(G) ⊂ N (a) ⊂ G.

• Let O(G) = pn , p is prime, n ∈ N then Z(G) ̸= {e}.

Note: If O(G) = p2 , p is prime, then G is abelian.

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 • If O(G) = p3 , and G is non-abelian, then |Z(G)| = p and G has exactly p2 + p − 1 number of
conjugate classes.

• If G1 is abelian and G2 is non-abelian groups with |G1 | = m, |G2 | = n,

|G2 | = n1 + n2 + · · · + nk , be the class equation of G2 (1)

Then the class equation of G1 × G2 is |G1 × G2 | = m copies of (1).

For example, |S3 | = 1+2+3, |Z3 ×S3 | = 1+2+3+1+2+3+1+2+3 = 1+1+1+2+2+2+3+3+3

(pn −1)(pn −p)···(pn −pn−1 )
• |GL(n, Zp )| = (pn − 1)(pn − p) · · · (pn − pn−1 ); |SL(n, Zp )| = p−1 .

• |Z(GL(n, Zp ))| = p − 1.

• In Sn , f = C1 · C2 · · · Ck (including length 1), αi = no of cycle inf of length i, then

N (f ) = 1α1 · 2α2 · · · α1 ! · α2 ! · · · = Number of permutation commutes with f with Sn .

Automorphism: An onto isomorphism f : G → G is defined as an automorphism.

• Let f : G → G by f (g) = g −1 . Then f is an automorphism if and only if G is abelian.

• Aut(Z) ∼
= Z2 , Aut(Zn ) ∼
= U (n), Aut(K4 ) ∼
= S3 .
• G1 ∼
= G2 =⇒ Aut(G1 ) ∼
= Aut(G2 ), but Aut(G1 ) ∼
= Aut(G2 ) may not imply G1 ∼
= G2 .
• Inner automorphism: Let a ∈ G, define fa : G → G by fa (g) = aga−1 , is called inner
automorphism, Inn(G) = {fa : a ∈ G}.
|G|
• G = Z(G) ⇔ Inn(G) = {fe }, |Inn(G)| = |Z(G)| , Inn(Sn ) ∼
= Sn , Inn(An ) ∼
= An .

Dihedral Group

Dn = {< a, b >: O(a) = 2, O(b) = n, ab−1 = ba}

= {e, a, b, b2 , . . . , bn−1 , ab, ab2 , . . . , abn−1 }
(
n, n is odd (abr : r = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1)
• The number of elements of order 2 = n
n + 1, n is even (b 2 , abr : r = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1)

• Every subgroup Dn is either cyclic or dihedral.

• when n is even
n
cl(bi ) = {bi , b−i }, i ̸= ,
2
n n
cl(b 2 ) = {b 2 },
cl(a) = {a, ab2 , ab4 , . . . , ab2r },
cl(ab) = {ab, ab3 , ab5 , . . . , ab2r−1 }

when n is odd

cl(bi ) = {bi , b−i },

cl(a) = {a, ab2 , ab3 , . . . , abn−1 }
(
2n = 1 + n + 2 + 2 + · · · + 2 ( n−1
2 times), n is odd
• Class Equation
2n = 1 + 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + · · · + 2 ( n−2
n n
2 times), n is even

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 (
n+3
• Number of equivalence classes 2 , n is odd
n+6
2 , n is even
n
(
Z(G) = {e, b 2 }, n is even
• Centre of Dn
Z(G) = {e}, n is odd

Normal Group: A subgroup H is said to be normal in G if xHx−1 = H, ∀x ∈ G.

Result and Properties:

• A finite normal subgroup H is union of complete conjugate classes, i.e., H =

S
cl{a}.
a∈H

• The number of subgroup of

Y p αi − 1
Dn = τ (n) + σ(n), where σ(n) = i
, n = pα1 1 pα2 2 . . . .
pi − 1
i

(
τ (n) + 1, n is odd
• The number of normal subgroups of Dn =
τ (n) + 3, n is even

• If G is an abelian group, then G

H is an abelian group.

• If G is a cyclic group, then G

H is a cyclic group.

• If Z(G) is a proper subgroup of G, then G

Z(G) is never cyclic.

Note: S4 has 4 norma subgroups {I}, A4 , K4 , S4 ; S3 has 3 normal subgroups {I}, A3 , S3 ,

D4 ∼
= Z2 × Z2 or Z4 but Z(D4 ) ̸= D4
Z(D4 )

Q
Special type of group: Z = {x + Z : x ∈ Q}

properties:

• Q
Z is an infinite group.

• For any x + Z ∈ Q
Z, O(x + Z) is finite.

• For any n ∈ N, there exist an element x + Z ∈ Q

Z such that O(x + Z) = n.

• Q
Z has unique cyclic subgroup of order n for each n ∈ N.

• Number of elements of order n is ϕ(n).

• Q
Z is not cyclic, and every finitely generated subgroup is cyclic.

• Q
Z has no subgroups isomorphic Z.

• If K ≤ Q
Z such that K is infinte =⇒ K is non-cyclic.

• Q
is not finitely generated.
Z
n o
• H = pmn + Z : m ∈ Z, n ∈ N is infinite proper non-cyclic group.

Theorem 1.6 (First Isomorphism). If f : G → G′ be a homomorphism, then G ∼

= f (G) ≤ G.
ker(f )

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 Observation:
• Every subgroup Sn contains either only even permutations or exactly half even and half odd.

• Every odd-ordered subgroup of Sn is a subgroup An as well.

• If there exists an odd permutation σ ∈ H and H < Sn , then H has a subgroup of index 2, H is
not simple.
Theorem 1.7 (Second Isomporphism). Let H, K ≤ G such that H△G, the HK ∼ K
H = H∩K .

2 Sylow Pakage
Simple Group: A group G is said to be simple if {e} and G are only two normal subgroups of G.

Results
• Any abelian group is simple if and only if it is a finite group of prime order.

• GL(n, R), SL(n, R), Sn (n ≥ 3), Dn (n ≥ 3) are non-simple groups.

• If O(G) = pn and G is a non-abelian group, then G is not simple. ({e} =

̸ Z(G)△G)

• GL(3, Z2 ) = SL(3, Z2 ) is simple, GL(3, Zp ) is non-simple for p ̸= 2 and p is prime.

• If n = pα1 1 pα2 2 · · · pαk k , then U (n) ∼ α

= U (pα1 1 ) × U (pα2 2 ) × · · · × U (pk k )
• U (2n ) ∼
= Z2 × Z2n−2
• U (pn ) ∼
= Zpn −pn−1
• Aut(Zp × Zp × · · · Zp (n − times)) ∼
= GL(n, Zp )
• For any n ∈ N, ∃H ≤ GL(2, R) such that H ∼
= Dn .

• GL(n,R) ∼
= Z∗ : f : GL(n, R) → R∗ by f (A) = det(A).
SL(n,R)

• For any n ∈ N, Sn is isomorphic to a subgroup of GL(n, R)

• For any n ∈ N, Zn is isomorphic to a subgroup of GL(2, R)

• Let G be a finite abelian group, Ar = {xr : x ∈ G}, and Ar = {x ∈ G : xr = e}, then G ∼

= Ar .
Ar

Theorem 2.1 (Cayley’s). Every finite group is isomorphic to a group of permutations.

or
Every group is isomorphic to a group of bijections.
or
If G is a group of order n, then G is isomorphic to a subgroup of Sn .
Corollary 2.1.1. Every group of order n is isomorphic to a subgroup of An+2 .
Corollary 2.1.2. If there are k-subgroups of order n in Sn , which are non-isomorphic, then the
number of groups of order n up to isomorphism is k.
Theorem 2.2 (Generalised Cayley’s theorem). If G ≤ H [G : H] = n, then there exists a homomor-
phism f : G → Sn such that ker(f ) ⊆ H. Moreover, if K△G such that K ⊆ H =⇒ K ⊆ ker(f ).
Corollary 2.2.1. If p is the smallest prime divisor of |G|, then every subgroup H of index p(if exists)
is normal in G.
Theorem 2.3 (Index theorem). If G has a subgroup H(̸= {e}, G) of index n and O(G) ∤ n!. Then G
cannot be simple.

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If a subgroup of Sn has an odd permutation, it cannot be simple.

Definition 1 (p-group). Let G be a group, and for any a ∈ G\{e}, O(a) = pr for some r ∈ N, then
G is called a p-group.

Theorem 2.4 (Cauchy). If O(G) = n and p/n, p is prime, then G has an element of order n.

Corollary 2.4.1. Every abelian group of order pq is cyclic.

• A finite group G is p-group if and only if |G| = pn for some n ∈ N.

• p-SSG: A p-subgroup of a group G is called p-SSG or maximal p-subgroup if it is not contained

in any other p-subgroup.
h i h i
• Order of p-SSG in Sn = pk , where k = np + pn2 + · · · · · ·
n(n−1)
• Order of p-SSG in GL(n, Zp ) =Order of p-SSG in SL(n, Zp ) = p 2

Theorem 2.5 (Sylows theorem).

• 1st theorem: If G be a finite group and pr /|G|, then G has a subgroup of order pr .

• 2nd theorem: If G be finite group, then all p-SSG are conjugate.

• 3rd theorem: If |G| = pn m, p ∤ m and the number of p-SSG is k, then k ≡ 1(mod p) and k/|G|.

Corollary 2.5.1. If p-SSG is normal if and only if it is unique.

Corollary 2.5.2. If pm /|G|, pm+1 ∤ O(G) and G is abelian group, then G has unique subgroup of
order pm

i.e., all these p-SSG in any finite abelian group are unique.

• If |G| = pq, p < q, p ∤ q − 1, G is cyclic.

All the best!

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