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Chapter 1 Summary-1

Chapter 1 discusses power series, including their general form and specific cases like Maclaurin and Taylor series, which represent functions as infinite sums of terms derived from their derivatives. It also introduces the Principle of Superposition for solutions to differential equations and classifies points in ordinary differential equations as ordinary or singular, with further distinctions for regular and irregular singular points. Finally, it describes series solutions near ordinary and regular singular points, including the Frobenius method for finding solutions.

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Fazatul Natasha
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3 views2 pages

Chapter 1 Summary-1

Chapter 1 discusses power series, including their general form and specific cases like Maclaurin and Taylor series, which represent functions as infinite sums of terms derived from their derivatives. It also introduces the Principle of Superposition for solutions to differential equations and classifies points in ordinary differential equations as ordinary or singular, with further distinctions for regular and irregular singular points. Finally, it describes series solutions near ordinary and regular singular points, including the Frobenius method for finding solutions.

Uploaded by

Fazatul Natasha
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Review Chapter 1

1. A power series (in one variable) is an infinite series of the form

𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑛 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )1 + 𝑎2 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑛 + ⋯
𝑛=0

where an represents the coefficient of the nth term, x0 is a constant, and x varies around x0 (the
series as being centered at x0).

If x0 is equal to zero, for instance when considering a Maclaurin series. In such cases, the power
series takes the simpler form

𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥1 + +𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯
𝑛=0

Power series can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided using the rules.

2. In mathematics, the Taylor series is a representation of a function as an infinite sum of terms


calculated from the values of its derivatives at a single point.

The Taylor series of a real or complex function ƒ(x) that is infinitely differentiable in a
neighborhood of a real or complex number x0, is the power series

∞
𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥0 ) 𝑛
𝑓 (1) (𝑥0 ) 𝑓 (2) (𝑥0 )
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ (𝑥 )
− 𝑥0 = 𝑓(𝑥0) + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2
𝑛! 1! 2!
𝑛=0
𝑓 (3) (𝑥0 ) 𝑓 (4) (𝑥0 )
+ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )3 + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )4 + ⋯
3! 4!

where n! denotes the factorial of n and ƒ (n)(x0) denotes the nth derivative of ƒ evaluated at the
point, x0.

3. Principle of Superposition
If y1(x), y2(x), , yn(x) are solutions to a differential equation, then the linear combinations of
n
these solutions y  c1 y1 (x)  c2 y2 (x)    cn yn (x)   ck yk (x) is also a solution with ck for
k 1
k  1, 2, , n are constants.
Ordinary differential equations
1. Classifications of points
Consider a homogeneous linear second order ordinary differential equations with variable
coefficients P(x) y  Q(x) y  R(x) y  0 where P(x), Q(x) and R(x) are polynomials
containing no common factors. If
a) P(x0 )  0 then x0 is called an ordinary point
b) P(x0 )  0 then x0 is called a singular point and if the
Q(x) R(x)
lim x  x0  and lim x  x0 2 are both finite then x0 is called a regular
x  x0 P(x) x x0 P(x)
singular point. Otherwise (either one or both limits is infinite) then x0 is said an
irregular singular point.

2. Series solutions near ordinary points

If x  x0 is an ordinary point for the differential equation P(x) y  Q(x) y  R(x) y  0 ,

then there exist a power series solution of the form y   an (x  x0 )n .
n 0
3. Series solutions near regular singular points

If x  x0 is a regular singular point for the differential equation


P(x) y   Q(x) y   R(x) y  0 , then there at exist at least one power series solution of the

form y   an (x  x0 )n  r for a real number r, called Frobenius series and the use of such
n 0
series to find solutions about regular singular point is called Frobenius method.
Case 1: The indicial roots do not differ by an integer
Case 2: The indicial roots differ by zero

 0 
Case 3: The indicial roots differ by an integer  case and case  
 0 

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