Laboratory Equipment & Instruments

Goggles Evaporating Dish Bunsen Burner Crucible Tongs

Test Tube Test Tube Holder Wash Bottle Wire Gauze

 Laboratory Equipment & Instruments

Graduated Cylinder Beaker Dropper

Hot Plate Water Bath

 Chemicals
• Manganese dioxide. MnO2 • Hydrochloric acid HCl
• Barium hydroxide. Ba(OH)2 • Nitric acid HNO3
• Barium chloride BaCl2 • Sulfuric acid H2SO4
• Barium sulfate BaSO4 • Ferrous sulfate FeSO4
• Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2 • Acetic acid HC2H3O2
• Barium acetate Ba(C2H3O2)2 • Ammonium carbonate (NH4)2CO3
• Calcium acetate Ca(C2H3O2)2 • Ammonium chloride NH4Cl
• Ammonium acetate NH4C2H3O2 • Sodium hydroxide NaOH
• Calcium fluoride CaF2 • Barium carbonate BaCO3
• Silver nitrate AgNO3 • Calcium oxalate CaC2O4
• Ammonia(aq) NH3(aq) • Potassium chromate K2CrO4
• Lead acetate Pb(C2H3O2)2 • Barium chromate BaCrO4
• Lead bromide (iodide) PbBr2 (PbI2) • Potassium chloride. KCl
• di-ammonium hydrogen phosphate (NH4)2HPO4 • Potassium chlorate KClO3
• Magnesium ammonium phosphate MgNH4PO4
Density
Aim:

To determine the density of:

1. Regular-shaped solid.

2. Irregular-shaped solid.

3. A liquid.
 Introduction

• Density is defined as mass per unit volume,

Density = Mass / Volume

• It is an intensive property

[i.e it is independent on the sample’s size]

• Density changes with temperature and pressure.

• As Temperature increases, volume increases, density decreases

• As pressure increases, volume decreases, density increases

 Liquid displacement method

This method used to find the volume of an irregular shape solid.

The following requirements must be satisfied:

The liquid used should not react with the solid.

The solid should sink in the liquid.

 Equipments for Experiment

Dropper
Graduated Cylinder

Balance

Ruler
Procedure:
1. Regular-shaped solid:
• Weigh the sample and record its mass (m).

• Measure the length, width and height of the sample (proper figures)

V=LxWxH

Where:

V: Volume, L: Length, W: width and H: Height

2. Liquid:
• Find the mass of a clean, dry, empty graduated cylinder (m1).
• Add ≈ 3 mL of a liquid and record the exact volume of the
liquid (v1).
• Weigh the cylinder with liquid and record the mass (m2) .
Mass of liquid (g) = m2 – m1
m2 : mass of the cylinder + liquid.
m1 : mass of the cylinder.
How to read the volume of a liquid

(meniscus)
3. Irregular-shaped solid:
• Weigh ≈ 4 pieces of the irregular solid and record the mass (g).

• Gently place the pieces into the cylinder containing the liquid
from part 2 (v1).

• Record the new volume of liquid and solid (v2).

Volume of solid sample (mL) = v2 - v1

 Data
1- Regular-shaped solid: Wood or metal or platic
Sample: _____
mass = _____ g
Volume:
L = ____ cm W= _____ cm H = _____ cm

2- Liquid: A or B or C
Sample: ____
mass of the empty cylinder (m1)= ----- g
mass of the cylinder + liquid (m2)= ----- g
volume of the liquid (v1)= ---- mL

3- Irregular-shaped solid:
mass of the sample [ 3-4 pieces ] (m)= ----- g
volume of the liquid (v1)= ----- mL (part 2)
volume of the liquid + solid (v2)= ----- mL
 Calculations:

Calculate the density of each sample

d (g/cm3) = m / V

Where:

m: mass (g)

V: volume (cm3)
 Comments
Preferably weigh on the same balance.

When recording volume of liquids, make sure to remove all air

bubbles.
Air bubbles

Make sure that there are no droplets of the liquid on the inner
sides of the cylinder.
Stoichiometry
Aim:
1. To find out the empirical formula of potassium chlorate

KXClXOY.

2. To calculate the mass percentage of potassium chlorate in a

mixture of potassium chlorate and potassium chloride.

 Introduction
1- The molecular formula of a compound (M.F.):
chemical formula that shows the types and the exact number of
atoms in a compound.

H 2O H 2O 2 C 6 H6

2- The empirical formula of a compound (E.F.):

chemical formula shows the simplest whole number ratio of
atoms in a compound.

H 2O HO CH
Molar mass: mass of one mole of a substance.

Catalyst: substance which increases the rate of a chemical

reaction without being consumed in the reaction.

Percentage composition:

X 100%
To determine the empirical formula of a compound:

• Identify the elements from which the compound composed.

• Find the mass of each element in a given sample of the

compound.

• Calculate the number of moles of each element in the sample.

𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬
𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬
𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬

• Divide the number of moles of each element by the smallest

number of moles of the elements.
To find the empirical formula of potassium chlorate :

• Calculate number of moles (X,Y)

K X Cl X O Y

• Divide by the smallest number of moles (X or Y).

• Round or multiply to get integers if needed.

Procedure:

1. In a clean tube, add a pinch of the catalyst (MnO2) then weigh the
tube with itse contents (m1).
2. Then add about 1 g of potassium chlorate and record the mass of
the tube with the contents (m2), tap to mix.
3. Heat for ≈ 15 min using bunsen burner (blue flame).
4. Allow the tube to cool (use wire gauze), then record the mass of
the tube and residue (m3).
5. Repeat steps 1 – 4 using the provided salt mixture instead of
potassium chlorate.
Bunsen Burner
Part (I)
2KClO3(s) 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

• mass of tube + catalyst (m1) = ________________g

• mass of tube + catalyst + potassium chlorate (m2) = ______g
• mass of tube + catalyst + residue(m3) = _______g
KCl O
Mass m3 – m1 m2 – m3
Moles ______ ______
• divide by the smallest moles
______ ______

Empirical formula is __________

Part (II)

2KClO3(s) + KCl(s) 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g) + KCl(s)

• mass of tube + catalyst(m1) = ______ g

• mass of tube + catalyst + salt (m2) = ______ g

• mass of tube + catalyst + residue(m3) = ______ g

Percent mass of potassium chlorate in the mixture

mKClO3/mmix x 100

mass of salt mixture = m2 – m1

mass of the evolved oxygen = m2 – m3
moles of oxygen evolved = mass / 16.0
moles of potassium chlorate in the mixture = moles of oxygen /3
mass of potassium chlorate in the mixture =
moles of potassium chlorate x molar mass
% mass of potassium chlorate in the mixture =
% mass of potassium chloride in the mixture =
(100) – (% mass of KClO3)
General Scheme for Acid Radicals
CO32-, SO42-, F-, Cl-, Br-, I-,NO3-
Aim:

Detect the following anions in a given salt:

CO32-, SO42-, F-, Cl-, Br-, I-,NO3-
Procedure:
To prepare a salt solution:

Take 1/4 spatula of the salt and dissolve it in 1 mL

(1 mL = 20 drops) of water.

*Shake well to dissolve all the salt*

Carbonate [ CO32- ]

• Take 1/4 spatula of the salt in a test tube an add 1-2 mL of dilute HCl.
• A colorless, odorless gas is evolved with strong effervescence (CO2).
• Pass the gas into the solution of Ba(OH)2 which will become turbid due to
white precipitate of BaCO3.

Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O + CO2(g)

CO2(g) + Ba(OH)2 BaCO3 (white ppt.) + H2O
Sulfate [ SO42- ]:

• To the salt solution of SO42-, add 1-2 mL of dilute HCl and 10 drops
of BaCl2 solution.

• A white precipitate is obtained.

Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 BaSO4 (s)(white ppt.) + 2NaCl (aq)

Cl-, Br-, I-:
Chloride [ Cl- ]:
• To the salt solution of Cl-, add 8 drops of AgNO3 solution.
• A white precipitate is obtained.
NaCl + AgNO3 AgCl(s) (white ppt.) + NaNO3
Confirmation test:
i- When aqueous ammonia (NH3(aq)) is added, the silver chloride (AgCl(s))
precipitate dissolves with the formation of the silver ammonia complex
ion ([Ag(NH3)2+ ] Cl-).

AgCl(ppt) + 2NH3(aq) [Ag(NH3)2+ ] Cl- soluble

ii- When nitric acid (HNO3) is added to the silver ammonia complex ion
([Ag(NH3)2+ ] Cl-), the silver chloride (AgCl(s)) precipitates again.

[Ag(NH3)2+ ] Cl- + 2HNO3 AgCl(s) (white ppt.) + 2NH4NO3

Bromide [ Br-]:

• To the salt solution of Br -, add 8 drops of AgNO3 solution.

• A pale yellow precipitate is obtained.

NaBr + AgNO3 AgBr (s) (pale yellow ppt.) + NaNO3

Confirmation test:

When lead acetate solution (Pb(C2H3O2)2) is added to the salt

solution of Br -, a white precipitate of PbBr2 is formed.

2NaBr + Pb(C2H3O2)2 PbBr2 (white ppt.) + 2Na C2H3O2

Iodide [ I- ]:

• To the salt solution of I-, add 8 drops of AgNO3 solution.

• A yellow precipitate is obtained.

NaI + AgNO3 AgI(s) (yellow ppt.) + NaNO3

Confirmation test:

When lead acetate solution (Pb(C2H3O2)2) is added to the salt

solution of I-, a yellow precipitate of PbI2 is formed.

2NaI + Pb(C2H3O2)2 PbI2 (yellow ppt.) + NaC2H3O2

Nitrate [ NO3- ]:

To the salt solution of NO3-, add:

• 4 drops of H2SO4
• 10 drops of FeSO4
• 5 drops of conc.H2SO4 ( pour along the side of the tube
without shaking)
A dark brown ring is formed at the junction of the two
solutions that disappears by shaking.

NaNO3 + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HNO3

6FeSO4 + HNO3 + 2H2SO4 3Fe2(SO4)3 + 2NO + 4H2O

FeSO4 + NO [Fe(NO)]SO4]

Brown ring
These notes are not enough , you have to study from the Lab manual as well.

1. Review:
Salt: a salt is an ionic consisting of cations and anions so that the product is electrically neutral
(without a net charge). Cations (positively charged ions) are called basic radicals and anions
(negatively charged ions) are called acidic radicals.
Example: Na2CO3 = Na+ is the basic radical CO32- is the acidic radical
Acidic radicals Basic radicals
1. These have a positive charge and are also called cations. 1. These have a negative charge
and are also called anions.
2. Example: Most of all non-metallic ions and groups of non-metallic atoms with a negative
charge are acid radicals. 1. Example: All metallic ions and ammonium ion (NH4+) are basic
radicals.

Basic Radicals I: Na+, K+, Ba2+, Ca2+, Mg2+

1. Ba2+, Ca2+, Mg2+ are tested using the procedure chart in your manual.
How to wash a precipitate?
1. Add about 1 mL of water (or a recommended washing solution) into the tube containing
the precipitate.
2. Stir with a vertical motion with a stirring rod to suspend the solid in the washing solution.
3. Centrifuge and decant off the liquid.

Using the water bath:

Warming: heating (in water bath) for about 3 minutes.
Heating: heating (in water bath) for about 5 minutes.
Boiling: heating (in water bath) for about 7 minutes.

How to test for acid or base? Using litmus paper.

Acidic solution pH < 7 BLUE litmus paper turns RED
Basic solution pH > 7 RED litmus paper turns BLUE
Neutral solution pH=7

Centrifugation of Precipitates: (to separate the precipitate out of solution)

is the technique which involves the application of centrifugal force to separate particles from a
solution according to their size, shape, density, viscosity of the medium and rotor speed.
Before turning on the centrifuge machine:
• Balance your test tubes.
• Make sure that the test tube is cooled down after being heated.

Na+, K+ ions are tested using flame test because:

There salts are soluble in water. The test is easy and reliable.
To perform flame test:
1. Place the wire in HCl solution and heat in Bunsen burner to clean.
2. Dip the wire in a solution of the desired ion, heat and observe the color of the flame.
Why using platinum wire?
1. Platinum doesn't impart any color to the flame.
2. It is not oxidized under the high temperature of the flame from a Bunsen burner.
Can we use glass rod or copper wires??
How the flame test works?
If you excite an atom or an ion by very strong heating, electrons can be promoted from their
normal unexcited state into higher orbitals. As they fall back down to lower levels (either in one
go or in several steps), energy is released as light.
Each of these jumps involves a specific amount of energy being released as light energy, and
each corresponds to a particular wavelength (or frequency).

Flame test for:

Na+ : yellowish -orange color
K+: purple/violet color

Basic radical two

Oxidation: loss of electrons and increase in the oxidation number.

Na Na+ + e-
Reduction: gain of electrons and decrease in the oxidation number.

Na+ + e- Na
2Cl- + 2e- Cl2
The reactions involving both oxidation and reduction reactions are often called redox reactions
Oxidizing agent: The substance that is reduced [gains electrons ]
Reducing agent: The substance that is oxidized [loses electrons ]

Buffer solution:
It is an aqueous solution of a weak acid and its salt or a weak base and its salt that resists
changes in the pH when acid or base is added to it.
Examples of buffer solutions:
Acidic buffer :HF and NaF
CH3COOH and CH3COONa
Basic buffer : NH3 and NH4Cl
By choosing the proper components, a buffer solution with a certain pH can be prepared.

Test for complete precipitation

1. In some experiments, it is important to remove completely one or more ions from the
solution by adding a precipitating reagent.
1. To verify that the precipitated ion (ions) has been removed, a test for complete
precipitation is carried out.
1. The liquid above the precipitate is separated, and a small amount of the precipitating
agent is added to it to determine if any more precipitate will form.
1. Repeat the process until no more precipitate are formed.

Chemical equations = See the manual.

Lab equipment chem 105

Beaker Measuring (graduated) Cylinder Analytical balance

Washing Bottle Test Tube Test Tube Holder

Test Tube Rack Spatula Glass Rod

Bunsen Burner Centrifuge Hot Water Bath

Hot Plate Evaporating Dish Wire gauze

Tongs Dropper Litmus Paper

Density: is defined as mass per unit volume

Liquid displacement method: This method used to find the

volume of an irregular shape solid.

Stiochiometry: Describes the quantitative relationship among the

amount of reactants and products

Empirical formula: A chemical formula that shows the simplest

whole number ratio of atoms in a compound.

Molecular formula: A chemical formula that shows the types and

the exact number of atoms in a compound.

Catalyst: Is the substance which increases the rate of the reaction

without taking part in the reaction ( without being consumed in
the reaction) e.g Maganese dioxide (black color )

Percentage composition: Mass of a certain compound/mass of

original material * 100

To prepare a salt solution: Take 1/4 spatula of the salt and

dissolve it in 1 mL of water

Moles: Mass/molar mass (mwt)

Molar mass: mass of one mole of a substance.

Oxidation: Loss of electrons and increase in the oxidation number

Reduction: Gain of electrons and decrease in the oxidation

number

Oxidizing agent: The substance that is reduced ( gains electrons)

Reducing agent: The substance that is oxidized ( loses electrons)

Buffer solution: A solution of a weak acid and its salt [ or a weak

base and its salt ] that resists changes in the pH when an acid or
a base are added to it

Wash the precipitate: Add few drops of water to ppt. Centrifuge

and discard the solution

Test for complete precipitation: Add the precipitating agent to the

solution ( half the amount of the last step ). Centrifuge and discard
the ppt.

To perform flame test: Place the wire in HCl solution and heat in
Bunsen burner to clean .Dip the wire in a solution of the desired
ion, heat and observe the color of the flame.

Aqua regia "royal water" or "king's water": is a mixture of conc.

nitric acid HNO₃ and conc. hydrochloric acid HCl, in a molar ratio
of 1:3.