FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NASARAWA

BASIC COMPUTER NETWORKING

COM 221

COMPUTER SCIENCE DEPARTMENT,

SCHOOL OF INRFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

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 UNIT ONE
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS
1.1 Data Communication: When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local
or remote. Between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while remote
communication takes place over distance.
1.1.1 Components:
A data communications system has five components.

1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information include
text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic
cable, and radio waves
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement between
the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating; just as
a person who speaks, only Japanese cannot understand a person speaking French.
1.1.2 Data Representation
Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.
a. Text: In data communications, the text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or 1s). Different
sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is called a code, and the process of
representing symbols is called coding. Today, the prevalent coding system is called Unicode, which uses 32
bits to represent a symbol or character used in any language in the world. The American Standard Code for
Information Interchange (ASCII), developed some decades ago in the United States, now constitutes the first
127 characters in Unicode and is also referred to as Basic Latin.
b.Numbers: Numbers are represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used to represent
numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify mathematical operations. Appendix
B discusses several different numbering systems.
c. Images: Images are represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of
pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel depends on the resolution. For
example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels. In the second case, there is a better
representation of the image (better resolution), but more memory is needed to store the image. After an image
is divided into pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit pattern. The size and the value of the pattern depend on the
image. For an image made of only black and- white dots (e.g., a chessboard), an I-bit pattern is enough to
represent a pixel. If an image is not made of pure white and pure black pixels, you can increase the size of the

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 bit pattern to include a grayscale For example, to show four levels of grey scale, you can use 2-bit patterns. A
black pixel can be represented by 00, a dark gray pixel by 01, a light grey pixel by 10, and a white pixel by
11. There are several methods to represent colour images. One method is called RGB, so called because each
colour is made of a combination of three primary colours: red, green, and blue. The intensity of each colour
is measured, and a bit pattern is assigned to it. Another method is called YCM, in which a colour is made of
a combination of three other primary colours: yellow, cyan, and magenta.
d.Audio: Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature different from
text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a microphone to change voice or
music to an electric signal, we create a continuous signal. In Chapters 4 and 5, we learn how to change sound
or music to a digital or an analog signal.
e. Video: Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be produced as a
continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a discrete entity, arranged
to convey the idea of motion. Again we can change video to a digital or an analog signal.
1.1.3 Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as shown in Figure
1.Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples
of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output. The simplex
mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
2. Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa the half-duplex mode is like a one-lane
road with traffic allowed in both directions.
When cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait. In a half-duplex transmission, the
entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time. Walkie-
talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.
The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the same
time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
3. Full-Duplex: In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. The full-duplex mode
is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time. In full-duplex mode, signals
going in one direction share the capacity of the link: with signals going in the other direction. This sharing can
occur in two ways: Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending
and the other for receiving. One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network.
When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time. The full-
duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The capacity of the
channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
1.2 NETWORKS
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.

Distributed Processing
Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple computers. Instead of one
single large machine being responsible for all aspects of a process, separate computers (usually a personal
computer or workstation) handle a subset.
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 1.2.1 Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are performance,
reliability, and security.

I. Performance: Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time. Transit
time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another. Response time is the
elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance of a network depends on a number of
factors, including the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected
hardware, and the efficiency of the software. Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics:
throughput and delay. We often need more throughput and less delay. However, these two criteria are often
contradictory. If we try to send more data to the network, we may increase throughput but we increase the
delay because of traffic congestion in the network.
II. Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure,
the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
III.Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from
damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data
losses.
1.2.2 Advantages of Computer Networking

1. Allows File Sharing: Computer networking allows accessibility for the people to share their files easily.
This greatly helps the people in saving their time and effort since they could already share some of the
important files they need to share with other people effectively and accordingly.
2. Provides Convenient Resource Sharing: This is another benefit that you may be acquiring if you are going
to access computer networking. This is very important particularly for those larger companies who are greatly
in need to produce huge number of resources to be shared to all the people. Since this is a computer based
works, you will be assured that the resources you wanted to give to the people would be completely shared if
you are going to connect them in a network which you are also using.
3. Inexpensive System: Installing computer networking software in your gadget would not cost you too much
since you are assured that the software is durable and can effectively share information to the people you need
it to. You need not to change the software regularly since it is very simple and can last for a couple of years.
4. Flexible to be Used: Computer networking is known to be very flexible since you are given the chance to
explore everything about the software without affecting its functionality. You will have accessibility to all the
information that needs to be shared.
5. Increase in Storage Capacity of the Software: Since you are going to share files and resources to other
people, you need to make sure that all the data and files are properly stored in the system. With computer
networking you are assured that all the files would be stored properly depending on your saved file.

1.2.3 Disadvantages of Computer Networking

1. Security Difficulties: Since there are already huge number of people who are using computer networking
in sharing some of their files and resources, your security would be always at risk. There might be illegal
activities that will occur that you need to be aware and be careful all the time.
2. Presence of Computer Viruses and Other Malwares: There are instances that the stored file you have in
your gadget is already destroyed because there are already viruses that corrupt your file. Hence you need to
have regular check-up on your gadget at the same time to the stored files you have.

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3. Lack of Independence: Since computer networking is a process operated through computers, people are
already relying more of the works of the computer rather than exerting an effort for their works.

1.2.4 Types of Computer Network

Generally, networks are distinguished based on their geographical span. A network can be as small as distance
between your mobile phone and its Bluetooth headphone and as large as the internet itself, covering the whole
geographical world,

Personal Area Network

A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very personal to a user. This may include
Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices. PAN has connectivity range up to 10 meters. PAN may
include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth enabled headphones, wireless printers and TV
remotes.

For example, Pico net is Bluetooth-enabled Personal Area Network, which may contain up to eight devices
connected together in a master-slave fashion.

Local Area Network

Local Area Network (LAN): a local area network typically interconnects hosts that are up to a few or maybe a
few tens of kilometers apart. Usually, LAN covers an organization’ offices, schools, colleges or universities.
Number of systems connected in LAN may vary from as least as two to sixteen million.

LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end users. The resources such as printers, file
servers, scanners, and internet are easily sharable among computers.
LANs are composed of inexpensive networking and routing equipment. It may contains local servers serving
file storage and other locally shared applications. It mostly operates on private IP addresses and does not involve
heavy routing. LAN works under its own local domain and controlled centrally.

LAN uses either Ethernet or Token-ring technology. Ethernet is most widely employed LAN technology and
uses Star topology, while Token-ring is rarely seen.
LAN can be wired, wireless, or in both forms at once.

Metropolitan Area Network

The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): a metropolitan area network typically interconnects devices that are
up to a few hundred kilometers apart. Generally expands throughout a city such as cable TV network. It can be
in the form of Ethernet, Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).

Metro Ethernet is a service, which is provided by ISPs. This service enables its users to expand their Local Area
Networks. For example, MAN can help an organization to connect all of its offices in a city.

Backbone of MAN is high capacity and high-speed fiber optics. MAN works in between Local Area Network
and Wide Area Network. MAN provides uplink for LANs to WANs or internet.

Wide Area Network

As the name suggests, the Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a wide area, which may span across provinces,
a whole country and interconnect hosts that can be located anywhere on Earth. Generally, telecommunication
networks are Wide Area Network. These networks provide connectivity to MANs and LANs. Since they are
equipped with high-speed backbone, WANs use very expensive network equipment.

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WAN may use advanced technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), Frame Relay, and
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). WAN may be managed by multiple administration.

1.3 Client/Server Computer

• Client:
The client is any computer process that requests services from the server. The client is also known as the front-
end- application, reflecting the fact that the end user usually interacts with the client process.
• Server:
The server is any computer process providing services to the clients. The server is also known as the back-end
application, reflecting the fact that the server process provides the background services for the client process.
1.3.1 Difference between Client and Server

Based on Client Server

Basic Client relies on the services of server, and Server authorizes the client's requests and
functionality generates requests for various services. facilitates them with the requested services.

Configuration The configuration of client systems is The configuration of the server is more
simple. Their tasks are limited to complex and sophisticated. Server has
generating requests. It has a basic advanced hardware configuration.
hardware configuration.

Efficiency The efficiency of client is limited. The performance of server is high, and they
are highly efficient.

Tasks The common tasks for client are simple The complex tasks like fulfilling client
and mostly include requesting services. requests, storing and processing large
datasets, data analysis are common for
server.

Switch off The client systems can be switch off Switching off servers may be disastrous for
without any fear. client systems that continuously request the
services.

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 Login There can be single user logins. Server support multiple user login and
Support request processing simultaneously.

Examples Examples of clients are smartphones, Examples of servers are web servers, file
desktops, laptops, etc. servers, database servers, etc.

1.4 Wired/Wireless
Wired - communicates through data cables (most commonly Ethernet-based)
Wireless - communicates through radio waves

1.4.1 Comparison between Wired or Wireless Home Network

Features Wired Home Network Wireless Home networks
The networking of the wired home The networking of the wireless networking
networks are more faster as compared to is good and better for the future resources
other types of wireless networking devices but it is not faster as the wired home
Networking because they are able to provide the speed networking devices. Wi-Fi is the common
of more than 1000 Mbps. types of wireless home network that can
provide the reliable working

We need many expenses to configure or As compared to other wired devices it is

setup the wired home network. easy to setup the wireless networking
Cost
Because we need large money to devices at the very low and at the reliable
Comparison
cost

More reliable Faster internet Transfer of You can Access internet from any place
data at a very faster speed through hot pots No hassles of cables No
Advantages
need any kind of wiring for installation

It can’t provide mobile network Not very much reliable

Difficult to lay down the cables and it looks Only best for mobile devices such as
Cons very messy when install outside Laptops Not faster as compared to wired
devices

UNIT TWO
INTERNET-INTRANET-EXTRANET

2.1 Internet
A network of networks is called an internet. It is the largest network in existence on this planet. The internet
hugely connects all WANs and it can have connection to LANs and Home networks. Internet uses TCP/IP
protocol suite and uses IP as its addressing protocol. Present day, Internet is widely implemented using IPv4.
Because of shortage of address spaces, it is gradually migrating from IPv4 to IPv6.

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Internet enables its users to share and access enormous amount of information worldwide. It uses WWW, FTP,
email services, audio and video streaming etc. At huge level, internet works on Client-Server model.

Internet uses very high speed backbone of fiber optics. To inter-connect various continents, fibers are laid under
sea known to us as submarine communication cable.

Internet is widely deployed on World Wide Web services using HTML linked pages and is accessible by client
software known as Web Browsers. When a user requests a page using some web browser located on some Web
Server anywhere in the world, the Web Server responds with the proper HTML page. The communication delay
is very low.

2.1.1 Internet Application

i. The World-Wide Web (WWW)
ii. Electronic Mail (E-Mail)
iii. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
iv. Search Engine
v. Chatting
vi. Video Conferencing
vii. E-Commerce

2.2 Intranet
1. An intranet is a corporate LAN or wide area network (WAN) that uses Internet technology and is secured
behind company’s firewalls (see security and protection).
2. The intranet links various servers, clients, databases, and application programs like Enterprise Resource
Planning (ERP). Although intranets are developed on the same TCP/IP protocol as the Internet, they operate
as a private network with limited access.
3. Only authorized employees are able to use it. Intranets are limited to information pertinent to the
company and contain exclusive and often proprietary and sensitive information.
4. The firewalls protect the intranets from unauthorized outside access; the intranet can be used to enhance
the communications and collaboration among authorized employees, customers, suppliers, and other
business partners.

Internet Access
To gain access to the internet, the user has to register to any Internet Service Provider (ISP).
Types of Internet access
 Dial-up
 Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
 Integrated services digital network
 Internet over Satellite
 Wireless Internet Connections
Dial-up
• Slower than other type of connection
• Connects through existing phone lines using dial-up modem
• It is the Cheapest
• Must “dial-up” to connect to Internet and disconnect when done.
• Cannot use Internet and phone line at the same time.
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Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
• Broadband – faster than dial-up connection
• Connects through phone lines, but does not require phone service
• Always on
• Internet and phone can be used at the same time
• Unavailable in many location
Cable
• Broadband – faster than dial-up and DSL
• Use cable connection
• Always on
• Only available where cable is available
Satellite
• Broadband – faster than dial-up, but data is delayed
• Connects via satellites
• Can be affected by rain and snow
• Does not require phone lines and cables
• Can be use anywhere around the world
3G and 4G
• Available for mobile phones, computers and tablets
• Connects wirelessly through 3G/4G provider
• Can access Internet anywhere
• Slower than DSL and Cable connection
Wireless computer networks and Internet access
a. Bluetooth (802.15)
i. Links up to 8 devices in 10-m area
ii. Useful for personal networking (PANs) and in business to transmit data from handheld devices to other
transmitters
b. Wi-Fi (802.11)
i. Set of standards: 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n
ii. Used for wireless LAN and wireless Internet access
iii. Use access points: Device with radio receiver/transmitter for connecting
iv. Hotspots: Access points in public place to provide maximum wireless coverage for a specific area
v. Weak security features

c. Wi-Max (802.16)
i. Wireless access range of 31 miles
ii. Require WiMax antennas
iii. Sprint Nextel building WiMax network as foundation for 4G networks
Internet Requirement
• Computer with modem/router/network card.
• Internet account with ISP.
• Application software:
– Web browser (Firefox, Chrome)
– Email client (MS Outlook)
– Plugins software (Adobe Reader, Flash Player)
• Optional: Speaker, Printer, Webcam.
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 2.3 Extranet
1. An extranet, or “extended intranet”, uses the TCP/IP protocol network of the Internet, to link intranets
in different locations.
2. Extranet transmission is usually conducted over the Internet, which offers little privacy or transmission
security.
3. Therefore, when using an extranet, it is necessary to improve the security of connecting portions of he
Internet. This can be done by creating tunnels (see paragraph on security and protection) of secured data
flows, using cryptography and authorization algorithm.
4. The Internet with tunneling technology is known as a virtually private network (VPN).

Diagrammatic Contrast of the Internet, Intranet, and Extranet

2.4 Difference between internet, intranet, and extranet

Internet Intranet Extranet
It is a global system of It is a private network specific to It is a private network that uses
interconnected computer an organization. public network to information with
networks. suppliers vendors
Not regulated by any one It is regulated by an organization It is regulated by multiple
organizations.
The content in the network is The content in the network is The content in the network is
accessible to everyone accessible only to members of accessible to members of
connected. organization. organization and external members
with access to network.
It is largest in terms of number of It is a small network with minimal The number of devices connected is
connected device. number of connected device. comparable with intranet.
It is owned by no one. It is owned by single organization It is owned by single/multiple
organization.
It is means of sharing It is means of sharing sensitive It is means of sharing information
information throughout the information throughout an between members and external
world. organization members.

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 Security is depending of the user Security is enforced via a firewall. Security is enforced via a firewall
of device connected to network. that separates internet and extranet.

Users can access internet Users should have valid Users should have valid
anonymously. username/password to access username/password to access
intranet. extranet.

2.5 Private Network (VPN)

This VPN is a private network of computers linked using a secure “tunnel” connection over the Internet. It
protects data transmitted over the public Internet by encoding the data and “wrapping” them within the Internet
Protocol (IP). By adding a wrapper around a network message to hide its content, organizations can create a
private connection that travels through the public Internet.

2.6 Firewalls
A firewalls is a system that prevents un-authorized access to or from a private network. T examines each
message entering and leaving the network, and allows only those authorized message to pass through. It can be
implemented in hardware and software or both. A firewall helps to keep your computer more secure. It restricts
information that comes to your computer from other computers, giving you more control over the data on your
computer and providing a line of defense against people or programs.

2.6.1 Importance:
1. It allows only authorized access to inside network.
2. It prevent insider stacks on critical systems.
3. A firewall as a barrier, check information coming from the internet or a network and allow it to pass through
to your computer, depending on your firewall settings.
4. It provides the ability to control access to site system. It can greatly improve network security and reduce
risk to hosts on the subnet by filtering inherently insecure services.

2.6.2 Benefits or advantages of firewalls:

1. Internet firewalls allow the network administrator to define a centralized ‘choke point’ that keeps
unauthorized users such as hackers, crackers, vandals and spies and providing protection from various types
of routing attacks.
2. Firewalls offer a convenient point where internet security can be monitored and alarms generated.
3. An internet firewall is a logical place to deploy a network address translator (NAT) that can help alleviate
the address space shortage and eliminate the need to re-number when an organization changes its ISP’s.
4. An internet firewall is the perfect point to audit or log internet usage.
5. An internet firewall can also offer a central point of contract for information delivery service to customers.

2.6.3 Types of firewalls:

1. Application Gateways: the first firewalls were application gateways, and are sometimes known as proxy
gateways. These are sun with special software to act as a proxy server.
2. Packet filtering: packet filtering is a techniques where by routers have ACLs(Access Control Lists) turned
on. By default, a router will pass all traffic sent it, and will do so without any sort of restrictions.
3. Hybrid Systems: in an attempt to marry the security of the application layer gateways with the flexibility
and speed of packet filtering, some vendors have created systems that use the principles of both.

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 2.7 Security Zone
During initial days of internet, its use was limited to military and universities for research and development
purpose. Later when all networks merged together and formed internet, the data used to travel through public
transit network. Common people may send the data that can be highly sensitive such as their bank credentials,
username and passwords, personal documents, online shopping details, or confidential documents.

All security threats are intentional i.e. they occur only if intentionally triggered. Security threats can be divided
into the following categories:
a. Interruption: Interruption is a security threat in which availability of resources is attacked. For example, a
user is unable to access its web-server or the web-server is hijacked.
b. Privacy-Breach: In this threat, the privacy of a user is compromised. Someone, who is not the authorized
person is accessing or intercepting data sent or received by the original authenticated user.
c. Integrity: This type of threat includes any alteration or modification in the original context of communication.
The attacker intercepts and receives the data sent by the sender and the attacker then either modifies or
generates false data and sends to the receiver. The receiver receives the data assuming that it is being sent by
the original Sender.
d. Authenticity: This threat occurs when an attacker or a security violator, poses as a genuine person and
accesses the resources or communicates with other genuine users.

No technique in the present world can provide 100% security. But steps can be taken to secure data while it
travels in unsecured network or internet. The most widely used technique is Cryptography.
Cryptography is a technique to encrypt the plain-text data which makes it difficult to understand and interpret.
There are several cryptographic algorithms available present day as described below:
I. Secret Key
II. Public Key
III. Message Digest

Secret Key Encryption

Both sender and receiver have one secret key. This secret key is used to encrypt the data at sender’s end. After
the data is encrypted, it is sent on the public domain to the receiver. Because the receiver knows and has the
Secret Key, the encrypted data packets can easily be decrypted.

Example of secret key encryption is Data Encryption Standard (DES). In Secret Key encryption, it is required
to have a separate key for each host on the network making it difficult to manage.

Public Key Encryption

In this encryption system, every user has its own Secret Key and it is not in the shared domain. The secret key
is never revealed on public domain. Along with secret key, every user has its own but public key. Public key is
always made public and is used by Senders to encrypt the data. When the user receives the encrypted data, he
can easily decrypt it by using its own Secret Key.
Example of public key encryption is Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA).

Message Digest
In this method, actual data is not send; instead, a hash value is calculated and sent. The other end user, computes
its own hash value and compares with the one just received. If both hash values are matched, then it is accepted
otherwise rejected.
Example of Message Digest is MD5 hashing. It is mostly used in authentication where user password is cross
checked with the one saved on the server.
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 UNIT THREE
HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

3.1 Network Hardware Components: Crimper/clamper, RJ-45 jack male/female, LAN/Cable tester, UTP,
Fiber cable, HUB/Switch/Router/Bridge, patch panel, cable manager.Network Interface Cards (NICs),
Wireless access points, Modems

Repeater:

Hub:

Switch:

Bridge:

Routers

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Gateways

Bridge:

Modem:

Network interface card (NIC):

Summary of the devices

Device Function/Purpose Key Points
Hub Connects devices on a twisted-pair A hub does not perform any tasks besides signal
network. regeneration.
Switch Switch Connects devices on a A switch forwards data to its destination by using the
twisted-pair network. MAC address embedded in each packet.
Bridge Bridge Divides networks to reduce A bridge allows or prevents data from passing
overall network traffic. through it by reading the MAC address.
Router Router Connects networks A router uses the software-configured network
together. address to make forwarding decisions.
Gateway Gateway Translates from one data Gateways can be hardware or software based. Any
format to another. device that translates data formats is called a
gateway.

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 CSU/DSU Translates digital signals used on a CSU/DSU functionality is sometimes incorporated
LAN to those used on a WAN. into other devices, such as a router with a WAN
connection.
Network card Enables systems to connect to the Network interfaces can be add-in expansion cards,
network. PCMCIA cards, or built-in interfaces.

ISDN Connects devices to ISDN lines. ISDN is a digital WAN technology often used in
terminal place of slower modem links. ISDN terminal adapters
adapter are required to reformat the data format for
transmission on ISDN links.
System area Used in server clusters to provide System area network cards are high-performance
network card connectivity between nodes. devices capable of coping with the demands of
clustering applications.
WAP WAP Provides network capabilities A WAP is often used to connect to a wired network,
to wireless network devices. thereby acting as a link between wired and wireless
portions of the network.
Modem Modem Provides serial Modems modulate the digital signal into analog at the
communication capabilities across sending end and perform the reverse function at the
phone lines. receiving end.

UNIT FOUR
DIFFERENT TYPES OF NETWORK CONNECTIONS

4.0 Type of Connection

A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway that transfers
data from one device to another. For visualization purposes, it is simplest to imagine any link as a line drawn
between two points. For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same link
at the same time. There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.

Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity
of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point connections use an actual
length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also
possible. When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-to-point
connection between the remote control and the television's control system.
Multipoint: A multipoint connection is one in which more than two specific devices share a single link. In a
multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices
can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared
connection.

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4.1 NETWORK CABLING
Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device to another. There are
several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs. In some cases, a network will utilize only one type
of cable, other networks will use a variety of cable types. The type of cable chosen for a network is related to
the network's topology, protocol, and size. Understanding the characteristics of different types of cable and how
they relate to other aspects of a network is necessary for the development of a successful network.
The following sections discuss the types of cables used in networks and other related topics.

• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable

• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable
• Coaxial Cable
• Fiber Optic Cable
• Wireless LANs
• Cable Installation Guides
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and unshielded. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most
popular and is generally the best option for school networks..

Fig of Unshielded twisted pair

The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable. The cable has four
pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number of twists per inch to help eliminate
interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices. The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported
transmission rate and the greater the cost per foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry
Association/Telecommunication Industry Association) has established standards of UTP and rated five
categories of wire.

16
Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair
Type Use

Category 1 Voice Only (Telephone Wire)

Category 2 Data to 4 Mbps (Local Talk)

Category 3 Data to 10 Mbps (Ethernet)

Category 4 Data to 20 Mbps (16 Mbps Token Ring)

Category 5 Data to 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet)

Buy the best cable you can afford; most schools purchase Category 3 or Category 5. If you are designing a 10
Mbps Ethernet network and are considering the cost savings of buying Category 3 wire instead of Category 5,
remember that the Category 5 cable will provide more "room to grow" as transmission technologies increase.
Both Category 3 and Category 5 UTP have a maximum segment length of 100 meters. In Florida, Category 5
cable is required for retrofit grants. 10BaseT refers to the specifications for unshielded twisted pair cable
(Category 3, 4, or 5) carrying Ethernet signals. Category 6 is relatively new and is used for gigabit connections.

Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

Fig of RJ-45 connector

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency interference. Shielded
twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments with electrical interference; however, the extra shielding can
make the cables quite bulky. Shielded twisted pair is often used on networks using Token Ring topology.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides insulation between the
center conductor and a braided metal shield. The metal shield helps to block any outside interference from
fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.

Fig. of Coaxial cable

17
Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In addition, it can
support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable. The two types of coaxial cabling
are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.

Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thin net. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin coaxial cable
carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment length being 200 meters. In actual
fact the maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin coaxial cable is popular in school networks, especially
linear bus networks.

Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thick net. 10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick coaxial cable
carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length being 500 meters. Thick coaxial cable
has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away from the center conductor. This makes thick
coaxial a great choice when running longer lengths in a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick coaxial
is that it does not bend easily and is difficult to install.

Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayone-Neill- Concelman (BNC)
connector. Different types of adapters are available for BNC connectors, including a T-connector, barrel
connector, and terminator. Connectors on the cable are the weakest points in any network. To help avoid
problems with your network, always use the BNC connectors that crimp, rather than screw, onto the cable.

Fig. of BNC connector

Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective materials. It
transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical interference. This makes it
ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount of electrical interference. It has also made it the
standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting.

Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and twisted pair. It
also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity broadens communication
possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and interactive services. The cost of fiber optic
cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it is more difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF refers to
the specifications for fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.

Fig. of Fiber optic cable

Facts about fiber optic cables:
• Outer insulating jacket is made of Teflon or PVC.
• Kevlar fiber helps to strengthen the cable and prevent breakage.
• A plastic coating is used to cushion the fiber center.
• Center (core) is made of glass or plastic fibers.
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 Fiber Optic Connector
The most common connector used with fiber optic cable is an ST connector. It is barrel shaped, similar to a
BNC connector. A newer connector, the SC, is becoming more popular. It has a squared face and is easier to
connect in a confined space.

Ethernet Cabling
The types of Ethernet cables available are

1. Straight-through cable
2. Crossover cable
3. Rolled cable
Straight-through cable
Four wires are used in straight-through cable to connect Ethernet devices. It is relatively simple to create this
type. Only pins1, 2, 3 and 6 are used. Just connect 1 to1, 2 to 2, 3 to 3 and 6 to 6 and you will be up and
networking in no time while practically we connect all 4 pairs straighten of CAT-5. However, this would be an
Ethernet only cable and would not work with Voice, Token Ring, ISDN, etc. This type of cable is used to
connect

1. Host to switch or hub

2. Router to switch or hub

Fig. of Straight-through cable

Crossover Cable
Four wires are used in straight-through cable to connect Ethernet devices. Only four pins are used in this type
of cabling. In crossover cable we connect 1 to3 and 2 to 6 on each side of cable. This type of cable is used to
connect
1. Switch to switch
2. Hub to hub
3. Host to host
4. Hub to switch
5. Router direct to host

Fig. of Cross over cable

Rolled Cable
Although rolled cable is not used to connect any Ethernet connections together, you can use a rolled Ethernet
cable to connect a host to a router console serial communication (com) port. If you have a Cisco router of switch,
you would use this cable to connect your PC running Hyper Terminal to the Cisco hardware. Eight wires are

19
used in this cable to connect serial devices, although not all eight are used to send information, just as in Ethernet
networking

Fig. of Rolled cable

Ethernet Cable Summary

Specification Cable Type Maximum length

10BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair 100meters
10Base2 Thin Coaxial 185Meters
10Base5 Thick Coaxial 500Meters
10BaseF Fiber Optic 2000Meters
100BaseT Unshielded Twisted pair 100Meters
100BaseTX Unshielded Twisted Pair 220Meters

4.2 INSTALLING CABLE - SOME GUIDELINES

When running cable, it is best to follow a few simple rules:
• Always use more cable than you need. Leave plenty of slack.
• Test every part of a network as you install it. Even if it is brand new, it may have problems that will be
difficult to isolate later.
• Stay at least 3 feet away from fluorescent light boxes and other sources of electrical interference.
• If it is necessary to run cable across the floor, cover the cable with cable protectors.
• Label both ends of each cable.
• Use cable ties (not tape) to keep cables in the same location together.
WIRELESS LANs

Fig. of Wireless LAN

Not all networks are connected with cabling; some networks are wireless. Wireless LANs use high frequency
radio signals, infrared light beams, or lasers to communicate between the workstations and the file server or
hubs. Each workstation and file server on a wireless network has some sort of transceiver/antenna to send and
receive the data. Information is relayed between transceivers as if they were physically connected. For longer
distance, wireless communications can also take place through cellular telephone technology, microwave
transmission, or by satellite.

20
Wireless networks are great for allowing laptop computers or remote computers to connect to the LAN.
Wireless networks are also beneficial in older buildings where it may be difficult or impossible to install cables.

The two most common types of infrared communications used in schools are line-of-sight and scattered
broadcast. Line-of-sight communication means that there must be an unblocked direct line between the
workstation and the transceiver. If a person walks within the line-of-sight while there is a transmission, the
information would need to be sent again. This kind of obstruction can slow down the wireless network.

Scattered infrared communication is a broadcast of infrared transmissions sent out in multiple directions that
bounces off walls and ceilings until it eventually hits the receiver. Networking communications with laser are
virtually the same as line-of-sight infrared networks.

Wireless LANs have several disadvantages. They provide poor security, and are susceptible to interference from
lights and electronic devices. They are also slower than LANs using cabling.

UNIT FIVE
NETWORK PLANNING AND DESIGN

NETWORKING
Networking is the interconnection of private computers and other communication terminals in a geographical
area for the purpose of communicating to each other and sharing of available facilities.

5.1 The steps required to design a good network are as follows:

Step 1. Verify the business goals and technical requirements.
Determine the features and functions required to meet the needs
Step 2.
identified
Step 3. Perform a network-readiness assessment.
Step 4. Create a solution and site acceptance test plan.
Step 5. Create a project plan.
5.2 Important of planning network:
1. Scalability: Scalable network designs can grow to include new user groups and remote sites and can support
new applications without affecting the level of service delivered to existing users.
2. Availability: A network designed for availability is one that delivers consistent, reliable performance, 24
hours a day, 7 days a week. In addition, the failure of a single link or piece of equipment should not
significantly affect network performance.
3. Security: Security is a feature that must be designed into the network, not added on after the network is
complete. Planning the location of security devices, filters, and firewall features is critical to safeguarding
network resources.
4. Manageability: No matter how good the initial network design is, the available network staff must be able
to manage and support the network. A network that is too complex or difficult to maintain cannot function
effectively

5.3 Main Types of Physical Topologies

The following sections discuss the physical topologies used in networks.
The most common topologies are:
21
 • bus
• star
• ring
• mesh
• Tree.
Hybrid networks are the complex networks, which can be built of two or more above mentioned topologies.

Bus Topology
Bus topology uses a common backbone to connect all the network devices in a network in a linear shape. A
single cable functions as the shared communication medium for all the devices attached with this cable with an
interface connector. The device, which wants to communicate send the broadcast message to all the devices
attached with the shared cable but only the intended recipient actually accepts and process that message.
A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end. All nodes (file server,
workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable. Ethernet and Local Talk networks use a linear
bus topology.

Linear Bus topology

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology
• Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
• Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology
• Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
• Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
• Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down
• Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
Ring Topology

A ring topology is a network topology or circuit arrangement in which each network device is attached along
the same signal path to two other devices, forming a path in the shape of a ring. Each device in the network
that is also referred to as node handles every message that flows through the ring. Each node in the ring has a

22
unique address. Since in ring topology there is only one pathway between any two nodes, ring networks are
generally disrupted by the failure of a single link.

The redundant topologies are used to eliminate network downtime caused by a single point of failure. All
networks need redundancy for enhanced reliability. Network reliability is achieved through reliable equipment
and network designs that are tolerant to failures and faults. The FDDI networks overcome the disruption in
the network by sending data on a clockwise and a counterclockwise ring. In case there is a break in data flow,
the data is wrapped back onto the complementary ring before it reaches the end of the cable thereby maintaining
a path to every node within the complementary ring. The most well-known example of a ring topology is Token
Ring.

Advantages
• An orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to transmit
• Under heavy network load performs better than a start topology.
• To manage the connectivity between the computers it does not need network server.
Disadvantages
• One malfunctioning workstation can throw away the entire network.
• Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect the entire network.
• It is slower than an Ethernet network.
Star Topology
In the computer networking world the most commonly used topology in LAN is the star topology. Star
topologies can be implemented in home, offices or even in a building. All the computers in the star topologies
are connected to central devices like hub, switch or router. The functionality of all these devices is different.
As compared to the bus topology, a star network requires more devices & cables to complete a network. The
failure of each node or cable in a star network, won’t take down the entire network as compared to the Bus
topology. However if the central connecting devices such as hub, switch or router fails due to any reason, then
ultimately all the network can come down or collapse.
A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) connected directly to a
central network hub or concentrator.

Data on a star network passes through the hub or concentrator before continuing to its destination. The hub or
concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This
configuration is common with twisted-pair cable; however, it can also be used with coaxial cable or fiber-optic
cable.

Star topology
Advantages of a Star Topology
• Easy to install and wire.
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 • No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.
• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
• Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
• If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
• More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.
• The protocols used with star configurations are usually Ethernet or Local Talk.
Tree Topology
Tree topologies are comprised of the multiple star topologies on a bus. Tree topologies integrate multiple star
topologies together onto a bus. Only the hub devices can connect directly with the tree bus and each Hub
functions as a root of a tree of the network devices. This bus/star/hybrid combination supports future
expandability of the computer networks; much better than a bus or star

Tree topology
Advantages of a Tree Topology
• Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
• Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
• Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
• If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
• More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
Rule
A consideration in setting up a tree topology using Ethernet protocol is the 5-4-3 rule. One aspect of the Ethernet
protocol requires that a signal sent out on the network cable reach every part of the network within a specified
length of time. Each concentrator or repeater that a signal goes through adds a small amount of time. This leads
to the rule that between any two nodes on the network there can only be a maximum of 5 segments, connected
through 4 repeaters/concentrators. In addition, only 3 of the segments may be populated (trunk) segments if
they are made of coaxial cable. A populated segment is one which has one or more nodes attached to it.

Mesh topology
In the topologies shown above, there is only one possible path from one node to another node. If any cable
in that path is broken, the nodes cannot communicate.

24
 Mesh topology
Mesh topology uses lots of cables to connect every node with every other node. It is very expensive to wire up,
but if any cable fails, there are many other ways for two nodes to communicate. Some WANs, like the Internet,
employ mesh routing. In fact the Internet was deliberately designed like this to allow sites to communicate even
during a nuclear war.
Mesh topology work on the concept of routes. In Mesh topology, message sent to the destination can take any
possible shortest, easiest route to reach its destination. In the previous topologies star and bus, messages are
usually broadcasted to every computer, especially in bus topology. Similarly in the Ring topology message can
travel in only one direction i.e clockwise or anticlockwise. Internet employs the Mesh topology and the message
finds its route for its destination. Router works in finding the routes for the messages and in reaching them to
their destinations. The topology in which every devices connects to every other device is called a full Mesh
topology unlike in the partial mesh in which every device is indirectly connected to the other devices.

5.4 Considerations When Choosing a Topology:

It is important to choose the right topology for how the network will be used. Each topology has its own
characteristic. To choose the right topology we must see the factors that influenced it. The factors are:

• Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
• Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding another concentrator.
• Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most often used with
star topologies.

UNIT SIX
OSI MODEL AND TCP/IP MODEL

6.1 OSI Model

A standard that specifies a conceptual model called Open systems Interconnection network interface model,
which breaks networked communications into seven layers: Application, Presentation, Session, Transport,
Network, Data link, Physical (top to bottom).

25
 The OSI Reference Model
Physical layer: Coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a physical medium.
a. Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
b. Representation of bits
c. Data rate
d. Synchronization of bits
e. Line configuration
f. Physical topology
g. Transmission mode

Data Link Layer: Transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link and is
responsible for node-node delivery.
a. Framing
b. Physical Addressing
c. Flow Control
d. Error Control
e. Access Control
Network Layer: Responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of packet possibly across multiple networks
(links).
a. Logical Addressing
b. Routing
Transport Layer: Responsible for source-to-destination delivery of the entire message.
a. Service-point Addressing
b. Segmentation and reassembly
c. Connection Control
d. Flow Control
e. Error Control

Session layer: Network dialog Controller. It establishes, maintains and synchronizes the interaction between
the communicating systems.
a. Dialog control
b. Synchronization

Presentation layer: Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two
systems.
a. Translation
26
 b. Encryption
c. Compression

Application Layer: Enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network. It provides user
interfaces and support for services such as e-mail, shared database management and other types of distributed
information services.
a. Network virtual Terminal
b. File transfer, access and Management (FTAM)
c. Mail services
d. Directory Services

6.2 TCP/IP Reference Model:

The TCP/IP reference model was developed prior to OSI model. The major design goals of this model were,

1. To connect multiple networks together so that they appear as a single network.

2. To survive after partial subnet hardware failures.
3. To provide a flexible architecture.
Unlike OSI reference model, TCP/IP reference model has only 4 layers. They are,
1. Host-to-Network Layer
2. Internet Layer
3. Transport Layer
4. Application Layer
Host-to-Network Layer:
The TCP/IP reference model does not really say much about what happens here, except to point out that the
host has to connect to the network using some protocol so it can send IP packets to it.
This protocol is not defined and varies from host to host and network to network.
Internet Layer:
This layer, called the internet layer, is the linchpin that holds the whole architecture together. Its job is to permit
hosts to inject packets into any network and have they travel independently to the destination (potentially on a
different network). They may even arrive in a different order than they were sent, in which case it is the job of
higher layers to rearrange them, if in-order delivery is desired. Note that ''internet'' is used here in a generic
sense, even though this layer is present in the Internet.

The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP (Internet Protocol). The job of the
internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they are supposed to go. Packet routing is clearly the major issue
here, as is avoiding congestion. For these reasons, it is reasonable to say that the TCP/IP internet layer is similar
in functionality to the OSI network layer. Fig. shows this correspondence.

The Transport Layer:

The layer above the internet layer in the TCP/IP model is now usually called the transport layer. It is designed
to allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on a conversation, just as in the OSI transport
layer. Two end-to-end transport protocols have been defined here. The first one, TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol), is a reliable connection oriented protocol that allows a byte stream originating on one machine to be
27
delivered without error on any other machine in the internet. It fragments the incoming byte stream into discrete
messages and passes each one on to the internet layer. At the destination, the receiving TCP process reassembles
the received messages into the output stream. TCP also handles flow control to make sure a fast sender cannot
swamp a slow receiver with more messages than it can handle.

The TCP/IP reference model.

6.3 Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models:

The OSI and TCP/IP reference models have much in common. Both are based on the concept of a stack of
independent protocols. Also, the functionality of the layers is roughly similar. For example, in both models the
layers up through and including the transport layer are there to provide an end-to-end, network-independent
transport service to processes wishing to communicate. These layers form the transport provider. Again in both
models, the layers above transport are application-oriented users of the transport service. Despite these
fundamental similarities, the two models also have many differences Three concepts are central to the OSI
model:

1. Services.
2. Interfaces.
3. Protocols.
Probably the biggest contribution of the OSI model is to make the distinction between these three concepts
explicit. Each layer performs some services for the layer above it. The service definition tells what the layer
does, not how entities above it access it or how the layer works. It defines the layer's semantics.

A layer's interface tells the processes above it how to access it. It specifies what the parameters are and what
results to expect. It, too, says nothing about how the layer works inside.

Finally, the peer protocols used in a layer are the layer's own business. It can use any protocols it wants to, as
long as it gets the job done (i.e., provides the offered services). It can also change them at will without affecting
software in higher layers.
The TCP/IP model did not originally clearly distinguish between service, interface, and protocol, although
people have tried to retrofit it after the fact to make it more OSI-like. For example, the only real services offered
by the internet layer are SEND IP PACKET and RECEIVE IP PACKET.

As a consequence, the protocols in the OSI model are better hidden than in the TCP/IP model and can be
replaced relatively easily as the technology changes. Being able to make such changes is one of the main
purposes of having layered protocols in the first place. The OSI reference model was devised before the
28
corresponding protocols were invented. This ordering means that the model was not biased toward one
particular set of protocols, a fact that made it quite general. The downside of this ordering is that the designers
did not have much experience with the subject and did not have a good idea of which functionality to put in
which layer. Another difference is in the area of connectionless versus connection-oriented communication. The
OSI model supports both connectionless and connection-oriented communication in the network layer, but only
connection-oriented communication in the transport layer, where it counts (because the transport service is
visible to the users). The TCP/IP model has only one mode in the network layer (connectionless) but supports
both modes in the transport layer, giving the users a choice. This choice is especially important for simple
request-response protocols.

UNIT SEVEN
IP ADDRESSES ON NETWORKS USING IPV4 AND IPV6

7.1 Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4)

An IP address is an address used to uniquely identify a device on an IP network. The address is made up of 32
binary bits which can be divisible into a network portion and host portion with the help of a subnet mask. The
32 binary bits are broken into four octets (1 octet = 8 bits). Each octet is converted to decimal and separated by
a period (dot). For this reason, an IP address is said to be expressed in dotted decimal format (for example,
172.16.81.100). The value in each octet ranges from 0 to 255 decimal, or 00000000 - 11111111 binary.

Here is how binary octets convert to decimal: The right most bit, or least significant bit, of an octet holds a value
of 20. The bit just to the left of that holds a value of 21. This continues until the left-most bit, or most significant
bit, which holds a value of 27. So if all binary bits are a one, the decimal equivalent would be 255 as shown
here:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 (128+64+32+16+8+4+2+1=255)
Here is a sample octet conversion when not all of the bits are set to 1.
0 1 000001
0 64 0 0 0 0 0 1 (0+64+0+0+0+0+0+1=65)
And this sample shows an IP address represented in both binary and decimal.
10. 1. 23. 19 (decimal)
00001010.00000001.00010111.00010011 (binary)
These octets are broken down to provide an addressing scheme that can accommodate large and small networks.
There are five different classes of networks, A to E. This document focuses on addressing classes A to C, since
classes D and E are reserved and discussion of them is beyond the scope of this document.

7.1.1 Classification of IP address

The IP addresses are classified and when they are used.
Class Address Range Supports
Class A 1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254 Supports 16 million hosts on each of 127 networks.

29
 Class B 128.1.0.1 to 191.255.255.254 Supports 65,000 hosts on each of 16,000 networks.
Class C 192.0.1.1 to 223.255.254.254 Supports 254 hosts on each of 2 million networks.
Class D 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 Reserved for multicast groups.
Class E 240.0.0.0 to 254.255.255.254 Reserved.

Given an IP address, its class can be determined from the three high-order bits. Figure 1 shows the significance
in the three high order bits and the range of addresses that fall into each class. For informational purposes, Class
D and Class E addresses are also shown.

In a Class A address, the first octet is the network portion, so the Class A example in Figure 1 has a major
network address of 10. Octets 2, 3, and 4 (the next 24 bits) are for the network manager to divide into subnets
and hosts as he/she sees fit. Class A addresses are used for networks that have more than 65,536 hosts (actually,
up to 16777214 hosts!).

In a Class B address, the first two octets are the network portion, so the Class B example in Figure 1 has a major
network address of 172.16. Octets 3 and 4 (16 bits) are for local subnets and hosts. Class B addresses is used
for networks that have between 256 and 65534 hosts.

In a Class C address, the first three octets are the network portion. The Class C example in Figure 1 has a major
network address of 193.18.9. Octet 4 (8 bits) is for local subnets and hosts - perfect for networks with less than
254 hosts.

7.1.2 Network Masks

A network mask helps you know which portion of the address identifies the network and which portion of the
address identifies the node. Class A, B, and C networks have default masks, also known as natural masks, as
shown here: Class A: 255.0.0.0
Class B: 255.255.0.0
Class C: 255.255.255.0

An IP address on a Class A network that has not been subnetted would have an address/mask pair similar to:
8.20.15.1 255.0.0.0. To see how the mask helps you identify the network and node parts of the address, convert
the address and mask to binary numbers.
8.20.15.1 = 00001000.00010100.00001111.00000001
255.0.0.0 = 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

Once you have the address and the mask represented in binary, then identifying the network and host ID is
easier. Any address bits which have corresponding mask bits set to 1 represent the network ID. Any address
bits that have corresponding mask bits set to 0 represent the node ID. 8.20.15.1 =
00001000.00010100.00001111.00000001

255.0.0.0 = 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
7.1.3 Sub netting
Sub netting allows you to create multiple logical networks that exist within a single Class A, B, or C network.
If you do not subnet, you are only able to use one network from your Class A, B, or C network, which is
unrealistic.

30
When sub-netting, a third part of IP address appears in the middle of the address—namely, the subnet part of
the address. The size of the network part never shrinks.
Network (8) Subnet (24-x) Host (x) Class A
Network (16) Subnet (16-x) Host (x) Class B
Network (24) Subnet (8-x) Host (x) Class C
Each data link on a network must have a unique network ID, with every node on that link being a member of
the same network. If you break a major network (Class A, B, or C) into smaller subnetworks, it allows you to
create a network of interconnecting subnetworks. Each data link on this network would then have a unique
network/subnetwork ID. Any device, or gateway, connecting n networks/subnetworks has n distinct IP
addresses, one for each network / subnetwork that it interconnects.

In order to subnet a network, extend the natural mask using some of the bits from the host ID portion of the
address to create a subnetwork ID. For example, given a Class C network of 204.17.5.0 which has a natural
mask of 255.255.255.0, you can create subnets in this manner:
204.17.5.0 - 11001100.00010001.00000101.00000000
255.255.255.224 - 11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000
--------------------------|sub|----

By extending the mask to be 255.255.255.224, you have taken three bits (indicated by "sub") from the original
host portion of the address and used them to make subnets. With these three bits, it is possible to create eight
subnets. With the remaining five host ID bits, each subnet can have up to 32 host addresses, 30 of which can
actually be assigned to a device since host ids of all zeros or all ones are not allowed (it is very important to
remember this). So, with this in mind, these subnets have been created.

204.17.5.0 255.255.255.224 host address range 1 to 30

204.17.5.32 255.255.255.224 host address range 33 to 62
204.17.5.64 255.255.255.224 host address range 65 to 94
204.17.5.96 255.255.255.224 host address range 97 to 126
204.17.5.128 255.255.255.224 host address range 129 to 158
204.17.5.160 255.255.255.224 host address range 161 to 190
204.17.5.192 255.255.255.224 host address range 193 to 222 204.17.5.224 255.255.255.224 host address
range 225 to 254

7.2 Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6)

Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) is the latest version of the Internet Protocol after IPv4. This communication
protocol provides identification and local systems for computers on the network and routes communications on
the Internet. Each device that uses the Internet is identified by its own IP address so that Internet communication
can work properly.
IPv6 uses a 128-bit address, which allows approximately 3.4 × 10 ^ 38 addresses. IPv6 uses eight sets of four
hexadecimal digits (separated by colons) instead of four sets of one to three digits IPv4 address methods.

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 7.2.1 IPv6 - Main Features
1. Larger Address Space: Compared with IPv4, IPv6 uses 4 times more bits to address devices on the Internet,
which will provide an address space for approximately 3.4 × 10 ^ 38 devices. This address space can meet the
aggressive requirements for allocating addresses for almost everything in the world.

2. Simplified Header: The IPv6 header was designed to be less complex and easier to process than the IPV4
header by moving all unnecessary information and options (which are present in IPv4 header) to the end of the
IPv6 header.

3. End-to-End Connectivity: Now, each system has a unique IP address and can traverse the Internet without
using NAT or other translating components. After IPv6 is fully implemented, each host can directly access other
hosts on the Internet, but it will encounter some restrictions, such as firewalls and organizational policies.

4. Auto-configuration: IPv6 supports stateful and stateless auto-configuration modes of its host device. In
this way, no DHCP server will not cause inter-segment communication to stop.

5. Faster Forwarding/Routing: The simplified header puts all unnecessary information at the end of the
header. The first part of the header contains enough information to enable the router to make routing decisions,
so it can make routing decisions as quickly as looking at the mandatory header.

6. IPSec: Initially, having IPSec security is mandatory for IPv6 protocol, making it more secure than IPv4.
This feature is now optional.

7. Mobility: IPv6 aims to keep mobility in mind. This feature allows the host (such as a mobile phone) to
roam in different geographic areas and keep connected using the same IP address. The mobility features of IPv6
take advantage of automatic IP configuration and extended headers.

8. Extensibility: One of the main advantages of the IPv6 header is that more information can be added in
the options section. IPv4 only offers 40-byte options, while the options in IPv6 may be as large as the size of
the IPv6 packet itself.

9. Smooth Transition: The large IP address scheme in IPv6 can allocate devices with globally unique IP
addresses. This mechanism can save IP addresses and does not require NAT. Therefore, devices can
send/receive data to each other, for example, VoIP and/or any streaming media can be used more efficiently.
Another fact is that the header has less load, so the router can make forwarding decisions and forward them as
soon as they arrive.

7.2.2 IPv6 - Addressing Modes

There are three addressing methods in IPv6 representation.

• Unicast: The unicast address identifies a single network interface. Packets sent to the unicast address will
be delivered to the interface identified by the address.
• Multicast: Multicast addresses are used by multiple hosts called groups to obtain multicast destination
addresses. These hosts do not have to be geographically together. If any packet is sent to the multicast address,
it will be distributed to all interfaces corresponding to the multicast address.

• Any cast: Any cast addresses have been assigned to a group of interfaces. Any packets sent to any cast
addresses will only be delivered to one member interface (probably the closest host).

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 7.2.3 IPv6 - Headers
The IPv6 header has a fixed header and zero or more optional (extended) headers. All necessary information
necessary for the router is stored in a fixed header. The extended header contains optional information to help
the router understand how to handle packets/flows.
Fixed Header
IPv6 fixed header is 40 bytes long and contains the following information.

1. Version (4-bits): It represents the version of Internet Protocol, i.e. 0110.

2. Traffic Class (8-bits): These 8 bits are divided into two parts. The first 6 bits are designed to notify the router
what services should be provided to this packet. The least significant 2 bits are used for explicit congestion
notification (ECN).

3. Flow Label (20-bits): This label is used to maintain the sequential flow of packets belonging to the
communication. A source labels the sequence to help the router recognize that a specific data packet belongs to
specific information flow. This field helps to avoid reordering of data packets. It is designed for streaming/real-
time media.

4. Payload Length (16-bits): This field is used to tell the router how much information is contained in the
payload of a particular data packet. The payload consists of an extension header and upper-layer data. 16 bits
can indicate up to 65535 bytes; however, if the extension header includes a hop-by-hop extension header, the
payload may exceed 65535 bytes, and this field is set to 0.

5. Next Header (8-bits): This field is used to indicate the type of extension header, or if there is no extension
header, it indicates the upper layer PDU. The value of the upper layer PDU type is the same as IPv4.

6. Hop Limit (8-bits): This field is used to prevent data packets from looping into the network indefinitely.
This is the same as TTL in IPv4. The value of the hop limit field is decremented by 1 when passing through the
link (router/hop count). When this field reaches 0, the packet will be dropped.

7. Source Address (128-bits): This field indicates the address of the originator of the packet.

8. Destination Address (128-bits): This field provides the address of the intended recipient of the packet.

Extension Headers
In order to correct the limitation of the IPv4 option field, an extension header was introduced in IP version 6.
The extension header mechanism is a very important part of the IPv6 architecture. The Next Header field of the
IPv6 fixed header points to the first extended header, then the first extended header points to the second extended
header, and so on.
The following Extension Headers must be supported as per RFC 2460:
1. Hop-by-Hop Options header: read all devices in transit network
2. Routing header: contains methods to support making routing decision
3. Fragment header: contains parameters of datagram fragmentation
4. Destination Options header: read by destination devices
5. Authentication header: Information regarding authenticity

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 6. Encapsulating Security Payload header: encryption information

7.2.4 Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6) Specification

IPv6 specification is comprised of 8 parts in the table below.

Part Title
1 Introduction
2 Terminology
3 IPv6 Header Format
4 IPv6 Extension Headers
5 Packet Size Issues
6 Flow Labels
7 Traffic Class
8 Upper-Layer Protocol Issues
Part 1: This part gives an overview about the IPv6 protocol and the changes from the previous version IPv4.
Part 2: This part explains the terminologies used in the IPv6 protocol.
Part 3: This part gives the header format of the IPv6 protocol and explains the structure of each section in IPv6
header.
Part 4: This part refers to the implementation of extension headers and gives the details about different extension
headers.
Part 5: This part refers to the issue that MTU size may cause. It recommends the link in the Internet have an
MTU of 1280 or greater. It also provides the solution if the MTU size is not enough.
Part 6: The part refers that flow labels may be required in the IPv6 header in order to handle special request
such as non-default quality of service or ‘real-time’ service.
Part 7: This part refers that traffic classes field in the IPv6 header is available for use by originating nodes or
forwarding routers to identify and distinguish between different classes or priorities of IPv6 packets.
Part 8: This part refers to the four issues that may occur with the upper-layer protocol.

7.2.5 How the IPv6 protocol is used in the AXM-WEB2?

The AXM-WEB2 module also supports IPv6 which is the latest version of the internet protocol. The protocol
uses 128-bit addressing in comparison to IPv4 which uses 32-bit addressing. The difference for addressing
allows for more devices to be connected using IPv6 as opposed to the IPv4 protocol. The protocol is more
efficient and provides more secure routing over the internet.

When the user wants to use IPv6 function on the AXM-WEB2, the user will need to enable the IPv6 function
on the web interface of AXM-WEB2. Since AXM-WEB2 has two Ethernet ports available, both ports can be
configured to use the IPv6 protocol. After the IPv6 is enabled, the user will need to determine if the DHCP is
set as manual or auto. When set to manual, users must configure the IPv6 address, the Subnet Prefix Length,
and the Gateway. When DHCP is set to Auto, the network will assign an IPv6 address automatically.

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