UNIT I-SET THEORY AND RELATIONS

Set:

A set is a collection of well-defined objects called elements.

Sets will be denoted by capital letter and elements by lower case

a, b, c, d, ……
ie. x  A means x is an element of set A.
x  A means x is not a member of A.
Example:

1. N = Set of all natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4 …}

2. Z = Set of all integers = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 …}

3. Q = Set of all rational numbers (p/q)

4. R = Set of all real numbers (both rational and irrartional)

5. C = Set of all complex numbers (complex part i)

6. A line is a set of points.

7. Plane is a set of lines and hence set of points.

Note:

If A is a finite set, then the number of different elements in A is called

its cardinality, denoted by n A   or A.

A set is represented in two ways:

i) Roster method: Here all the elements of the set are listed, if possible,

separated by commas and enclosed within braces.


Eg: V  a, e, i, o, u

A  1,3,5,7,.......... 
 
X = 1,2, a, b,3 
Y= 0,1,2,3,....
ii) Set builder method: Here we define the elements of the set by

specifying a property that they have in common.

Eg: A = x : x is an odd number between 10 and 20={11,13,15,17,19}


B  x : x is a prime number less than 10  ={1,2,3,5,7}


C  x : x is a vowel in the English alphabet  ={a,e,I,o,u}
D= x : x is an even number between 20 and 30
The set which contains all the objects under consideration is called the
Universal set and is denoted by U .

If every element of A is an element of B , then A is a subset of B . We

write A  B .


Eg: 1. If A = 1,2,3  and B = x : x  N, 1  x  10, then A  B .
2. If A = {a, e, i, o, u} and 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑠}

3. If A = {2,4,6,8,10} and B = {x: x is a natural numbers}

4. If A = {11,13,15,17,19} and B = {x: x is a whole numbers}

If A  B and B  A , then A  B , i.e., A and B are equal sets.

Every set is a subset of itself.

A set having no elements is called a null set or empty set. A null set is

denoted by φ or  .
Eg: A = x : x  N, 8  x  10 and x is prime
A Null Set is a subset of every set.

A set having exactly one element is called a singleton set.

Eg: x : x  N, and x is an even prime number ={2}

A set having only a finite number of elements is a finite set.

Eg: 1. P = x : x is a union territory in India

2. Z = x : x  N, 3  x  9 ={4,5,6,7,8}
3. R = x : x is months of year
A set that is not finite is called an infinite set.

Eg: N, R, Z etc.

Operations on sets:

Union: The union of two sets A and B is the set of elements that belong

to A or B or both.


i.e., A  B  x  A or x  B 
Eg: A = {1,2,3}, B = {2,3,4}, C = {3,4,5} then 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {1,2,3,4}, 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 =
{2,3,4,5} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 ∪ 𝐶 = {1,2,3,4,5}

Intersection: The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of

elements that belong to both A and B [keyword is AND]


i.e., A  B  x : x  A and x  B 
Eg: A = {1,2,3}, B = {2,3,4}, C = {3,4,5} then 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = { 2,3}, 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 =
{3,4}𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 = {3}
Disjoint sets: Two sets A and B are disjoint if they do not have any
element in common.

i.e., A  B  φ then A and B are disjoint sets.

Eg:𝐴 = {1,3,5} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = {2,4,6,8} 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = ∅

Complement of a set

The set of elements in the universal set U , that are not in A , is called the
c
complement of A , denoted by A or A  or A .

A
c

 x  U: x  A 
Eg: If U universal sets= {1,2,3,4,5} and A = {1,3,5} then complement of

A is A  {2 , 4} .

Difference of two sets

The relative complement of B in A , written as A  B , is the set of all

elements of A that are not in B ,

 
i.e., A  B  x : x  A and x  B = A  B
c


B  A  x : x  B and x  A = B  A c

Eg: If A = {1,2,3} and B = {1,3,5,7} then

A – B = {2} and

B – A = {5,7}.

A -B =the elements belongs to A and not belongs to B

A -B ≠ B- A always
Symmetric difference

If A and B are any two sets, the set of elements that belong to A or B, but
not to both is called the symmetric difference of A and B and is denoted
by A  B or A Δ B .

  
A ΔB  A B  A  B  B  A  = A  B   A  B 
Eg: If A = {a,b,c,d} and B = {c,d,e,f} then 

A-B={a,b}, B-A={e,f}

A  B =(A-B)U(B-A)= {a,b,e,f}.

Power Set

The power set of a set A (denoted P(A) ) denotes the set of all subsets of

A . For example, the power set of the set A ={1, 2, 3} has eight
elements and is given by:

P(A) ={∅,{1},{2},{3},{1,2},{1,3},{2,3},{1,2,3}}. There are 2 3=8

elements in the power set of A ={1, 2, 3} and the cardinality of A is 3.

In general, there are 2n elements in the power set of A .

|A| = n = no. of elements of A

A={1,2,3,4}

n[P(A)]= No. of elements in the power set=24=16

Properties of Sets. The set operations follow the following properties:

Commutative Laws A∪B = B∪A
A∩B = B∩A
A-B not equal to B-A
Associative Laws A∪(B∪C) = (A∪B)∪C
A∩(B∩C) = (A∩B)∩C
Distributive Laws A∪(B∩C) = (A∪B)∩(A∪C)
A∩(B∪C) = (A∩B)∪(A∩C)
Identity Laws A∪∅ = A
A∩U = A
Idempotent Laws A∪A = A
A∩A = A
Complement Laws (Laws of A∪Ac = U
excluded middle) A∩Ac = ∅
Absorption Laws A∪(A∩B) = A
A∩(A∪B) = A
Involution Law (A c)c = A
Null Laws A∪U = U , A∩∅ = ∅
0/1 Laws ∅c = U
Uc= ∅

DeMorgan’s Laws (A∪B)c = Ac∩Bc or (A∪B)' = A'∩B'

(A∩B)c = Ac∪Bc

1. Prove the commutative laws:

𝐴∩𝐵 =𝐵∩𝐴 𝐴∪𝐵 =𝐵∪𝐴

Proof:
We know that 𝑥 = 𝑦 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑥 ⊆ 𝑦 and 𝑦 ⊆ 𝑥.
Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
⇔ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵
⇔ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴
⇔𝑥 ∈𝐵∩𝐴
∴𝐴∩𝐵 =𝐵∩𝐴
Similarly
Let 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵
⇔ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵
⇔ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴
⇔𝑦 ∈𝐵∪𝐴
∴𝐴∪𝐵 =𝐵∪𝐴
2. Prove the associative laws: 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 and
𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶
Proof:
LHS  RHS and RHS  LHS

𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)  (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶

Select one element in LHS and try to prove the same element is in
RHS, then LHS  RHS

Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)
⇔ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 [𝑥 ∈ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)]
⇔ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 [𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶]
⇔ [𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵]𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶
⇔ 𝑥 ∈ [𝐴 ∪ 𝐵] 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶
⇔ 𝑥 ∈ [𝐴 ∪ 𝐵] ∪ 𝐶
∴ 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶
Similarly
Let 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
⇔ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶
⇔ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 [𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐶]
⇔ [𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐶
⇔ 𝑦 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐶
⇔ 𝑦 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶
𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶

3. Prove the distributive laws: 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶) and

𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
Proof:
Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
⇔ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
⇔ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 ( 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶)
⇔ [𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 [𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶]
⇔ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
⇔ 𝑥 ∈ [(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)]
∴ 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
Similarly
Let 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)
⇔ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)
⇔ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 [𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 ∈ 𝐶]
⇔ [𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵] 𝑜𝑟 [𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐶]
⇔ [𝑦 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)] 𝑜𝑟 [𝑦 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)]
⇔ 𝑦 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
∴ 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)

4. State and Prove De Morgan’s laws:(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′ and (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ ∪ 𝐵′.

Proof:
Let 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)′
⇔ 𝑥(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)
⇔ 𝑥 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝐵
⇔ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵′
⇔ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′
∴ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′.
Similarly
Let 𝑦 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)′
⇔ 𝑦 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
⇔ 𝑦 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑦  𝐵
⇔ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴′ 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵′
⇔ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴′ ∪ 𝐵′
∴ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ ∪ 𝐵′.
Venn diagrams:

Venn diagrams are an efficient way of representing and analysing sets

and performing set operations. Sets are generally represented by circles.
The universal set is represented by a rectangle that encloses all other
sets.

This represents a Venn diagram. Here each of the circles A , B and C

represents a set of elements.

Set A has the elements a, d, e and g.

Set B has the elements b, d, g and f.

Set C has the elements e, g, f and c.

Both A and B have the elements d and g.

Both B and C have the elements g and f.

Both C and A have the elements e and g.

A , B and C all have the element g.

De Morgan’s laws based on Venn diagram:

𝟏. (𝑨 ∩ 𝑩)′ = 𝑨′ ∪ 𝑩′
 RHS

LHS

𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝑨 ∩ 𝑩)′ = 𝑨′ ∪ 𝑩′

2. (𝑨 ∪ 𝑩)′ = 𝑨′ ∩ 𝑩′

AUB (AUB)'

𝑨′ ∩ 𝑩′
Draw Venn diagrams for:
(1) A - B – C is A only
Soln:

(2) (A  B)  C
Soln:

(3) (A  B)  C
Soln:
Simple Problems :
1. Show that (A − B) − C = A − (B ∪C)
Soln.
(A − B) − C = (A ∩B’) ∩C’
(by Difference of sets: A-B = A ∩B’)
= A ∩(B’∩C’)( by associative law)
= A ∩(B ∪C)’ ( by De Morgan’s law)
= A − (B ∪C).

2. Show that A − (B − C) = (A − B) ∪(A ∩C)

Soln.
A − (B − C) = A − (B ∩C’) ( by difference of sets)
= A ∩(B ∩C’)’
= A ∩(B’∪C) (by De Morgan’s law)
= (A ∩B’) ∪(A ∩C) (by Distributive law)
= (A − B) ∪(A ∩C)

3. Show that A ∩(B − C) = (A ∩B) − (A ∩C)

Soln.

RHS = (A ∩B) − (A ∩C) = (A ∩B) ∩(A ∩C)’ (by difference of sets)

= (A ∩B) ∩(A’∪C’) (by De Morgan’s law)
= (A ∩B ∩A’) ∪(A ∩B ∩C’)
(by distributive law)
= (A ∩A’∩B) ∪(A ∩B ∩C’)
= (φ ∩B) ∪(A ∩B ∩C’)
= φ ∪(A ∩B ∩C’)
= A ∩B ∩C’
= A ∩(B ∩C’)
= A ∩(B − C) = LHS

4. Prove that A ∪(B − C) = (A∪B) − (C –A).

Soln.
A ∪(B − C) = A ∪(B ∩C’) (by difference of sets)
= (A ∪B) ∩(A ∪C’) (by distributive law)
= (A ∪B) ∩(C ∩A’)’ (by De Morgan’s law)
= (A ∪B) ∩(C − A)’
= (A ∪B) − (C − A)

5. Prove analytically and graphically that (𝐴 − 𝐶) ∩ (𝐶 − 𝐵) = ∅ where A, B,

C are sets.

Soln.
(𝐴 − 𝐶) ∩ (𝐶 − 𝐵) = {𝑥⁄𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝐵}
= 𝑥⁄𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥 ∈ 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ ̅̅̅
𝐶) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵̅

= {𝑥⁄(𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ ∅)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵̅}

̅̅̅
= {𝑥⁄𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ ∅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}

̅̅̅
= {𝑥⁄𝑥 ∈ ∅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}

= {𝑥⁄𝑥 ∈ ∅}

=∅
Venn diagram that (𝐴 − 𝐶) ∩ (𝐶 − 𝐵) = ∅

6. If A, B, C are sets prove both analytically and graphically that

𝐴 − (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 − 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 − 𝐶).

Soln.
𝐴 − (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = {𝑥⁄𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)}

= {𝑥⁄𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝑥𝐶)}

= {𝑥⁄(𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝐵)𝑜𝑟(𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝐶)}

= {𝑥⁄𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 − 𝐵)𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 − 𝐶)}

= {𝑥⁄𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 − 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 − 𝐶)}

= (𝐴 − 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 − 𝐶)
Venn diagram

LHS:

RHS:
7. If A, B and C are sets, prove both analytically and graphically that

𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 − 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶).

Soln.
𝑨 ∩ (𝐵 − 𝐶) = {𝑥 ⁄ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ (𝐵 − 𝐶)}

set of all x such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ (𝐵 − 𝐶)

= {𝑥⁄𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝐶)}

= {𝑥⁄𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶̅ )}

= {𝑥⁄𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶̅ )}

= 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶̅

Now (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) = {𝑥⁄𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝐴𝐶𝐶}

={𝑥⁄𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

𝐴 ∩ 𝐶}

= {𝑥⁄𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴̅ ∪ 𝐶̅ } , by De Morgan’s law [(A ∩ 𝐶)′ = 𝐴′𝑈𝐶′)]

= {𝑥⁄𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴̅ 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶̅ )}

= {𝑥⁄[𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴̅ ] 𝑜𝑟 [𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶̅ ]}

= {𝑥⁄𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵) 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶̅ )}
 Since 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴̅ = ∅

Also ∅∩𝐵 =∅

={𝑥⁄𝑥 ∈ ∅ 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶̅ )} [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∅𝑈𝐴 = 𝐴]

={𝑥⁄ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶̅ )}

= 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶̅ Hence the result.

Venn diagram

LHS:
RHS:

8. If A, B, C are sets, prove that ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐶̅ ∪ 𝐵̅ ) ∩ 𝐴̅, using set

identities.
Soln.
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = 𝐴̅ ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ), by De Morgan’s law
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

= 𝐴̅ ∩ (𝐵̅ ∪ 𝐶̅ ) , by De Morgan’s law

= (𝐵̅ ∪ 𝐶̅ ) ∩ 𝐴̅ , by Commutative law

= (𝐶̅ ∪ 𝐵̅ ) ∩ 𝐴̅ , by Commutative law. Hence the result.

9. Simplify 𝐴̅ ∪ 𝐵̅ ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶̅ ) using set identities.

Soln.
𝐴̅ ∪ 𝐵̅ ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶̅ ) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ) ∪ [(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶̅ ] by De Morgan’s law.
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
= [(𝐴 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶̅ ] by distributive law
∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)] ∩ [ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶̅ by inverse law
= 𝑈 ∩ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶̅ by identity law
= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

= 𝐴̅ ∪ 𝐵̅ ∪ 𝐶̅ by De Morgan’s law

10. Simplify (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ [𝐵 ∩ ((𝐶 ∩ 𝐷) ∪ (𝐶 ∩ 𝐷

̅ ))] using set identities.

Soln.
̅ ))]
(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ [𝐵 ∩ ((𝐶 ∩ 𝐷) ∪ (𝐶 ∩ 𝐷

̅ )}] , by distributive law

= (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ [𝐵 ∩ {𝐶 ∩ (𝐷 ∪ 𝐷

= (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ [𝐵 ∩ (𝐶 ∩ 𝑈)], by inverse law

= (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ [𝐵 ∩ 𝐶] , by identity law

= (𝐵 ∩ 𝐴) ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) , by commutative law

= 𝐵 ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶) , by distributive law

11. Write the dual of the statement : 𝐴 = (𝐵̅ ∩ 𝐴) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)

Soln.
The dual of the statement 𝐴 = (𝐵̅ ∩ 𝐴) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) is

𝐴 = (𝐵̅ ∪ 𝐴) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)

12. Write the dual of the statement: (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵̅ ) ∪ (𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵̅ ) = 𝑈.

Soln.
(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴̅ ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵̅ ) ∩ (𝐴̅ ∪ 𝐵̅ ) = ∅

Ordered pairs and Cartesian product

A pair of objects whose components occur in a specific order is called n

ordered pair.

Eg: (1, 2) , (a, b) etc.

The ordered pairs (a,b) = (c,d) iff a = c and b = d.

Given two sets A, B, their Cartesian product or cross product A×B is the
set of all ordered pairs (a,b) such that a ∈ A and b ∈ B:

A B= (a, b) : a  A and b  B

In general,

A
1
A
2
 ......A 
n
1 2 n i

a  a  ......a : a  A , i  1,2,......n
i

A={1,2,3}, B={a,b}

A  B ={(1,a),(1,b),(2,a),(2,b),(3,a),(3,b)}

BXA={(a,1),(a,2),(a,3),(b,1),(b,2),(b,3)}

Note:

1. Generally A  B  B  A . They are equal if and only if A  B .

2. If either A or B is φ , then A  B  φ
If A, B, C are sets, then

(i) A  (B  C)  (A  B)  (A  C)

Proof:

(x, y)  A  (B  C)  x  A and y  B  C

 x  A and (y  B and y  C)

 (x  A and y  B) and (x  A and y  C)

 (x, y)  A  B and (x, y)  A  C

 (x, y)  (A  B)  (A  C)

(ii) A  (B  C)  (A  B)  (A  C)

Proof:

(x, y)  A  (B  C)  x  A and y  B  C

 x  A and (y  B or y  C)

 (x  A and y  B) or (x  A and y  C)

 (x, y)  A  B or (x, y)  A  C

 (x, y)  (A  B)  (A  C)

(iii) (A  B)  C  (A  C)  (B  C)

Proof:

(x, y)  (A  B)  C  x  A  B and y  C

 (x  A and x  B) and y  C)

 (x  A and y  C) or (x  B and y  C)

 (x, y)  A  C or (x, y)  B  C

 (x, y)  (A  C)  (B  C)
Cartesian Products:
1. If A = {α, β} and B = {1, 2, 3} what are A × B, B × A, A × A, B × B
and(A × B) ∩(B × A)?
Soln.

(i) A × B = {(α, 1), (α, 2), (α, 3), (β, 1), (β, 2), (β, 3)}
(ii) B × A = {(1, α), (1, β), (2, α), (2, β), (3, α), (3, β)}
(iii) A × A = {(α, α), (α, β), (β,α), (β, β)}
(iv) B × B ={(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3),(3, 1), (3, 2),
(3,3)}
(v) (A × B) ∩(B × A) = φ

2. If A = {1, 2} and B = {3, 4}, then find (i) A × B, (ii) B × A,

(iii) (A × B) ∪(B × A), (iv) (A × B) ∩(B × A).
Soln.
(i) A × B = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4)}
(ii) B × A = {(3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1), (4, 2)}
(iii) (A × B) ∪(B × A) = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 2),
(4, 1), (4, 2)}
(iv) (A × B) ∩(B × A) = φ

3. If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 4, 5}, C = {4, 5, 6} then find

(i) A × (B ∩C), (ii) (A × B) ∩(A × C),
(iii) A × (B ∪C), (iv) (A × B) ∪(A × C).
v) A ∪ (B ×C)
={(1,2,3,(3,4),(3,5),(3,6),(4,4),(4,5),(4,6),(5,4),(5,5),(5,6))}
vi) (A ∪ B) × (A ∪ C)
A ∪ B= {1,2,3,4,5} A ∪ C ={1,2,3,4,5,6}
(A ∪ B) × (A ∪ C)={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),.....}
Soln.
(i) To find A × (B ∩C)
B ∩C = {4, 5}
A × (B ∩C) = {(1, 4)(1, 5), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 4), (3, 5)}
(ii) A × B = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),(3, 3), (3, 4),
(3, 5)}
A × C = {(1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6),(3, 4),
(3, 5), (3, 6)}
Now(A × B) ∩(A × C) = {(1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 4), (3, 5)}

(iii) B ∪C = {3, 4, 5, 6}
A × (B ∪C) = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
(2, 6),(3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)}

(iv)(A × B) ∪(A × C) = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 3), (2, 4),
(2, 5),(2, 6), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), 3, 6)}

4. If A = {x|x ≤ 10}, B = {x|x ≤ 5} then find the following

(i) A × A,(ii) A × B, (iii) B × A, (iv) B × B.
Soln.
(i)A × A = {(x, y)|x ≤ 10, y ≤ 10}
(ii)A × B = {(x, y)|x ≤ 10, y ≤ 5}
(iii)B × A = {(x, y)|x ≤ 5, y ≤ 10}
(iv)B × B = {(x, y)|x ≤ 5, y ≤ 5}
5. If A = {1,2,3}, B = {2,3,4}, C = (5,6,7} and D = {6,7,8}. Then prove

that (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) × (𝐶 ∩ 𝐷) = (𝐴 × 𝐶) ∩ (𝐵 × 𝐷).

Soln.
A ∩ B = {2,3}
C ∩ D = {6,7}
∴ (A ∩ B) × (C ∩ D) = {(2,6), (2,7), (3,6), (3,7)} __________ (1)
Now
A × C = {(1,5), (1,6), (1,7), (2,5), (2,6), (2,7), (3,5), (3,6), (3,7)}
B × D = {(2,6), (2,7), (2,8), (3,6), (3,7), (3,8), (4,6), (4,7), (4,8)}
∴ (A × C) ∩ (B × D) = {(2,6), (2,7), (3,6), (3,7)} __________ (2)
Hence (A ∩ B) × (C ∩ D) = (A × C) ∩ (B × D) proved.
Applications

Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion (Addition theorem)

For two sets A and B ,

nA  B   nA   nB   nA  B 

For three sets A, B and C ,

        
n A B C  n A n B n C n A B n B C n A C n A B C     

For four sets A, B, C and D ,

nA  B  C  D  nA   nB   nC   nD  nA  B   nA  C   nA  D

 nB  C   nB  D  nC  D  nA  B  C   nA  B  D  nA  C  D
 nB  C  D  nA  B  C  D

Hint:

1. Atleast one - nA  B 

2. None no one or nothing = U - nA  B  = universal set - nA  B 

3. Both or All - nA  B  C  D

Some Problems:

1. n(A)=30, n(B)=40, n(AUB)=20 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) =?

Addition Theorem nA  B   nA   nB   nA  B 

nA  B   nA   nB   nA  B 

=30+40-20

=50

1. Among 40 CSE students interviewed in a class for a job, 25 knew Java

 programming, 28 knew Oracle and 7 do not knew any one of the

language. Find how many knew both languages.[n(𝐽 ∩ 𝑂)]

Soln.

Let J: Set of students knew Java.

O: Set of students knew Oracle.

Given n(S) = 40, where S denotes set of all CSE students.

𝑛(𝐽) = 25, 𝑛(𝑂) = 28and 𝑛(𝐽′ ∩ 𝑂′ ) = 7.

𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛(𝐽′ ∩ 𝑂′ ) = 𝑛(𝑆) − 𝑛(𝐽 ∪ 𝑂) [none =universal set- n(AUB)]
∴ 𝑛(𝐽 ∪ 𝑂) = 𝑛(𝑆) − 𝑛(𝐽′ ∩ 𝑂′ ) = 40 − 7 = 33.
We know that by principle of inclusion and exclusion: for two sets,

nA  B   nA   nB   nA  B 

𝑛(𝐽 ∪ 𝑂) = 𝑛(𝐽) + 𝑛(𝑂) − 𝑛(𝐽 ∩ 𝑂).

⇒ 𝑛(𝐽 ∩ 𝑂) = 𝑛(𝐽) + 𝑛(𝑂) − 𝑛(𝐽 ∪ 𝑂).

𝑛(𝐽 ∩ 𝑂) = 25 + 28 − 33 = 20.
Thus the number of programmers who knew both languages = 20.
2. Among 50 students in a class, 26 passed in first semester and 21
passed in second semester examinations. If 17 did not pass in either
semester, how many passed in both the semesters?
Soln. n(S)=50
Given 𝑛(𝐴) = 26, 𝑛(𝐵) = 21.
Given that 17 have not passed in either semester. (none)
None = U- 𝑛(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)
∴ 𝑛(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑡 − 𝑁𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 50 − 17 = 33.
i.e. 33 students have passed in at least first or the second semester or
both.
Thus by principle of inclusion and Exclusion,
𝑛(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) − 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
⇒ 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) − 𝑛(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)
⇒ 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 26 + 21 − 33
⇒ 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 14 . i.e., the number of students passed in both the
semesters = 14.

3. A survey of 500 television watchers produced the following

information: 285 watch football games, 195 watch hockey games, 115
watch basketball games, 70 watch football and hockey games, 50 watch
hockey and basketball games, 45 watch football and basketball games. 50
do not watch any of the three games. How many people watch exactly
one of the three games?

Solution:

Let F - Set of people who watch football

B - Set of people who watch basketball

H - Set of people who watch hockey

n(F)  285, n(B)  115, n(H)  195

n(F  B)  45, n(F  H)  70, n(H  B)  50

do not watch any of the three games

= None =50

None = U- 𝑛(𝐹 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐻)
n(F  B  H)  universal  none  500  50  450

WKT, the addition theorem

      
n F BH  n F n B n H n F B

 nB  H   nF  H   nF  B  H 

450 = 285 + 115 +195 – 45 – 70 – 50 + n(F  B  H)

n(F  B  H) = 20
 500

50-20 115-30-20-25
195-30-20-
50=95

70-20 45-20

No. of people who watch only football = 190

No. of people who watch only basketball = 40

No. of people who watch only hockey =95

 No. of people who watch exactly one game = 190 + 40 + 95 = 325

No of people who watches only two games=50+30+25=105

4. In a survey of college students, it was found that 40% use their own
books, 50%use library books, 20% use borrowed books, 20% use both
their own books and library books, 15% use their own books and
borrowed books, 10% use library books and borrowed books and 4% use
their own books, library books and borrowed books. Calculate the
percentage of students who do not use a book at all. - (None)

40
50
50-16-4-6

Solution:

n(O) = 40, n(L) = 50, n(B) = 30, n(O ∩L) = 20, n(O ∩B) = 15,
30
n(L ∩B) = 10, n(O ∩L ∩B) = 4.
n(O ∪L ∪B) = n(O) + n(L) + n(B) − n(O ∩L) − n(O ∩B) − n(L ∩B)
+ n(O ∩L ∩B)
= 40+50+30 − 20 − 15 − 10 + 4 = 79
∴The percentage of students who do not use a book at all is:
None = n(O '∪L '∪B') = 100 − n(O ∪L ∪B)
= 100 − 79 = 21.

5.In a survey of 100 students, it was found that 40 studied Mathematics,

64studied physics, 35 studied Chemistry. 1 studied all the three
subjects. 25studied mathematics and physics, 3 studied mathematics
and chemistry and 20studied physics and chemistry. Find the
number of students who studied only chemistry and the number of
students who studied none of these subjects.

Solution:
n(M) = 40, n(P) = 64, n(C) = 35, n(A ∩B ∩C) = 1, n(M ∩P) = 25,
n(M ∩C) = 3, n(P ∩C) = 20.
The no. of students studying only mathematics and Chemistry:
= n(M ∩C) − n(M ∩P ∩C)
= 3− 1 = 2.
No. of students studying only mathematics and physics:
= n(M ∩P) − n(M ∩P ∩C)
= 25 − 1 = 24
No. of students studying only physics and chemistry:
= n(P ∩C) − n(M ∩P ∩C) = 20 − 1 = 19
No. of students studying only mathematics:
= n(M) − 24 − 1 − 2 = 13
No. of students studying only physics:
= n(P) − 24 − 19 − 1 = 20
No. of students studying only chemistry:
= n(C) − 2 − 19 − 1 = 13
∴Total no. of students studying either Physics or Chemistry or
Mathematics:
n(M ∪P ∪C) = n(M) + n(P) + n(C) − n(M ∩P) − n(P ∩C)− n(M ∩C) + n(M
∩P ∩C)
= 40+64+35 − 25 − 3 − 20 + 1 = 92
∴None of the students who studied any of the three
= n(M ∩P ∩C)_ = 100 − 92 = 8

6. The survey was conducted among 1000 students. 595 like Discrete
Mathematics, 565 like Probability & Statistics, 550 like Digital signal
processing, 395 like Discrete Mathematics and Probability & Statistics,
350 like Probability & Statistics and Digital signal processing, 400 like
Digital signal processing and Discrete Mathematics and 250 like all the
three subjects.
i) Find the number of students who like at least one of the subjects.

ii) How many of them like Probability & Statistics and do not like Discrete
Mathematics and Digital Signal Processing.

iii) How many of them who do not like Discrete Mathematics, Probability &
Statistics and Digital Signal Processing.

iv) How many of them do not like all the three subjects.

Solution:

Let D: set of students like Discrete Mathematics

Let P: set of students like Probability & Statistics

Let S: set of students like Digital Signal Processing.

U  1000, D  595, P  565, S  550, D  P  395, P  S  350,

D  S  400, D  P  S  250
i) Number of students who like atleast one of the subjects = D  P  S

= D  P  S  DP  DS  SP  DPS

= 595 + 565 + 550 -395 – 400 – 350 + 250

= 815

ii) Number of students who like Probability & Statistics but not Discrete

Mathematics and Digital Signal Processing.

n (P alone) = 565 -145 – 250 – 100 = 70

iii) Number of students do not like all

= PDS

= U  PDS

= 1000 – 815 = 185.

7.How many positive integers not exceeding 500 are divisible by 7 or 11?

Soln:

Let A = Set of positive integers less than 500, that are divisible by 7.

B = Set of positive integers less than 500, that are divisible by 11.

n(A) 
 500   71
 7 
71.42

n(B) 
 500   45
 11 
=45.5
[Number of integers which are divisible by both 7 and 11]

 500 
n(A  B) 
7 *11  6
LCM(7,11) =77

divisible by 7 or 11

     
n A B  n A n B n A B 
= 71 + 45 – 6 = 110

i.e., number of integers divisible by 7 or 11 = 110

8. Find the number of integers between 1 and 250, both inclusive, that

are divisible by 4, 5, 6 or 15. n

Solution:

Let A = Set of positive integers less than 250, that are divisible by 4.

B = Set of positive integers less than 250, that are divisible by 5.

C = Set of positive integers less than 250, that are divisible by 6.

D = Set of positive integers less than 250, that are divisible by 15.

 250 
n( A)    62
 4 

 250 
n( B )    50
 5 

 250 
n(C )    41
 6  41.6
  250 
n( D )    16
 15  16.66

 250 
n( A  B )    12
 4 * 5  LCM(4,5)=20

 250 
n( A  C )    20
 12  [LCM =(A and C)=LCM (4,6) =12]

 250 
n( A  D )   4
 60 

 250 
n( B  C )   8
 30 

 250 
n( B  D )    16
 15 

 250 
n(C  D)   8
 30 

 250 
n( A  B  C )   4
 60  [LCM(A,B,C)=LCM (4,5,6) =60]

 250 
n( A  B  D )   4
 60 

 250 
n( A  C  D )   4
 60 

 250 
n( B  C  D )   8
 30 

 250 
n( A  B  C  D )   4
 60  LCM(4,5,6,15)=60

n A  B  C  D   n A  nB   nC   nD   n A  B   n A  C   n A  D   nB  C  

nB  D   nC  D   n A  B  C   n A  B  D   n A  C  D   nB  C  D  
n A  B  C  D 
=62 + 50 + 41 + 16 – 12 -20 - 4 – 8 – 16 – 8 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 8 – 4 =
=117

9.Determine the number of integers between 1 and 250 that are not

divisible by 2, 3, or 5?

Soln:

Let A = Set of positive integers less than 250, that are divisible by 2.

B = Set of positive integers less than 250, that are divisible by 3.

C = Set of positive integers less than 250, that are divisible by 5.

n(A) 
 250   125
 2 

n(B) 
 250   83
 3 

n(C) 
 250   50
 5 

n(A  B) 
 250   41
 6 

n(A  C) 
 250   25
 10 

n(B  C) 
 250   16
 15 

n(A  B  C) 
 250   8
 30 
         
n A B C  n A n B n C n A B n B C n A C n A B C     

=125 +83 + 50 – 41 – 25 – 16 + 8 = 184

 No. of integers between 1 and 250 that are divisible by 2, 3 or 5

= 184

 No. of integers between 1 and 250 that are not divisible by 2, 3 or 5

= 250 – 184 = 66

10. Determine the number of positive integers ‘n’ where 1 ≤ n ≤ 2000

and ‘n’ is not divisible by 2,3,5 but divisible by 7.
Solution:

Number of integers divisible by 7 but not by 2,3 or 5.

For four sets A, B, C and D ,

A= nos. divisible by 7

B= nos. divisible by 2

C= nos. divisible by 3

D= nos. divisible by 5

nA  B  C  D  nA   nB   nC   nD  nA  B   nA  C   nA  D

 nB  C   nB  D  nC  D  nA  B  C   nA  B  D  nA  C  D
 nB  C  D  nA  B  C  D

= Number of integers divisible by 7

– number of integers divisible by 7 and 2, (ie. By 14)
- number of integers divisible by 7 and 3, (ie. By 21)
- number of integers divisible by 7 and 5, (ie. By 35)
+ number of integers divisible by 7 and 2 and 3, (ie. By 42)
+ number of integers divisible by 7 and 2 and 5, (ie.by 70)
 + number of integers divisible by 7 and 3 and 5, (ie. By 105)
- number of integers divisible by 7 and 2 and 3 and 5, (ie.210)
= (2000/7) - (2000/14)- (2000/21)
- (2000/35) +(2000/42) + (2000/70)
+ (2000/105) - (2000/210)
= 285 – 142 – 95 – 57 +47 +28 +19 – 9 = 76.

Relations
Connection between two sets
If A and B are two sets, a relation (or a binary relation) from A to B
is a subset of A  B .(Subset of the cartesian product between two sets) If
x  A is related to an element y  B under the relation R , then we write

x R y (x is related to y).

If R is a relation from a set A to itself, i.e., R is a subset of A  A , then

we say that R is a relation on the set A .

Examples:

1) A  0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and B  0, 1, 2, 3

Let ['a' is related to 'b'] aRb iff a  b  4 .[Here a is in A and b is in B]

Then R  (1, 3), (2, 2), (3, 1), (4, 0). (0,4) not possible

Domain of R = 1, 2, 3, 4

Range of R = 0,1, 2, 3

2) Let A  1, 2, 3, 4 and R be the relation on A defined by a R b iff a  b .

Then R  (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 4)

(2,1) not possible since 2 greater that 1

Domain = Range = A ={1,2,3,4}

3) A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and R be the relation on A defined by aRb iff a-b is
divisible by 2

Then R = {(1,1), (1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 3), (3, 5), (4, 4),
(4, 2), (5, 1), (5, 3), (5, 5)}

(1,1)=1-1=0 divisible by2

(1,3)=1-3=-2 divisible by2 =-1

(1,5)=1-5=-4 divisible by 2=-2

Domain = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = Range

4) A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and R be the relation on A defined by aRb iff ab is

a multiple of 3

Then R = {(1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5),(3,1),(3,2),(4,3),(5,3)}
subset of AXA

Domain of R = { 1, 2, 3,4,5} and Range of R = {1,2, 3, 4, 5}=A

Types of relations:

1. A relation R on a set A is called a universal relation if R  A  A .

2. A relation R on a set A is called an identity relation if

R  (a, a ) : a  R

Eg. If A  1, 2, 3 , then the identity relation on A is R  (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)

3. A relation R on a set A is called a null (void) relation if R   .

Eg. Let A  3,5,7,11 and let R be defined on A as a R b if a is a

multiple of b . Then R   .

4. If R is a relation from a set A to a set B , then the inverse of R is the

relation from B to A which consists of the ordered pairs got by
interchanging the elements of the ordered pairs in R .
i.e., R 1  (b, a) : (a, b) R

Eg. Let A  2, 3, 5, B  6, 8,10 and let the relation R be defined as a R b iff

a divides b .[b/a]
Then R = (2, 6), (2, 8), (2, 10), (3, 6), (5, 10)  and

R 1  (6, 2), (8, 2), (10, 2), (6, 3), (10,5) 

Some operations on relations:

 If R and S are two relations from a set A to a set B , then their

union, intersection and difference are defined as:

R  S  (a, b) : (a, b) R or (a, b) S 

R  S  (a, b) : (a, b) R and (a, b) S 

R  S  (a, b) : (a, b) R and (a, b) S 

 The complementary relation R c is

R c  (a, b) A  B : (a, b) R  [ here AXB is the universal set]

Reflexive, Symmetric and Transitive Relations

Reflexive relation

A relation on a set A is reflexive if (a, a)∈ R [or] aRa for all a ∈ A, i.e., if
every element of A is related to itself.

Eg: If A ={1,2,3} and R ={ (1,1)(2,2),(3,3),(2,3),(3,2),(1,3),(3,1)}

a) The relation “ is equal to“ (=) on the set of real numbers is reflexive,
since every element is equal to itself.[1=1, 2=2, .....]
b) The relation “ is parallel to “ on the set of all straight lines in a plane is
reflexive, since every straight line is parallel to itself

Symmetric relation

A relation R on A is symmetric if whenever (a, b) ∈ R , we also have

(b, a)∈ R.[aRb implies bRa] i.e., whenever a is related to b , we also
have that b is related to a .

Eg: A={1,2,3,4} [(a,b)in R, then we have to search for (b,a)]

1) R={ (1,1)(2,2),(3,3),(2,3),(3,2),(1,3),(3,1),(4,3)}

not reflexive[since (4,4) is not in R] and not symmetric since (3,4) is

not in R

a) The relation “ is perpendicular to “ on the set of all straight lines in a

plane is a symmetric relation

b) The relation “ is equal to“ on the set of natural numbers is a

symmetric relation

Transitive relation

A relation R on A is transitive if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R imply (a, c) ∈

R, i.e., whenever a is related to b and b is related to c , it is also true
that a is related to c .

Ex: (1,2),(2,3) in R implies (1,3) in R

Eg: The relation “ is parallel to “ on the set of all straight lines in a plane.

Antisymmetric relation

A relation R on A is antisymmetric if (a, b) R and (b, a ) R  a  b .

(or) if (a, b) R and a  b  (b, a) R

Eg: 2 < 3 2=2, 3=3

1) The relation ‘ is less than or equal to’ on the set of real numbers.

2) The relation ‘ is a subset of ’ on the power set of a set A .

[every set is a subset of itself A=A]

Asymmetric relation

(a, b), (b, a)  R if and only if a  b

Irreflexive relation

A relation R on A is irreflexive if for every x  A, x, x   R .

Eg: The relation ‘ is less than ’ on the set of real numbers.

Equivalence relation

A relation R on A that is reflexive, symmetric and transitive is called an

equivalence relation.

Eg:

1) Let A = Set of all triangles in the plane

R  (a, b) : a is congruent to b

2) A = Set of all straight lines in a plane

R  (a, b) : a is parallel to b

Practice Problems

1) Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 4} and consider the relation R such that
“<” [a<b] then find R, RC, R−1.

Solution:

Universal set

A × B = {(1, 1), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)}
R = {(1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4)}

RC = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 1)}

R−1 = {(4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)}

2). Let A = {a, b, c} and B = {1, 2, 4} the relation R = {(a, 1), (a, 4),
(b, 1), (b, 4),(c, 1), (c, 2), (c, 4)}, find RC, R−1.

Solution:

Universal set

A × B = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 4), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 4), (c, 1), (c, 2), (c, 4)}

RC = {(a, 2), (b, 2)}

R−1 = {(1, a), (4, a), (1, b), (4, b), (1, c), (2, c), (4, c)}

3) Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2, 6} and the relations

R = {(1, 2), (1, 6), (2, 6), (3, 6)},

S = {(1, 2), (1, 6), (2, 2), (2, 6), (3, 2)(3, 6)}.

Find R ∪ S & R ∩ S

Solution:

R ∪ S = {(1, 2)(1, 6)(2, 2)(2, 6)(3, 2)(3, 6)}

R ∩ S = {(1, 2)(1, 6)(2, 6)(3, 6)}

4). Check reflexive, symmetric and transitive relations in the following.

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and

R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 3), (3, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)},

S = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}
Ans:

The relation R is symmetric but not reflexive and also not transitive

(a,b) and (b,c) imply (a,c)

(1,1)&(1,2) imply (1,2) in R

(1,1)&(1,3) imply (1,3) in R

(1,2)&(2,1) imply(1,1) in R

(1,2)&(2,2)imply (1,2) i n R

(2, 1)&(1,2) imply (2,2) in R

(2,1) &(1,3) imply (2,3) not in R

Not transitive

The relation S is symmetric, transitive, but not reflexive since (4,4) is not
in S.

5)
6)

Ans:

7)

Ans:

Simple Problems in Equivalence Relation

1) Let A ={1,2,3,4} and the relation

R={(1,1),(1,2),(2,2),(2,1),(3,3),(4,4)}. Check whether R is an
equivalence relation.

Solution:
To check R is reflexive (a, a) ∈R ,∀ a ∈ R. That is aRa. for all a ∈ R

Since (1, 1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4) ∈R, R is reflexive relation.

To check R is symmetric (a, b) ∈R implies (b, a) ∈R

Since (1,2) and (2,1) ∈R , R is symmetric

To check R is transitive (a, b) ∈R, (b, c) ∈R implies (a, c) ∈R

(1,1) and (1,2) ∈R implies (1,2) ∈R ; (1,2) and (2,2) ∈R implies (1,2) ∈R

(1,2) and (2,1) ∈R implies (1,1) ∈R ; (2,2) and (2,1) ∈R implies (2,1) ∈R

(2,1) and (1,1) ∈R implies (2,1) ∈R ; (2,1) and (1,2) ∈R implies (2,2) ∈R

Therefore R is transitive

Hence R is an equivalence relation.

2) Let A={0,1,2,3} and

R ={(0,0),(1,1),(1,3),(2,2),(2,3),(3,1),(3,2),(3,3)}. Is R an
equivalence relation?
Solution:

To check R is reflexive (a, a) ∈R ,∀ a ∈ R. That is aRa.

Since (0,0),(1, 1),(2,2),(3,3) ∈R, R is reflexive relation.

To check R is symmetric (a, b) ∈R implies (b, a) ∈R

Since (1,3) and (3,1) ∈R ; (2,3) and (3,2) ∈R

R is symmetric

To check R is transitive (a, b) ∈R, (b, c) ∈R implies (a, c) ∈R

(1,1) and (1,3) ∈R implies (1,3) ∈R ; (1,3) and (3,1) ∈R implies (1,1) ∈R

(1,3) and (3,2) ∈R but (1,2)  R ;

Therefore R is not transitive

Hence R is not an equivalence relation.

3) A= (1,2,3,4,5,6,7) and the relation R defined as

𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦)/|𝑥 − 𝑦| = 2}. Is R an equivalence relation?

Solution: The elements of R are

𝑅 = {(1,3), (2,4), (3,5), (4,6), (5,7), (6,4), (5,3), (4,2), (3,1), (7,5)}

To check R is reflexive (a, a) ∈R ,∀ a ∈ R.

Since (1, 1),(2,2),...(7,7) ∈ R , R is not reflexive.

R is not an equivalence relation.

4) X={1,2,3…10}, R={(x, y)/x, yϵ X and x+ y=10}. Is R an

equivalence relation?
Solution:

The elements of R={(1,9),(2,8),(3,7),(4,6),(5,5),(6,4),(7,3),(8,2),(9,1)}

Since (1,1), (2,2),...  R , R is not reflexive

Therefore R is not an equivalence relation.

5) Check whether the following relations are equivalence relation.

i) A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, R = { (1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,2), (3,3), (3,4), (4,3),

(4,4)

ii) A= { {1, 2, 3, 4}, R = {(1,3), (1,1),(3.1), (1,2), (3,3), (4,4)}

iii) R= { (x,y)/x,y ϵR, x<y}

Ans : i) Equivalence, ii) Not an equivalence, iii) Not an equivalence, [(x,x)

not in R (not refelexive), x<y not imply y<x (not symmeteric)]

6) Let A={Straight lines in a plane} and the relation

R = {(a ,b): line a is parallel to line b}

Solution:
To check R is reflexive: aRa for all aϵA

a
That is the line a is parallel to itself.

To check R is symmetric: aRb implies bRa

a The line b is parallel to the line a

To check R is Transitive: aRb, bRc implies aRc

a The line a is parallel to the line b [aRb]

b The line b is parallel to the line c [bRa]

c
That is the line a is parallel to c [aRc]

Therefore R is an equivalence relation.

7) Let A={Straight lines in a plane} and the relation

R = {(a ,b): a is perpendicular to b}

Solution:

To check R is reflexive: aRa for all aϵA [To prove a is perpendicular to a]

a
That is, the line a cannot be perpendicular to itself.

Hence R is not reflexive

To check R is symmetric: aRb implies bRa

b The line b is perpendicular to the line a

Hence R is symmetric

To check R is Transitive: aRb, bRc implies aRc

The line a is perpendicular to the line b

c
b
The line b is perpendicular to the line c

a
That is the line a is parallel to c

Hence R is not transitive

Therefore R is an not an equivalence relation.

8) Let a relation R be defined on the set of all real numbers by if x,y are
real numbers, xRy ⇔ x−y is a rational number. Show that the relation R
is an equivalence relation.

Solution:

Given xRy if and only if x−y is a rational number.

To check R is reflexive[ xRx]

(i) As x−x =0 is a rational number for all real numbers x.

The relation R is reflexive.

To check R is Symmetric
(ii) Let xRy then x−y = z for some rational number.

Now y−x ==-(x-y)=−z is also rational number. So yRx .

Thus xRy ⇔ yRx and So R is symmetric.

To check R is Transitive

(iii) Let xRy and yRz then

x−y = r1 and y−z = r2 for some ration nos. r1,r2.

To verify for xRz [to prove x-z is a rational no.]

Now (x−y )+ (y−z) = r1 + r2. ⇒ x−z = r1 + r2 is also a rational number

so xRz .

Thus xRy and yRZ ⇔ xRz .

Hence R is transitive.

Therefore R is an equivalence relation.

9) If A ={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} and R be a relation defined by

(a, b), (c, d)∈R if a+ d =b+ c. Prove that R is an equivalence relation

A={1,2,3...9} R in A×A
(a, b) R (c, d) if (a, b)(c, d) ∈ A∈A aRb
a+ d=b+ c
To prove R is reflexive (a,b ) related to itself

Consider (a, b) R (a, b) (a, b)∈A×A

a+ b=b+ a
Hence, R is reflexive.
To prove R is symmetric

Let (a, b) (c, d) ∈ A×A,

If (a, b) R (c, d) then (c, d) R (a, b)

The relation (a, b) R (c, d) is given by

 a+ d=b+ c⇒ c+ b=d+ a
⇒ (c, d) R (a, b)
Hence R is symmetric.

To prove R is Transitive

Let (a, b), (c, d),(e, f),∈A×A such that

(a, b) R (c, d) and (c, d) R (e, f)

to prove (a, b) R (e, f)

a+ d=b+ c and c+ f=d+ e
a+ d=b+ c
⇒a−c=b−d-- (1)
c+ f=d+ e-- (2)
Adding (1) and (2)
a−c+c+f=b−d+d+e
a+ f=b+ e
(a, b)R(e, f)
R is transitive.
R is an equivalence relation.

Descriptive type problems in equivalence relation

1) If R is the relation on the set of integers such that (a, b)∈R iff
3a+4b = 7n for some integer n, prove that R is an equivalence relation.

Solution : aRa

i) 3a+4a=7a= 7 times of the integer a)=7n where a is an integer which

implies (a, a) ∈R , ∀ a ∈ Z.

Therefore R is a reflexive relation.

ii) Let (a, b) ∈R. aRb implies bRa

To prove 3b+4a=7m
Given (a, b) ∈R this implies 3a+4b = 7n where n is a integer by
definition.

Now, 3b+4a = 7b+7a−(4b+3a)

= 7(b+a) −7n

= 7(a+b−n), where a+b−n is an integer.

we have proved 3b+4a = 7 times an integer

which implies (b, a) ∈R

Therefore R is a symmetric relation.

iii) Let (a, b) ∈R and (b, c) ∈R.

To prove (a, c) ∈R [3a+4c=7 times an integer]

Then 3a+4b = 7m and 3b+4c = 7n where m and n are integers.

Now adding, 3a+4b+3b+4c = 7m + 7n

⟹ 3a + 7b + 4c = 7(m+n)

⟹ 3a + 4c = 7(m+n - b) where m+ n - b is an integer.

3a + 4c =7 times an integer

Which implies (a, c)∈R

Therefore R is a transitive relation.

So R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive relation.

Hence R is an equivalence relation.

2) Let R denote a relation on the set of ordered pairs of positive integers
such that (x, y)R(u, v) iff xv = yu. Prove that R is an equivalence
relation.

Proof : Z+ denotes the set of positive integers. R is a relation on Z+× Z+

i) Let (x, y), (x,y)∈ Z+× Z+. By definition xy =yx

Then (x,y)R(x,y) . Therefore R is reflexive.

ii) Let (x,y)R(a,b). To prove (a,b)R(x,y) [ay=bx]

Then xb=ya which implies bx=ay. i.e., ay=bx. Which in turn implies
(a,b)R(x,y).

Therefore R is symmetric.

iii) Let (x,y)R(a,b) and let (a,b)R(c,d).

To prove (x,y)R(c,d) [xd=yc]

Then xb=ya and ad=bc

ya bc
⟹x  & d
b a

 ya  bc 
Consider xd      yc  (x,y)R(c,d)
 b  a 

Hence R is transitive.

Thus R is an equivalence relation.

3) If R is the relation on the set of positive integers such that (a,b)∈R if

fab is a perfect square. Show that R is an equivalence relation.

Proof: i) (a,a) ∈R, since a2 is a perfect square.

Therefore R is reflexive.

ii) When ab is a perfect square, ba is also a perfect square.

i.e., aRb ⟹bRa

Therefore R is symmetric.

iii) If aRb, let ab=x2--------(1)

If bRc, let bc=y2-----------(2)

(1)×(2) gives ab2c=x2y2.

2
 xy 
Therefore ac     a perfect square.
 b 

Thus aRb & bRc ⟹aRc.

Therefore R is transitive.

Hence R is an equivalence relation.

Thus R is transitive.

Hence R is an equivalence relation.

4) Prove that the relation ‘Congruence modulo m ’ defined by

R   x, y  : x  y is divisible by m is an equivalence relation over the set of

integers.

Ans:

R is defined as: x R y  x  y is divisible by m

 x  y  mk , where k is an integer.

(i) R is reflexive: xRx

x  x  0  0.m

i.e., x R x  R is reflexive.

(ii) R is symmetric:

Let x R y

 x  y  mk , where k is an integer.
 ( y  x)  ( x  y )   mk  m(k ) , where  k is an integer.

y Rx

i.e., x R y  y R x  R is symmetric.

(iii) R is transitive

Let x R y and y R z To prove xRz

 x  y  mk1 , y  z  mk 2 k1,k2 are integers

x  y    y  z   mk1  mk 2
x  z  m k1  k 2  , k1  k 2 is an integer

i.e., x R z

i.e., x R y , y R z  x R z

 R is transitive.

 R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive,

 R is an equivalence relation.

5) If R is the relation on the set of positive integers such that (a,b)∈R iff
a2+b is even. Prove that R is an equivalence relation.

Proof: i)a2+a=a(a+1)=even, since ‘a’ and (a+1) are concecutive positive

integers.

Thus (a,a) ∈R. Therefore R is reflexive.

ii) When a2+b is even, ‘a’ and ‘b’ must be both even or both odd.

In either case, b2+a is even.

Therefore (a,b)∈R iimplies (b,a)∈R

So R is symmetric.
iii) When a,b,c are even, a2+b and b2+c is even. Also a2+c is even.

When a,b,c are odd, a2+b and b2+c is even. Also a2+c is even.

Then (a,b)∈R & (b,c)∈R implies (a,c)∈R.

Therefore R is transitive.

Hence R is an equivalence relation.

Equivalence classes

In an equivalence relation R, the equivalence class of the element 'a' is

defined as

[a] = {x: (a, x)ϵ R}= the set of elements that are related with a are
coming under the equivalence class of a

A = {1,2,3}, R = {(1,1), (1,2),(2,1),(2,2),(3,3)}, find the equivalence

classes of the elements of A.

R can be proved as an equivalence relation.[Check refexive,

symmetric and transitive]

The equivalences classes are

[1] = {1,2}; [2]= {1,2}; [3]={3}

A={{1,2},{3}}

Note

If R is an equivalence relation on A and if a,b ϵ A

1) a ϵ[a], [That is, an element must belong to its respective equivalence class]for all a ϵA

2) [a] = [b] iff (a, b) ϵR

3) If [a] ∩[b] ≠  , then [a] ≠ [b]

Representation of relations

Apart from set notation, there are other ways too to write the relation.
They are

1. Relational matrix

2. Digraph representation

3. Arrow diagram

Relational matrix (Adjacency matrix)

A relation between two finite sets can be represented by a Boolean

matrix , i.e., a matrix with elements 0 and 1.

Let R be a relation from A to B where

A  a1 ,a2 ,......am  and

B  b1 ,b2 ,......bn . Then the relation R can be represented by the m n

1 if ai ,b j R
 
matrix MR  mij where mij  
0 if ai ,b j R

Note :

1) A has ‘n’ elements then the relation matrix of a relation R on A is a

square matrix of order ‘n’.

2) If a relation on a set is reflexive then all the diagonal elements are 1.

3) If a relation is symmetric then the relation matrix is a symmetric

matrix. [A =AT then the matrix A is said to be a symmetric matrix.]
Problems

1) Let A ={a1,a2,a3,a4} and B={b1,b2,b3,b4} and R be the relation given

by R = {(a1,b1),(a1,b4),(a2,b2),(a2,b3),(a3,b1),(a3,b3)}. Find the matrix of
R.

Solution.

b1 b 2 b3 b 4

a1  1 0 0 1
 
a2  0 1 1 0
MR  
a3 1 0 1 0
 
a4  0 0 0 0

2)
3)

1 2 3 4
1
2
1

3
4

Solution :

R = {(1,1),(1,3),(2,3),(3,1),(4,1),(4,2),(4,4)}

Graph of a relation (Directed graph) -Digraph

A relation ‘R’ may be represented pictorially. This is referred to as the

graph of the relation.

The elements of the set A are represented by dots or small circles called
notes or vertices.

 If ai is related to aj then we draw a line or arc from ai to aj with an

arrow mark.
 If ai is related to itself, there is a loop at ai.
 A directed graph is also called a digraph.

Problems
1) Write the directed graph of relation
R ={(a, a), (a, b),(b, b),(b, c),(c, c),(c, b),(c, a)}. Also check whether the
relation is an equivalence relation
Since, there is loop at every node, it is reflexive but it is not symmetric as
there is an edge from a to b but no opposite edge from b to a R is not
transitive as there is an edge from a to b and b to c but no edge from a to
c.The relation is not an equivalence relation.

2 ) Let A = {1,2,3,4} and R be a relation on A.

R={(1,2),(2,2),(2,4),(3,2),(3,4),(4,1),(4,3)}. Describe the graph of R.

Solution:
1 2

4 3
Arrow diagram

The elements of A and B are written in two columns in two disjoint discs
respectively, and then an arrow is drawn from a  A to b  B , if a is
related to b .
 and MS =

Find M RS , M RS , M R S , M S  R

1 1 1 1
1 1 1 0
1) M RS 
1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0

1 1 0 0
 
0 0 0 0
2) M RS 
0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 

1 1 1 0
 
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
 
1 1 1 0 

1 1 1 1
 
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1
 
0 0 0 0 
Problems

1) Let A={1,2,3,4}, B={x, y, z} defined by

R={(1,y),(1,z),(3,y),(4,x),(4,z)}. Draw the arrow diagram and write the

relation matrix

1 x
2
y
3
z
4
3
3

R= x y z

1 0 1 1

2 0 0 0

3 0 1 0

4 1 0 1

2) A relation “taller than” is defined on a set of students in a class where

( a, b) R if a is taller than b .

Thus for the height relation R given by (a, p), (a, r ), (b, q) , an arrow is

drawn from a to p , from a to r and from b to q to indicate that

(a, p), (a, r ), (b, q ) are in the relation R .

3)

Also draw the arrow diagram

R={(2,2),(2,4),(2,6),(4,4),(4,2),(6,2)}
 2 2

4 4
6
6
8
8

Composition of relations

If R is a relation from A to B and S is a relation from B to C , the

composition of R and S is denoted by R  S and is defined by

RS= (a, c) :  b  B such that (a, b) R and (b, c)  S 

R  S is a relation from A to C .

R: A B and S: B C RS: A C

Note: If R is a relation from A to B and S is a relation from B to C ,

then

M M .M S
R S R

Operations on Relations using Matrix Representation of Relations

If R and S are relations from A to B , then

M M M
RS R S
M M M
RS R S
M M
R R

M
R 1
 M
R
 
T

where  (OR),  ( AND ) are defined according to Boolean arithmetic

1  1  1, 1  0  1, 0  1  1, 0  0  0 
 
 1  1  1, 1  0  0, 0  1  0, 0  0  0 
Powers of a relation:

If R is a relation on a set A , then

R 1  R, R 2  R  R, R 3  R 2  R,......, R n 1  R n  R .

Example 1Let A  1, 2, 3 and R , S be defined on A such that

1 0 1 0 1 1
   
M R  0 1 1 , M S  1 1 0
 0 0 0 0 1 0
   

Find the matrices of

1) R  S 2) R  S 3) R 4) R 1 5) R  S

(1) M R  S  M R  M S =

1 0 1  0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1  1 1 1
       
 0 1 1  1 1 0   0 1 1 1 1 1   1 1 1
0 0 0  0 1 0  0  0 0 1 0  0  0 1 0
       

1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
     
(2) M R  S  M R  M S = 0 1 1  1 1 0   0 1 0
0 0 0  0 1 0  0 0 0
     

 0 1 0
 
(3) M R  M R   1 0 0 
1 1 1
 

1 0 0
 
(4) M R 1  M R    0 1 0
T

1 1 0
 

(5) M R S  M R . M S =

1 0 1 0 1 1 0  0  0 1 0 1 1 0  0  0 1 1
       
 0 1 1  1 1 0   0 1 0 0 11 0  0  0  1 1 0
 0 0 0  0 1 0  0 0   0 0 0 
     0
[matrix multiplication]

Example 2 : If R and S be relations on a set A represented by the

matrices

 0 1 0 0 1 0
   
M R  1 1 1 , M S  0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
   

Find the matrices that represent i) R  S ii) R  S iii) R  S iv) S  R

v) R  S

Solution :

0 1 0
 
i) MR S  MR  MS   1 1 1 
1 1 1
 

0 1 0
 
ii) MR S  MR  MS   0 1 1 
1 0 0
 

0 1 1
 
iii) MR S  MR  MS   1 1 1 
0 1 0
 

1 1 1 
 
iv) MSR  MS  MR  1 1 1
1 1 1 
 

0 0 0
 
v) MR S  MR S  MR S  1 0 0 R S  RS RS
0 1 1
  [Since ]
Example 3

Let R be a relation (2, 2), (2, 5), (5, 6), (6, 6) on A  2, 5, 6 . Find R, R 2 , R 3 .

Ans:

1 1 0
 
R  0 0 1
0 0 1
 

 1 1 0   1 1 0   1 1 1
     
R  R  R   0 0 1  .  0 0 1    0 0 1
2

 0 0 1   0 0 1   0 0 1
     

 1 1 1  1 1 0   1 1 1
    
R 3  R 2  R   0 0 1  0 0 1    0 0 1
 0 0 1  0 0 1   0 0 1
    

Example 4
If R is the relation on A  1, 2, 3 such that (a, b) R iff a  b is even, find
the relational matrix M R . Also find M R 1 , M R , M R 2 .

Ans:
R  (1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 2), (3, 1), (3, 3)

1 2 3
11 0 1
 
M R  20 1 0
3  1 0 1 

1 0 1
 
M R 1  M R    0 1 0
T

1 0 1
 

0 1 0
 
M R  M R 1 0 1
0 1 0
 
 1 0 1
 
M R 21  M R .M R   0 1 0
1 0 1
 
Example 5.

If R and S are the relations represented by the matrices

Example 6.
Questions

1. Give an example of a relation that is both symmetric and

antisymmetric.
2. Give an example of a relation which is symmetric, transitive but not
reflexive on {a,b,c}
3. Find whether R  1,2 , 2 ,3 , 1,3, 2,1 is transitive?. Justify your

answer.
4. Let X = 1,2 ,3 ,4 and R  1,1, 1,4, 4,1, 4,4 , 2,2 , 2,3, 3,2 , 3,3 . Write

the matrix of R.
5. If A= 1, 2,3, 4 and R  1,1 , 1,3 ,  2,3 ,  3, 2  ,  3,3  ,  4,3  , determine the

matrix of the relation R.

6. If R  1,1 , 1, 2  ,  2,3 and S   2,1 ,  2, 2  ,  3, 2  are relations on the set

A={1,2,3},verify whether R S  S R by finding the relation

matrices of R S and S R

7. In a survey of 100 students, it was found that 40 studied

Mathematics, 64 studied
Physics, 35 studied Chemistry, 1 studied all the three subjects, 25
studied Mathematics
and Physics, 3 studied Mathematics and Chemistry and 20 studied
Physics and
chemistry. Find the number of students who studied only
Chemistry and the number of students who studied none of these
subjects.
8. Draw the graph of the relation R   x, y  / x, y  X , x  y where

X  1, 2,3, 4 and find the relation matrix.

9. Define the relation P on 1, 2,3, 4 by P   a , b  / a  b  1 .Find

relational matrix and relational graph. Write the adjacency matrix of

P2.
10. Let MR and MS be the relation matrix given by

1 0 1  1 0 0 1 0
   
M R  1 1 0  and M S   1 0 1 0 1  find M R S , M R , M S , M R S and
1 1 1  0 1 0 1 0
   

prove that M R S  M S R .

11. If R  1,1 , 1, 2  , 1,3 ,  2, 4  ,  3, 2  and

S  1,3 , 1, 4  ,  2,3 ,  3,1 ,  4,1 are the relations on A  1, 2,3, 4 , find

the relation S R by using relational matrix.

12. Let Z be the set of integers and let R be the relation called
“congruence modulo 3” defined by
 R  ( x, y ) / x  Z  y  Z  ( x  y ) is divisible by 3 . Show that R

is an equivalence relation and determine the equivalence classes

generated by the elements of Z.
13. Let X = 1 , 2 ,3 , 4...., 7 and

R  ( x, y ) / ( x  y ) is divisible by 3 . Show that R is an equivalence

relation and draw the graph of R.

14. If R is the relation on the set of positive integers such that
 a, b   R iff a 2  b is even, then prove that R is an equivalence

relation.
15. Let the relation R be defined on the set of all real numbers: If
x,y are real numbers, xRy  x  y is a rational number. Show that R

is an equivalence relation.