UNIT II- FUNCTIONS

(Mapping or Transformation or correspondence)

low voice(L) - Loud speaker[2L](Magnification)-Louder

voice

Input(Elements)-Output(Images)

Introduction

Functions are the particular type of relations (which is

discussed in the previous topic). Functions are the special kind
of relations that associates each member of the first set with
only one member of the second set.

Definition

Let X and Y be any two sets . A relation from f from X to Y is

called a function if, for every x  X , there is a unique y  Y such

that x, y   f . i.e x is mapped to y

X(Students name) Y(Bate of birth)

1) Akash 01.09.2002

2) Anuraghav 03.10.2002

3) Bala rupesh 17.2.2002

4) Sanjiv 20.03.2002

Codomain Y{01.09, 03.10, 17.02, 20.03}

Range{01.09, 17.02, 20.03}

A function can be written as f : X  Y

Pictorially

X f Y

x y
x

If y  f x  be the function then y is the image of x and that x is the

pre image of y . X is called the domain of the function f and Y is

called the codomain. The set of images of all elements of X , is called the
range of f .

Examples of Functions

1.

2.
3)

a 1

b 2

c 3

d 4

4.

Examples of not Functions

1.

Since the element 1 has two images it is not a function.

2.
3.

The given relation is not a function since the element 2 in X has two
images in Y . Also, elements 3 and 4 do not have images

4.

II. Determine whether or not each of the following relations are functions
with domain {1,2,3,4} If any relation is not a function. Give reasons.

a) R 1  {(1,1), (2,1), (3,1), (4,1), (3,3)}

b) R 2  {(1, 2), (2,3), (4,2)}

c) R 3  {(1,1), (2,1), (3,1), (4,1)}

d) R 4  {(1,4), (2,3), (3,2), (4,1)}

Solution

a) R1 is not a function, since there are 2 pairs (3,1) and (3,3). which
means that the element 3 has two images. That the image is not unique.

b) R2 is not a function, since the element 3 does not have image.

c) R3 is a function , since all the elements have unique images.

d) R4 is a function , since all the elements have unique images.

III. Determine whether or not each of the following relations are function.
If any relation is a function then find its range.

a) R 1  {(x, y) :x, y  Z, y  x  7}, which is a relation from Z to Z .

2

X ={Z},

x=-2, Y=11

x=-1, y=8

x=0, y=7,

x=2, Y=11

x=1, y=8

R1 is a function, since for each x  Z , there is a unique image y, given by

the relation y  x  7 .
2

Range = {7,8,11,16,23,...}.

b) R 2  {(x, y):x, y  R, y2  x}, which is a relation from R to R.

R2 is not a function, since y  x  y   x , that is the value of y is

2

not unique.

c) R 3  {(x, y) :x, y  R, y  3x  1}, which is a relation from R to R.

d) R 4  {(x, y):x, y  Q, x2  y2  1}, which is a relation from Q to Q.

Solution

c) Function

d) Not a function.[y =  1 - x ]
2
 Representation of Functions

A function can be represented by means of

1. Mathematical formula or rule such as y =f(x)

Ex: y = x2. i.e f  ( x, x 2 ) : ( x  R) 

2.A relation as f(x,y)

Ex: f = {(1,a), (2,c),(3,b)}

f= {(-1,2),(0,3),(5,2)}

3. Arrow diagram (as in previous examples)

4. Graphical representation

Graphical representation of the function f(x)=x2

Graphical representation of the function f  x   x

Graphical representation of the function f  x    x

2
Graphical representation of the function f  x    x

Note:

The following graph does not represent a function since there can be two
pre-images for one image.

Exercise
Result

If A  m and B  n , then there are n possible functions from A to B .

m

A=2 elements B= 4 elements [42=16 functions]

Example

1. Find all functions from {a, b} to {0,1}. Also find the range of each function.

Solution. By the above result there are 22 = 4 functions from {a, b} to {0,1}.

They are

a 0

b 1

a 0

b 1

Also the range set is

2. Find all functions from {a, b} to {0,1,2}. Also find the range of each
function.
Solution. By the above result there are 32 = 9 possible functions from
{a, b} to {0,1,2}.
They are
f1 = {(a,0),(b,0)} f2 = {(a,0),(b,1)} f3= {(a,0),(b,2)}
f4 = {(a,1),(b,0)} f5 = {(a,1),(b,1)} f6 = {(a,1),(b,2)}
f7 = {(a,2),(b,0)} f8 = {(a,2),(b,1)} f9 = { (a,2),(b,2)}
The range set is given by
Rf0 = {0}, Rf1 = {0,1}, Rf3 = {0,2}
Rf4 = {0,1}, Rf5 = {1}, Rf6 = {1,2}
Rf7 = {0,2}, Rf8 = {1,2}, Rf9 = {2}
 3. Find all functions from {a, b, c} to {0,1}. Also find the range of each
function.

Solution. By the above result there are 23 = 8 functions from {a, b} to {0,1,2}.

They are

The range is

TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

One - One function (injection)

Let f : X Y be a function. Then f is called injection (or) one-one function

whenever two different values of X are mapped to two different values of Y.

Equivalently

f(x) = f(y)  x = y

Onto function ( surjection)

Let f : X Y be a function. Then f is called surjection or onto if every element

of Y is the image of an element in X under the function . All elements of the

codomain must have atleast one pre image in domain.

Equivalently the range R f  Y

y =f(x) implies x=g(y)
Into function

A function which is not onto is an into function

Bijective function

A function which is both one-one and onto is referred as a bijective function

Examples

1)

The function is both 1-1 and onto, Hence f is a bijective function.

2) Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {x, y, z, w} and f = {(1,w), (2,x), (3,y)}.

The function f is one-one, as the distinct elements of A are mapped into

distinct elements of B. But f is not onto, since the range of f is not B viz, z  B is
not the image of any element of A.

Range{x,y,w}≠B

3) Let A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {x, y, z} and f = {(1,x), (2,y), (3,z), (4,x)}.

The function f is not one-one, since the elements 1 and 4 of A have same

images in B.

The function f is onto , since the range of f is the entire set B.

Range{x,y,z}=B

Therefore f is not bijective.

4) Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {x, y, z} and f = {(1,z), (2,y), (3,x)}.

1-1, onto function

Hence f is bijective.

5) Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {x, y, z} and f = {(1,x), (2,y), (3,x)}.

1-1 function, but not an onto function. Hence f is not a bijective

function.
 When Mathematical expression f(x) = y is given
To check the given function is 1-1

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑦) → 𝑥 = 𝑦

2. For quadratic and cubic equations solve and check the existence of the
solution (image).

To check the function is onto, we may use

f(x)  y  x  g(y) .

Then check whether such x exits for all values of y.

1) Determine whether each of the following functions is bijective or not. Justify.

a) f : R  R defined by f(x)  x2  11 .

b) f : Z  Z defined by
 
f(x)  x2  2 .

c) f :R  R  defined by f(x)  4x2  12x - 9 .

d) f : Z  Z defined by f(x)  x 2  14x - 5 .

Solution.

a) To check f is 1-1

f(x)  f(y)  x2  11  y2  11  (x2  11)  (y2  11)  0

 x2  y2  0  x2  y2  x   y
That is for the two values y and –y we have same x .

Therefore f is not 1-1.

To check onto

y  f(x)  x 2  11  x 2  y  11  x  y  11 .

(Example y = -12 we get x  1  iR .

when y=-12, there is no pre image in domain (R)

Therefore f is not onto.

R={..... -4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,......}

R ={..... -13,-12,......-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,......}

b) Given f : Z  Z 
To check f is 1-1

f(x)  x2  2,  f(x)  f(y)  x2  2  y 2  2  (x2  2)  (y2  2)  0

 x2  y2  0  (x  y)(x  y)  0
 x  y  0 and x  y  0,
since x  y  0 gives x  y, but the codomain is Z ( positive int eg

Therefore x-y=0 which implies x = y .

f(x)=f(y) implies x =y

Hence f is 1-1.

To check f is onto

Let y = f(x) i.e y  x2  2  x 2  y  2  x  y - 2 .

But when y = 1 we get x 2  1  x  i  Z 

Therefore f is not onto (not surjective).

c) Given y  f(x)  4x 2  12x  9, factorisin g we get f(x)  (2x  3)2

Let -(4x2-12x+9)= - [4x2-6x-6x+9=2x(2x-3)-3(2x-3)= (2x-3)2]

logically approaching we note that f(1) =-(2-3)2= -1 and f(2) =-(4-3)2= -1 , but
1  2 . Therefore f is not injective.[not 1-1]

To check onto

1
y  f(x)  (2x  3)2  2x  3   y  x  (3   y ) .
2
Hence for positive real values of y, x is not defined. Therefore f is not surjective.

d) Given f : Z  Z defined by f(x)  x 2  14x - 5 .

y  f(x)  x 2  14x  5
f(x)  f(y)  x 2  14x  5  y 2  14y  5
 (x 2  y 2 )  14(x  y)  0
 (x  y)(x  y)  14(x  y)  0
 (x  y)[x  y  14]  0
 x  y  0 and x  y  14  0,
if x+y + 14=0, then we get y = -14 – x

which is negative for x >-14

Let x =-13 implies y =-14-(-13)=-1 not in Z+

Therefore x – y =0 and x =y. Hence f is not 1-1.

To check onto

y  f(x)  x 2  14x  5  y  x 2  14x  5  49  49  y  (x  7)2  54  y  54  (x  7)2

When y is in Z and less than -54, that is if y =-55 then
 1  (x  7)2  x  7  i  Z .
Therefore f is not onto.

2) Determine whether the function f : N  N, f(j)  jmod(3) is 1-1, onto.

Solution. The range of this function is clearly R f  {0,1,2} , here R f ≠ N and

hence it is not onto. Also since f(0) = f(3) = f(6) =... =0 it is not 1-1.

3). Determine whether the function f : N  N, f(j)  j 2  2 is bijective. Justify.

 1 (j is even)
4) Determine whether the function f : N  N, f(j)  
0 (j is odd)
is bijective. Justify.
Solution.
The range of this function is clearly
R f = {0,1}
and hence it is not onto.
Also f(0 = f(2 = f(4) = ..... =1 and hence it is not one-one.
Therefore f is not a bijective function.
5) Let Z denote the set of all integers . Determine the function defined by

j
 (j is even)
2
f : Z  Z, f(j)   is 1-1 and onto function
 j 1 ((j is odd)

 2

Solution.

The function can be presented as follows.

{(0,0),(1,0),(2,1),(3,1),(4,1),(5,2)...... (-1,-1),(-2,-1),(-3,-2),(-4,-2),..}

The range of this function is clearly R f = Z

and hence it is onto.

Also f(0) = f(1)= 0 and hence f is not one-one.

Therefore f is not bijective.

5) Let I 4  {0,1,2,3} Determine whether the function

f : I4  I4 , f(j)  3j mod(4) is bijective. Justify.

Solution.

The function can be written as

f= {(0,0),(1,3),(2,2),(3,1)}

The range of the function is clearly

R f = {0,1,2,3} = codomain

and hence it is onto. Also the function maps different values to different
values and hence f is one-one.

Hence the function f is a bijective function

x
6. S.T. the function f : R → R defined by f(x)= is one-to-one and
x4
onto .

x
Given that f : R → R is defined as f(x)= .
x4

A function f is one-to-one if f(x) =f(y) implies x= y

x y
Let f(x)=f(y) then =
x4 y4

x(y +4)=y(x +4)

xy+4x =yx +4y

4x =4 y ⇒ x = y

∴ f is one-to-one .

A function f is onto if for every y in the range R there is a pre-image

x in domain R, such that f(x)=y.

x
i.e., y =
x4

y(x +4)=x

xy +4y = x implies x(y−1) =−4y

 4y
x=
1- y

4y
∴ For any y in co domain R , in domain R is the pre-image except
1- y
y=1, ∴ f is onto.

f is bijective.

x =y/2(y-2)

6) Determine f, g : N  N  N, f(x, y)  x  y, g(x, y)  xy are 1-1 , onto

and 1-1 onto.

Solution .

As the ranges of these functions are N, they are onto.

Further f(1,2) = f(2,1) and g(1,2) = g (2,1)

the functions are not 1-1.

Therefore the functions are not bijective.

7) Determine f : N  N  N, defined by f(m, n)  2m  3n is one-one

and/or onto function with justification.

NXN= (1,2),(1,1),(1,4),.....

N={0,1,2,.....}
8) Determine
f : Z  Z  Z, defined by f(m, n)  2m  3n where m,n  Z  Z
is one-one and/or onto function with justification.

Solution.

f (m, n) =2m + 3n ; (m, n) ϵ 𝑍 × 𝑍

Here

f(1,3) = f(4,1) = 11

but (1,3) ≠ (4,1) [That is f(x) =f(y), but x ≠ y ]

Hence f(m, n) is not one - one.

f : Z  Z  Z, defined by f(m, n)  2m  3n where m,n  Z  Z

Let us now try to find the preimage of k ϵ Z

That is to find (𝑚 × 𝑛 ) ϵ 𝑍 × 𝑍 such that

f(m, n) =2m + 3n = k

Obviously m = -k and n = k

Thus, for all k ϵ Z, we are able to find

(−𝑘, 𝑘 ) ϵ 𝑍 × 𝑍 and which is the preimage of k.

Hence f is onto.

As f is not one-one, it is not bijective.

COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS

2+3, 2-3

Sets:

union, intersection

Matrices A+B, A.B, A-1

Definition

If f : A  B and g : B  C be two functions, then the composition of f and g is a

new function from A to C denoted by g  f and it is defined by
g  f(x)  g[f(x)], for all x  A and f  g(x)  f[g(x)]

Note

1. g  f : A  C

2. f  g is not defined , since the codomain of g =C ≠ domain of f [since f  g =f[g(x)]]

g: B ----C f: A-----B

Points to remember

To find g  f(x) ,

1. First check the possibility of the existence of g  f based on the functions f and
g.

Example.

2
f :R  R and g : R  R . Check whether g  f possible or f  g possible

g  f is not defined
f  g :R----R2

g: R----R f: R-----R2

f: R2------R2 g: R2----R2

f. g: R2------R2 possible

g.f: R2------R2 possible

f: R2------R2 g: R2----R2

Here g  f is not possible since The range of f  domain of g, but f  g is

possible.

2. g  f =g[f(x)] First find the image of x under f and then find the image of
f(x) under g.

3. The range of f = domain of g

4. g  f is (read as 'g ' of 'f') is called as relative product of the functions f and

g or left composition of g with f.

5. Inverse (f-1) of the functions can be obtained by reversing the elements in all
the ordered pairs.

Example

1. A = {1,2,3,4,5}, B = {1,2,3,8,9}and the functions f : A  B and

g: A  A are defined by f = {(1,8),(3,9),(4,3),(2,1), (5,2)} and

g={(1,2),(3,1),(2,2),(4,3),(5,2)}. Find f  g and g  f .

Solution. f  g : A  B

f. g :A----B g.f: is not defined

g: A----A, f: A----B f: A----B, g: A-----A

f  g(1)  f[g(1)]  f(2)  1

f  g(2)  f[g(2)]  f(2)  1
f  g(3)  f[g(3)]  f(1)  8
f  g(4)  f[g(4)]  f(3)  9
f  g(5)  f[g(5)]  f(2)  1
 g  f is not defined , since first we work on f and then work on g.

Here codomain (f) = B ≠ domain (g) =A

If A  2,3,5,7,11, B  1,3,5,7,9, 11, C  2,4,6,8,10 ,12

We can define a function f : A  B by

f(2)  7, f(3)  1, f(5)  11, f(7)  3, f(11)  9 , and a function

g : B  C by

g(1)  2, g(3)  4, g(5)  6, g(7)  8, g(9)  10, g(11)  12 .

(g  f ) : A  C

Then ( g  f ) (2) =g[f(2)]=g[7]= 8, ( g  f ) (3) = 2, ( g  f ) (5) = 12,

( g  f ) (7)=4, ( g  f ) (11) = 10.

Properties of composition if functions

Property 1:

Composition of functions is associative, i.e., if f : A  B , g : B  C and

h : C  D are functions, then h   g  f   h  g   f

Proof.

LHS what is the function h  g  f 

Since f : A → B and g : B → C then g◦f : A → C

Since g◦f : A → C and h : C → D then h◦(g◦f):A → D

RHS

Now f : A → B and h◦g : B → D then (h◦g)◦f : A → D

Thus the domain and codomain of h◦(g◦f) and those of (h◦g)◦f are the
same.

Let xϵ A, yϵ B and zϵ C so that

y = f(x) and z = g(y)

Then (g◦f)(x)=g{f(x)}= g(y)=z

h◦(g◦f)(x)=h(z)

Also ((h◦g)◦f)(x)=(h◦g){f(x)}= h[g{f(x)}] = h[g(y)] = h(z)

∴ h◦(g◦f)=(h◦g)◦f

Property 2:

If f : A  B and g : B  C are injective functions (1-1 function), then

g  f : A  C is an injection.

If f : A  B and g : B  C are surjective functions (onto function), then

g  f : A  C is a surjection.

If f : A  B and g : B  C are bijective functions, then g  f : A  C is a

bijection.

Examples.

1. If s = {1,2,3,4,5} and if the functions f , g, h :S  S are defined by

f = {(1,2), (2,1), (3,4), (4,5), (5,3)}

g = {(1,3), (2,5), (3,1), (4,2), (5,4)}

h = {(1,2), (2,2), (3,4), (4,3), (5,1)}

a) Verify whether f g  g f .

b) Explain why f and g have inverses , but h does not have?

c) Find f-1 and g-1.

d) Show that (f  g)1  g1  f 1  f 1  g1 .

Solution.

f = {(1,2), (2,1), (3,4), (4,5), (5,3)}

g = {(1,3), (2,5), (3,1), (4,2), (5,4)}
f  g(1)  f[g(1)]  f(3)  4
f  g(2)  f[g(2)]  f(5)  3
f  g(3)  f[g(3)]  f(1)  2
f  g(4)  f[g(4)]  f(2)  1
f  g(5)  f[g(5)]  f(4)  5
That is f  g  {(1,4),(2,3),(3,2),(4,1),(5,5)}    (1)
g  f(1)  g[f(1)]  g(2)  5
g  f(2)  g[f(2)]  g(1)  3
g  f(3)  g[f(3)]  g(4)  2
g  f(4)  g[f(4)]  g(5)  4
g  f(5)  g[f(5)]  g(3)  1
Thatis g  f  {(1,5),(2,3),(3,2),(4,4),(5,1)}      (2)

from (1) and (2)

f  g  g f

b) Both f and g are 1-1 and onto.

since h(1) = h(2) =2 and 1 ≠2, h is not 1-1.
Also range (h) = {1,2,3,4} ≠ S, h is not onto.
c) f-1 is obtained by reversing the elements in all the ordered pairs of f.
f = {(1,2), (2,1), (3,4), (4,5), (5,3)}

That is f-1 = {(2,1), (1,2), (4,3), (5,4), (3,5)}-----------------(3)

it is easily verified that
ff 1
 f 1  f  {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4), (5,5)} - identity function

similarly g-1 = {(3,1), (5,2), (1,3), (2,4), (4,5)}-----------------(4)

d) f  g  {(1,4), (2,3), (3,2), (4,1), (5,5)}

To check f  g is bijective[both 1-1 and onto]

From(1) (f  g)  {(4,1), (3,2), (2,3), (1,4), (5,5)} ---------------(5)
1

g-1.f-1(2)= g-1[f-1(2)]= g-1[1]=3 (2,3)

g-1.f-1(1)= g-1[f-1(1)]= g-1[2]=4  (1,4)

From (3) and (4) g  f 1  {(2,3), (1,4), (4,1), (5,5), (3,2)} ---(6)
1
From (3) and (4) f  g1  {(3,2), (5,1), (1,5), (2,3), (4,4)} --------(7)
1

1 1 1 1 1
From (5),(6),(7), it is observed that (f  g) g f  f g

2) If f : R → R and g : R → R are function defined by

f(x)=x2 + 3x + 1 and g(x)=2x−3, find f ◦g, g ◦ f, f ◦ f, g ◦ g.
f.g: R---R
(f ◦g)(x)=f[g(x)] = f(2x−3)
= (2x−3)2 +3(2x−3)+1
= 4X2-12x+9+6X-9+1
(f ◦g)(x) =4x2 −6x+1
g.f: R----R exists
(g◦f)(x)=g[f(x)] = g[x2 +3x+1] [use g(x)=2x−3]
= 2(x2 +3x+1)−3
(g◦f)(x) =2x2 +6x−1
f.f:R----R
(f ◦f)(x)=f[f(x)] = f[x2 +3x+1]
=(x2 +3x+1) 2
+3(x2 +3x+1)+1
= x4 +6x3 +14x2 +15x+5
(g◦g)(x)=g[g(x)] = g[2x−3]
= 2(2x−3)−3
=4x−9
3) If f : R → R and g : R → R are defined as f(x)=x2−2 and g(x)=x+4 .
Find g ◦ f and f ◦ g , f ◦f, g ◦ g.
Given that f : R → R and g : R → R defined as f(x)=x2 − 2 and g(x)=x+4 .
(g◦f)(x)=g[f(x)] = g(x2 −2)
= x2 −2+4
=x2 +2
(f ◦g)(x)=f[g(x)] = f(x +4)
2
=(x+4) −2
 =x2 +8x+14
Here g◦ f ≠ f ◦g.

f, g,h :R  R be given by f(x)=x+2, g(x) = x - 2, h(x) = 3x. Find

4) Let
composition of these functions and also find f  h  g

Solution.

(f  f)(x)  f[f(x)]  f(x  2)  (x  2)  2  x  4

(f  g)(x)  f[g(x)]  f(x  2)  (x  2)  2  x
(f  h)(x)  f[h(x)]  f(3x)  3x  2
(g  f)(x)  g[f(x)]  g(x  2)  (x  2)  2  x
(g  g)(x)  g[g(x)]  g(x  2)  (x  2)  2  x  4
(g  h)(x)  g[h(x)]  g(3x)  3x  2
(h  f)(x)  h[f(x)]  h(x  2)  3(x  2)
(h  g)(x)  h[g(x)]  h(x  2)  3(x  2)
(h  h)(x)  h[h(x)]  h(3x)  3(3x)  9x

Also f h g: R  R

(f  h  g)(x)  f  (h  g)(x)  f[(h  g)(x)]  f(3x  6)  3x  6  2  3x  4

5) Let f, g,h : R  R be given by f(x)=x3 - 4x, g(x) = 1/ [ x2 +1],

h(x) = x4. Check whether (f  g)  h  f  (g  h) (Associative property)
Solution.

 1 
(f  g)(x)  f[g(x)]  f  2   f [( x 2  1) 1 ]  (x2  1)3  4(x2  1)1
 x  1
Also h(x)  x 4
(f  g)  [h(x)]  (f  g)  [x4 ]  (x8  1)3  4(x8  1)1        (1)
1
(g  h)(x)  g[h(x)]  g[x4 ] 
x 1
8

1
f  [(g  h)(x)]  f[ ]  f[(x8  1)1 ]  (x8  1)3  4(x8  1)1    (2)
x 1 8

From (1) and (2) (f  g)  h  f  (g  h)

6)Given f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = –x2 + 5, find ( f o g)(x) and (g o f )(x).
Are ( f o g)(x) and (g o f )(x) equal?

Answer:

( f o g)(x) = f (g(x))
= f (–x2 + 5)
= 2(–x2 + 5) + 3
= –2x2 + 10 + 3
= –2x2 + 13

(g o f )(x) = g( f(x))
= g(2x + 3)
= –(2x + 3)2 + 5
= –(4x2 + 12x + 9) + 5
= –4x2 – 12x – 9 + 5
= –4x2 – 12x – 4

( f o g)(x) = –2x2 + 13 and(g o f )(x) = –4x2 – 12x – 4.

Hence ( f o g)(x)  (g o f )(x)

7)

If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥2 – 4𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 – 7, find  f  g (x)

8)

If f ( x)  2 x  5 and g ( x)  5 x  3 , find ( g  f )( x) .
2

9)

Given f ( x)  2  3 x  x , g ( x)  2 x  1 , find ( f  g )( x)
2

Exercise problems

1. If A = {1,2,3} and f,g h are the functions from A to A given by

f = {(1,2),(2,3),(3.1)}, g = {(1,2),(2,1),(3,3)} and h = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,1)}
find f  g , g  f , f  g  h, g  g  h

2.If S= {1,2,3,4} and f,g:S  S defined by

f = {(1,2),(2,2),(3,4),(4,1)}, g={(1,4),(2,3),(3,1),(4,2)}

find i ) g 1  f  g , ii) f  g 1  g , iii) g  f  g 1 , iv) g  g 1  f

3) Verify that ( f  g )  h  f  ( g  h)
1
i) f, g,h :R  R defined by f(x)  x  2, g(x)  , h(x)  3
x2  1
ii) f, g,h : z  z defined by f(x)  x  1, g(x)  3x, h(x)  1

iii) f, g,h :R  R defined by f(x)  x 2 , g(x)  x  5, h(x)  x 2  2

iv) f, g,h : z  z defined by f(x)  x 2 , g(x)  x  1, h(x)  x  1

 Inverse of a function

Definition.

If f : A  B and g : B  A , then the function g is called the inverse of the

function f , if g  f  I A (identity function on the set A) A----A

and f  g  I B (identity function on the set B) B----B

i.e.  g  f  x   I A  x  and  f  g  x   I B  x 

i.e., g  f  x   x and f  g  y   y

1
The inverse of f is denoted by f .

Properties of inverse function:

Theorem:

The inverse of a function f , if it exists, is unique.

1
Theorem : A function f : A  B is invertible i.e., f exists, if and only if

f is one – one and onto. (f is bijective)

1
Let f : A  B be a bijection. Then there exists a function f : B  A such
1
that f  f  I B and f 1  f  I A . Then f 1 is called the inverse of f .

Example: Let A  a, b, c, B  1, 2, 3 . Let f : A  B be given by

f  (a, 3), (b,1), (c, 2).

1
Then f : B  A is given by

f 1  (3, a), (1, b), (2, c) .

Example:

Let A  1, 3, 4, 7, B   1, 1, 2, 5 and let f : A  B be defined by f ( x)  x  2

To check f is bijective:

f(x)=f(y) x=y

x-2=y-2 x=y

Onto:

f(x)=y=x-2x=y+2

y=-1 x=1

y=1 x=3

y=2 x=4

y=5 x=7

Therefore f is onto

Hence f is bijective

1
Then f : B  A is given by f 1 ( x)  x  2

[ f ( x)  x  2 =y implies x =y+2]
Steps to find the inverse of a function

Example:

Consider the function f  x   2 x  3 find f-1

2x+3 =y =x= y-3/2

f-1(x)=x-3/2
Example:

Converting Fahrenheit to Centigrade

5
f ( F )  ( F  32) 
9

The inverse function converts Centigrade to Fahrenheit

 9
f 1 (C )   C    32
 5

5 9C
f ( F )  ( F  32)   C  ( F  32)  9C / 5  F   32
9 5

 9C 
That is f (C )     32
1

 5 

Example

Let f : R  R be defined by f x   3x  2 . Find f 1

.

Let y  R . Let x  R such that f  x   y

To check the f is 1-1:

f(x)=f(y) 3x-2=3y-2 x=y

To check the f is onto:

Then 3x  2  y

ie., 3x  y  2

y 2
x=  x belongs to R, f is onto
3

or, x  3

y 2 x 2
 f 1(y)  Thus we have. f 1 :R  R, f 1 (x) 
3 3
1
Note: The graphs of f (x) and f ( x ) for the above example are:
 1
We can see that the graph of the f ( x ) is a reflection of the f (x) about the line

y  x .This will always be the case with the graphs of a function and its inverse.

Theorem 2: (Reversal law for inverse functions)

If f : A  B and g : B  C are invertible functions, then g  f : A  C is

also invertible and

g  f  1
 f 1  g1

Example:

Let f , g , h be functions from R to R such that f  h  g , where g ( x)  5 x

and h( x)  x  4

Then f x   (h  g)(x)  h(g(x))  h(5x)  5x  4

problems

1)
Y={3,7,11,15,...}

Finding inverse
 x
2)S.T. the function f : R → R defined by f(x)= is one-to-one and
x4
onto and hence find the inverse.

x
Given that f : R → R is defined as f(x)= .
x4

A function f is one-to-oneif

f(x1)=f(x2) ⇒ x1 = x2

x y
Let f(x)=f(y) then =
x4 y4

x(y +4)=y(x +4)

4x =4 y ⇒ x = y

∴ f is one-to-one

A function f is onto if for every y in the range R there is a pre-image

x in domain R, such that f(x)=y.

x
i.e., y = f(x)=
x4

y(x +4)=x

xy +4y = x

x(y−1) =−4y

4y
x=
1- y

4y
∴ For any y in co domain R , in domain R is the pre-image.
1- y

∴ f is onto.

4y
Now y = f(x) ⇒ x = f−1(y) =
1- y
 4x
∴ f−1(x)=
1- x

is the inverse function.

3) Show that the function f(x)=x3 and g(x)=x1/3 for xϵR are inverses of
each other.

Given that f(x)=x3 and g(x)=x1/3.

T.P. f = g−1 or g = f−1

Its enough if we prove

To prove (f ◦g)x = Ix or (g◦f)(x)=Ix

consider (f ◦g)x = f[g(x)] = f [x1/3]= [x1/3]3 = x=Ix

[The image of x is x itself, therefore f.g is an identity function]

∴ f ◦g = I .........(1)

consider (g◦f)(x)=g[f(x)] = g[x3]=(x3)1/3=x = Ix

g◦f = I ............(2) identity function

From (1) and (2) we get

f = g−1 or g = f−1.

x -2
4) S.T. f : R−{3} → R−{1}given by f(x)= is a bijection and find its
x -3

inverse.

Let f(x)=f(y)

x -2 y -2
=
x -3 y -3  (x-2)(y-3)=(x-3)(y-2)

xy−2y−3x +6=xy−2x−3y +6

3x+2y =2x+3y x = y ∴ f is 1-1.

Now let yϵ R−{1}. To prove f is onto

We must find xϵR−{1} such that f(x)=y.

x -2
=y
x -3

⇒ x−2=xy−3y

⇒ x−xy=2−3y

x(1−y) =2−3y

2 - 3y
x=
1- y for all y in R-{1}

2-3 y
is the pre-image of y under f.
1-y

∴ f is onto

2 - 3x
f−1 : R−{1}→ R−{3}is given by f−1(x)=
1- x

Permutation Functions

A permutation of a set A is a one-to-one and onto function from A to

itself.

Or in other words, a bijection from a set A to itself is called the

permutation of a A.

Let 𝐴 = {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 } be a finite set and f be a bijection on A or

Permutation of A.

Then
Thus, if f is a permutation of a finite set 𝐴 = {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 }, then the
sequence 𝑓(𝑎1 ), 𝑓(𝑎2 ), … , 𝑓(𝑎𝑛 ) is just a rearrangement of the elements of
A.

Note: If 𝐴 = {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 } is a set containing n elements, then there are

𝑛! permutations of A.
A={A,B,C} 3! =6 possible permutation exists

1) Find all permutation of A ={1,2,3}.

Possible number of permutations = 3! =6
Solution: The permutation of A are

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
p1    p2    p3  
1 2 3 1 3 2 2 1 3
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
p4    p  2 p 
3 1 3 1 2
5 6
3 2 1  
2) Let A = {1,2,3,4}, f : A → A given by f(1) = 2, f(2) = 1, f(3) = 4,
f(4) = 3. Write this in permutation notation.
Solution:

1 2 3 4
p  
2 1 4 3
1 2 3
3) A ={1,2,3}Find the inverse of permutation p 
2 3 1
Solution

1 2 3
inverse of p  p 1   
3 1 2
 1 2 3 1 2 3
4) Let p1    p2    find p2  p1
2 1 3 3 1 2

p1 : 12 3
↓ ↓ ↓
2 1 3
↓ ↓ ↓
p2 : 1 3 2

1 2 3 1 2 3
p2  p1    3 2 1
1 3 2 p1.p2 =  

5) Let A = {1,2,3,4,5,6} and

1 2 3 4 5 6  1 2 3 4 5 6  1 2 3 4 5 6 
p1   , p 2  2 3 1 5 4 6  , p 3  6 3 2 5 4 1 
3 4 1 2 6 5     
1 1 1 1
find i)p1 and p2 ii) p1  p2 iii) (p2  p1 )  p3 iv)p3  (p2  p1 )
1

A={a,b,c,d,e,f} and P1, P2, P3 are the permutations from A to A defined by

P1(a)=c, p1(b)= d, P1(c)=a, P1(d)=b, P1(e)=f, P1(f) =e,
P2(a)=b, p2(b)= c, P2(c)=a, P2(d)=e, P2(e)=d, P2(f)= f
P3(a)=f, p3(b)= c, P3(c)=b, P3(d)=e, P3(e)=d, P3(f)= a
1
Determine i) (p2  p1 )  p3 ii) p3  (p2  p1 )

a b c d e f  a b c d e f  a b c d e f 
p1   , p  , p 
 2 b c a e d f  3 f c b e d a 
c d a b f e     

1 1 1 1
i)p1 and p2 ii) p1  p2 iii) (p2  p1 )  p3 iv)p3  (p2  p1 )1
Solution

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 
i) p1   
3 4 1 2 6 5 
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 
p2   
3 1 2 5 4 6 
1 1
p1  p2
ii)To find

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 
p2 :  
3 1 2 5 4 6 
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 
      p1   
-1 3 4 1 2 6 5 
p1 : 1 3 4 6 2 5

Therefore

1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 
p1  p 2  
1 3 4 6 2 5 

iii) First to find (p2  p1 )

1 2 3 4 5 6  1 2 3 4 5 6 
p1   , p2  2 3 1 5 4 6 
3 4 1 2 6 5   

Therefore

1 2 3 4 5 6 
(p2  p1 )   
1 5 2 3 6 4 
To find (p2  p1 )  p3

1 2 3 4 5 6 
p3 : 6 3 2 5 4 1 
 
1 2 3 4 5 6 
      (p2  p1 )   
1 5 2 3 6 4 
p2  p1 : 4 2 5 6 3 1
Therefore
 1 2 3 4 5 6 
(p2  p1 )  p3   
4 2 5 6 3 1 
iv) Find p3  (p2  p1 )
1

1 2 3 4 5 6 
From iii) (p2  p1 )   ,
1 5 2 3 6 4 
Therefore

1 2 3 4 5 6 
(p 2  p1 )-1   
1 3 4 6 2 5 
To find p3  (p2  p1 )
1

1 2 3 4 5 6 
Given p3   
6 3 2 5 4 1 
1 2 3 4 5 6 
(p2  p1 )-1   
1 3 4 6 2 5 
     
p3 : 6 2 5 1 3 4
Therefore

1 2 3 4 5 6 
p3  (p2  p1 )1   
6 2 5 1 3 4 

Example: Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4,5} be a finite set and P be a bijection on A or

Permutation of A such that

Examples:

1. Let
2. Consider the rotations and reflections of a square represented visually
as four

couter clockwise rotations of a square:

3. The following four reflections, vertical, horizontal, and two diagonal

reflections:

Inverse of the permutation

The inverse of a permutation can be found by simply interchanging the
top and bottom rows of the permutation i.e. inverse of

Product of two Permutations[composition of two permutations]

Cyclic Permutation
A cyclic permutation (or cycle) is a permutation of the elements of
some set X which maps the elements of some subset S of X to each other
in a cyclic fashion, while fixing (that is, mapping to themselves) all other
elements of X.

Consider the permutation

P= (1 3 5) 2 (4 6) is a cyclic permutation
To write this permutation in cyclic notation, we start at the upper left-
hand corner with 1 and write (1 and then follow it with its image P(1) = 3,
that is (13. Next, note that P maps 3 into 5, so we write (135. Then P
maps 5 back into the original 1 so we have our first cycle (135).
We then continue on with 2 (next unused element in the first row) and
observe that P maps 2 into itself so we have a 1-cycle (2). Finally, we see
that P maps 4 into 6 so we write (46 and since 6 maps back into 4 we
have our final cycle, the 2-cycle (46). Hence P is written in what is called
the product of three cycles; a 3-cycle, a 1-cycle, and a 2-cycle,

Examples:

(1 2) (1 4) (1 5) (1 6) - Even permutation
(1 2 4 5 6) (3)

(345) = (3 4) (3 5) - even permutation

Disjoint Cycles
Two cycles of a set A are said to be disjoint if no element of A appears in
both the cycles.
Example: The cycle (1,2,5) and (3,4,6) are disjoint whereas the cycles
(1, 2, 5) and (2,4,6) are not.

Transpositions
A permutation that interchanges two elements of a set and leaves all
others unchanged is called a transposition.
A cycle of length 2 is called a transposition.
If P is a transposition of A, then 𝑃𝑜𝑃 = 𝐼𝐴 , the identity permutation of A.
For example
odd permutation

Cycle to transpositions

P= (1 2)(1 4)(1 5)(1 6) (3)

Even and Odd Transpositions

The permutations can be “factored” as into an even or odd number of
transpositions.
The permutation is called an even permutation if it can be written as
product of even number of transpositions.
The permutation is called an odd permutation if can be written as product
of odd number of transpositions.
Note:
(i) If f and g are both even or both odd, then f g is even.
(ii) If f is even and g is odd, or if f is odd and g is even, then f g is
odd.
STEPS for odd and even permutations
 + Collect the cycles in a permutation
+ Split the cycles into transpositions
+ Count the transpositions
+ Odd count means oddno. of transpositions means odd
permutation ------
Exercise: cycles= (1 4 5)(2 3)(6 8) (7)
Let Transpositions = (1 4)(1 5)(2 3)(6 8)

No. of transpositions=4

conclusion: Even permutation

Discuss the following for odd and even permutation