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Que1) Explain octal to binary conversion method with suitable

example

Octal to Binary Conversion Method

The octal number system has a base of 8 (digits: 0 to 7), while the binary system
has a base of 2 (digits: 0 and 1). The conversion from octal to binary is
straightforward because each octal digit can be represented by exactly three
binary digits (bits).

Steps for Conversion

1. Write down the octal number.

2. Convert each octal digit into its 3-bit binary equivalent.

3. Combine all binary groups to get the final binary number.

Example: Convert (725)₈ to Binary

1. Write down the octal number: 725₈

2. Convert each digit to its 3-bit binary equivalent:

7₈ → 111₂

2₈ → 010₂

5₈ → 101₂

3. Combine the binary groups:(725)₈ = (111 010 101)₂

So, (725)₈ = (111010101)₂

Another Example: Convert (34)₈ to Binary

1. Write down the octal number: 34₈

2. Convert each digit:

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 3₈ → 011₂

4₈ → 100₂

3. Combine the binary groups:(34)₈ = (011 100)₂

So, (34)₈ = (11100)₂

Shortcut Table for Octal to Binary Conversion

Octal Digit Binary Equivalent

0 000

1 001

2 010

3 011

4 100

5 101

6 110

7 111

This method is very useful in digital electronics and computing since octal
numbers are often used as a shorthand for binary numbers.
Would you like an example in code for this conversion? 🚀
Que2)What is BCD code?Write advantages and disadvantages of
BCD code

BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal) Code

BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal) is a numeric representation system where each
decimal digit (0-9) is represented by its 4-bit binary equivalent.
For example:

Decimal 5 → 0101 (BCD)

Decimal 23 → 0010 0011 (BCD)

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 Decimal 105 → 0001 0000 0101 (BCD)

Each decimal digit is separately converted into binary, rather than converting the
whole number.

Advantages of BCD Code

1. Easy Conversion: Since each digit is represented separately, BCD makes
conversion between binary and decimal simple.

2. Accurate Decimal Representation: Unlike floating-point binary representation,

BCD avoids rounding errors in financial and commercial applications.

3. Compatible with Decimal Systems: Useful in digital displays (like calculators,

digital clocks, and meters) where decimal digits are needed.

4. Simple Arithmetic Operations: Can be useful in applications where decimal-

based arithmetic is required, like banking and billing systems.

Disadvantages of BCD Code

1. More Storage Required: BCD requires 4 bits per digit, making it inefficient
compared to pure binary. (e.g., Decimal 9 needs 4 bits in BCD but only 4 bits
in binary.)

2. Complex Arithmetic Operations: Standard binary arithmetic (addition,

subtraction) does not directly work with BCD, requiring additional correction
steps.

3. Slower Processing: Since BCD needs extra logic for arithmetic operations, it
can be slower than standard binary.

4. Not Memory Efficient: For large numbers, BCD uses more space than pure
binary representation.

Comparison: BCD vs Binary

Number Binary BCD

9 1001 1001

12 1100 0001 0010

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 25 11001 0010 0101

87 1010111 1000 0111

BCD is mainly used where decimal precision is more important than memory
efficiency, such as in financial and digital display applications.
Would you like a Python program to convert decimal to BCD? 🚀
Que3)Explain Decimal to Hexadecimal conversion method with
suitable example

Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion Method

The hexadecimal (hex) number system has a base of 16, meaning it uses 16
different symbols:

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F, where:

0-9 represent values 0 to 9

A-F represent values 10 to 15

To convert a decimal number (base 10) to hexadecimal (base 16), follow these
steps:

Steps for Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion

1. Divide the decimal number by 16.

2. Record the remainder (this will be a hex digit).

3. Update the quotient as the new number.

4. Repeat steps 1–3 until the quotient becomes 0.

5. Read the remainders in reverse order to get the hexadecimal equivalent.

Example: Convert 756 (Decimal) to Hexadecimal

Step-by-Step Calculation:

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 Division by 16 Quotient Remainder Hex Equivalent

756 ÷ 16 47 4 4

47 ÷ 16 2 15 F

2 ÷ 16 0 2 2

Final Hexadecimal Value

Reading remainders from bottom to top:

756 (Decimal) = 2F4 (Hexadecimal)

Shortcut using Python Code

decimal_number = 756
hexadecimal = hex(decimal_number)[2:].upper()
print(hexadecimal) # Output: 2F4

Would you like another example or a program for manual conversion? 🚀

UNIT2
Que4)Explanation of Terms: Range of Data, Accuracy of Data,
Overflow, Underflow, and Mantissa

Explanation of Terms: Range of Data, Accuracy of Data,

Overflow, Underflow, and Mantissa

1. Range of Data
The range of data refers to the minimum and maximum values a system can
represent or store.

It depends on the data type (e.g., integer, float, double) and the number of
bits allocated for storage.

Example:

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 An 8-bit unsigned integer can store values from 0 to 255.

A 32-bit signed integer can store values from 2,147,483,648 to

2,147,483,647.

2. Accuracy of Data
Accuracy refers to how precisely a value is stored or represented.

It depends on:

Number of bits allocated.

Rounding errors in floating-point arithmetic.

Example:

Integer values are stored exactly (e.g., 5, 100, etc.).

Floating-point numbers may lose precision (e.g., 0.3333 instead of 1/3).

3. Overflow
Overflow occurs when a calculation exceeds the maximum value a system
can handle.

This happens in both integer and floating-point arithmetic.

Example:

If an 8-bit signed integer (range: -128 to 127) tries to store 130, it

overflows and may wrap around to a negative number.

4. Underflow
Underflow occurs when a number is too small to be represented in the given
system.

Happens mainly in floating-point arithmetic when a value is closer to zero

than the smallest representable value.

Example:

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 If a system can store values down to 1.0 × 10⁻³⁰, but the result of a
computation is 1.0 × 10⁻³², it underflows and may be stored as zero.

5. Mantissa
In floating-point representation, a number is stored as:

where:

N=M×10EN = M \times 10^E

M (Mantissa) represents the significant digits of the number.

E (Exponent) determines the scale.

Example:

The number 4.57 × 10³ has:

Mantissa: 4.57

Exponent: 3

Summary Table
Term Meaning

Range of Data The smallest to largest value a system can store.

Accuracy of
How precisely data is represented without errors.
Data

When a value exceeds the maximum limit and wraps around or causes
Overflow
an error.

Underflow When a value is too small to be represented and may become zero.

Mantissa The significant part of a floating-point number.

Would you like a program to demonstrate overflow and underflow? 😊

Que2)Explain Binary Subtraction by 1’s and 2’s complement
method with suitable example

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 Binary Subtraction Using 1’s and 2’s Complement
Method
Binary subtraction can be performed using two methods:

1. 1’s Complement Method

2. 2’s Complement Method

These methods allow subtraction by adding the complement of a number instead

of directly subtracting.

1’s Complement Method

Steps to Perform Subtraction using 1’s Complement:

1. Find the 1’s complement of the subtrahend (the number to be subtracted) by

inverting all bits.

2. Add the 1’s complement of the subtrahend to the minuend (the number from
which we subtract).

3. If there is a carry-out, add it back to the result (end-around carry).

4. If there is no carry, take the 1’s complement of the result and make it negative.

Example: 7 - 5 using 4-bit binary

Step 1: Represent numbers in binary (4-bit)

7=011127 = 0111_2

5=010125 = 0101_2

Step 2: Find 1’s complement of 5

01012⇒101020101_2 \Rightarrow 1010_2

Step 3: Add the 1’s complement to 7

0111
+ 1010
--------
10001

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 Step 4: End-around carry

Carry bit (1) is added back:

0001 + 1 = 0010

Result: 0010 (2 in decimal) ✅

2’s Complement Method
Steps to Perform Subtraction using 2’s Complement:

1. Find the 2’s complement of the subtrahend (1’s complement + 1).

2. Add the 2’s complement of the subtrahend to the minuend.

3. Ignore carry-out (if any) and the result is the answer.

Example: 7 - 5 using 4-bit binary

Step 1: Represent numbers in binary

7=011127 = 0111_2

5=010125 = 0101_2

Step 2: Find 2’s complement of 5

1’s complement of →
55

101021010_2

Add 1 →
1010+1=101121010 + 1 = 1011_2

Step 3: Add the 2’s complement to 7

0111
+ 1011
--------
10010

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 Step 4: Ignore the carry

Final result = 0010 (2 in decimal) ✅

Comparison of Methods

Method Steps Carry Handling

Find 1’s complement, add, and handle end-around Carry is added

1’s Complement
carry back

2’s
Find 2’s complement (1’s complement + 1), add Carry is ignored
Complement

Que3) Explain the complement notations used to represent

signed magnitude numbers with an example

Complement Notations for Representing Signed Magnitude

Numbers
In computer systems, signed numbers can be represented using complement
notations to handle both positive and negative values efficiently. The three
common notations used are:

1. Signed Magnitude Representation

2. 1’s Complement Representation

3. 2’s Complement Representation

1. Signed Magnitude Representation

In this method, the leftmost bit (Most Significant Bit - MSB) is the sign bit:

0 → Positive number

1 → Negative number

The remaining bits represent the magnitude (absolute value).

Example (Using 4-bit representation)

+5+5 → 0101 (MSB 0 → positive, 101 is the magnitude)

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 −55 → 1101 (MSB 1 → negative, 101 is the magnitude)

Drawback: Requires separate hardware for subtraction.

2. 1’s Complement Representation

Negative numbers are represented by flipping all bits of their positive
counterpart.

The MSB still indicates the sign:

0 → Positive number

1 → Negative number

Example (Using 4-bit representation)

+5+5 → 0101

−55 → Find 1’s complement of 0101 → 1010

Drawback: Extra step needed to handle end-around carry when performing

subtraction.

3. 2’s Complement Representation (Most Common)

Negative numbers are represented by taking the 1’s complement and adding
1.

The MSB still represents the sign:

0 → Positive

1 → Negative

Example (Using 4-bit representation)

+5+5 → 0101

−55:

Find 1’s complement of 0101 → 1010

Add 1 → 1011

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 Advantage: Easier arithmetic operations and no need for special subtraction
circuits.

Comparison Table
Representation +5+5 (4-bit) −5-5 (4-bit) Advantages

Signed Simple but needs separate

0101 1101
Magnitude subtraction logic

Simple negation, but extra carry

1’s Complement 0101 1010
handling required

Most efficient for arithmetic

2’s Complement 0101 1011
operations ✅
Why 2’s Complement is Preferred?
✅ Eliminates the need for separate subtraction circuits
✅ Only one representation for zero (unlike 1’s complement, which has 0000 and
)
1111

✅ Used in modern computers for signed number representation

Would you like a Python program to demonstrate these representations? 🚀

UNIT3
que1)Construct, basic gates using NOR gate only.
To construct basic logic gates using only NOR gates, we can use the universality
property of the NOR gate.

1. NOT Gate using NOR Gate

A NOR gate with both inputs tied together acts as a NOT gate.

Logic Expression:
A+A‾=A‾=NOT A\overline{A + A} = \overline{A} = \text{NOT } A

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 Implementation:

A →| NOR |→ NOT A

2. OR Gate using NOR Gates

To construct an OR gate, we first apply NOR to the inputs and then invert the
output using a NOT gate.

Logic Expression:
A+B=A+B‾‾A + B = \overline{\overline{A + B}}

Implementation:

A ---| NOR |---o---| NOR |--> A + B

B ---| | |
|
v
(NOT Gate)

First NOR gate produces .

A+B‾\overline{A + B}

Second NOR gate acts as a NOT gate to invert the result.

3. AND Gate using NOR Gates

We use De Morgan’s theorem to convert AND into NOR operations.

Logic Expression:
A⋅B=A‾+B‾‾A \cdot B = \overline{\overline{A} + \overline{B}}

Implementation:

A ---| NOR |---o---| NOR |--> A . B

| | |

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 B ---| NOR | |
v
(NOR Gate)

First and second NOR gates act as NOT gates to get and .
A‾\overline{A}
B‾\overline{B}

Third NOR gate performs , which is .

A‾+B‾‾\overline{\overline{A} + \overline{B}}
A⋅BA \cdot B

4. NAND Gate using NOR Gates

Since NAND is the inverse of AND, we use an extra NOR gate for inversion.

Logic Expression:
A⋅B‾=A‾+B‾‾‾\overline{A \cdot B} = \overline{\overline{\overline{A} +
\overline{B}}}

Implementation:

A ---| NOR |---o---| NOR |---o---| NOR |--> A NAND B

| | | |
B ---| NOR | | |
v |
(NOR Gate)|
v
(NOR Gate)

First two NOR gates get and .

A‾\overline{A}
B‾\overline{B}

Third NOR gate gives .

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 A⋅BA \cdot B

Fourth NOR gate inverts the AND output to get NAND.

5. XOR Gate using NOR Gates

We use the XOR Boolean equation:
A⊕B=A⋅B‾⋅(A+B)A \oplus B = \overline{A \cdot B} \cdot (A + B)
Using NOR:
A⊕B=(A+B‾)⋅(A‾+B‾‾)A \oplus B = (\overline{A + B}) \cdot
(\overline{\overline{A} + \overline{B}})

Implementation:
First NOR gives .
A+B‾\overline{A + B}

Second and third NORs get and .

A‾\overline{A}
B‾\overline{B}

Fourth NOR combines them to get .

A‾+B‾‾\overline{\overline{A} + \overline{B}}

Fifth NOR acts as AND to get final .

A⊕BA \oplus B

This demonstrates how all basic gates can be implemented using only NOR gates!
🚀
Que2)What are gates? Give the symbolic representation of OR,
AND, NOT gates.

What are Logic Gates?

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 Logic gates are the basic building blocks of digital circuits. They perform logical
operations on binary inputs (0 and 1) and produce a single binary output. These
gates are used in computers, microprocessors, and other digital devices.

1. OR Gate
Function: The OR gate outputs 1 if at least one of the inputs is 1.

Boolean Expression:
Y=A+BY = A + B

Truth Table:

A B Y (A + B)

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

Symbol:

A ----\
( OR )---- Y
B ----/

2. AND Gate
Function: The AND gate outputs 1 only if both inputs are 1.

Boolean Expression:
Y=A⋅BY = A \cdot B

Truth Table:

A B Y (A . B)

0 0 0

0 1 0

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 1 0 0

1 1 1

Symbol:

A ----\
( AND )---- Y
B ----/

3. NOT Gate
Function: The NOT gate inverts the input (0 becomes 1, and 1 becomes 0).

Boolean Expression:
Y=A‾Y = \overline{A}

Truth Table:

A Y (NOT A)

0 1

1 0

Symbol:

A ----| NOT |---- Y

These three gates form the foundation of all digital logic circuits. 🚀

Que3)Write the truth table for EX-OR and EX-NOR

gates with its symbolic representation.
Truth Table for EX-OR (Exclusive-OR) Gate
An EX-OR (Exclusive-OR) gate outputs HIGH (1) only when the number of HIGH
inputs is odd. It follows the Boolean expression:

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 A⊕B=A‾B+AB‾A \oplus B = \overline{A}B + A\overline{B}

Input A Input B Output (A ⊕ B)

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

Symbolic Representation of EX-OR Gate:

A ----|\
| >---- (A ⊕ B)
B ----|/

Truth Table for EX-NOR (Exclusive-NOR) Gate

An EX-NOR (Exclusive-NOR) gate is the complement of EX-OR. It outputs HIGH (1)
when both inputs are the same. The Boolean expression is:
⊙
A B=A⊕B‾=AB+A‾B‾A \odot B = \overline{A \oplus B} = AB + \overline{A}
\overline{B}

Input A Input B Output (A ⊙ B)

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

Symbolic Representation of EX-NOR Gate:

A ----|\
| >O---- (A ⊙ B)
B ----|/

(The extra small circle at the output denotes inversion.)

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 Que4)What is a universal gate? Explain how NAND
Gate can be used as a Universal Gate.
Universal Gate
A universal gate is a type of logic gate that can be used to implement any
Boolean function without needing any other gate. This means that using only one
type of universal gate, we can construct all basic gates (AND, OR, and NOT) and
even complex circuits.
There are two universal gates:

1. NAND (NOT AND) Gate

2. NOR (NOT OR) Gate

NAND Gate as a Universal Gate

The NAND gate is called a universal gate because it can be used to implement all
three basic logic gates: NOT, AND, and OR.

1. Implementing NOT Gate using NAND

A NOT gate inverts the input. A NAND gate with both inputs tied together behaves
like a NOT gate.

A NAND (A, A) = NOT A

0 1

1 0

Logic:
Y=A⋅A‾=A‾(which is a NOT gate)\text{Y} = \overline{A \cdot A} = \overline{A}
\quad (\text{which is a NOT gate})

2. Implementing AND Gate using NAND

An AND gate can be constructed using two NAND gates. First, we perform NAND
operation, and then apply NOT (which we already derived) to its output.

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 A B A NAND B NOT(A NAND B) = A AND B

0 0 1 0

0 1 1 0

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1

Logic:
Y=A⋅B‾(NAND output)\text{Y} = \overline{A \cdot B} \quad \text{(NAND output)}
Final AND output=A⋅B‾‾=A⋅B\text{Final AND output} = \overline{\overline{A \cdot
B}} = A \cdot B

3. Implementing OR Gate using NAND

An OR gate can be formed using three NAND gates. First, we use NAND to create
NOT operations on individual inputs and then apply NAND again.

(NOT A) NAND
A B NOT A NOT B
(NOT B) = A OR B

0 0 1 1 1

0 1 1 0 1

1 0 0 1 1

1 1 0 0 1

Logic:
Y=A‾⋅B‾‾=A+B\text{Y} = \overline{\overline{A} \cdot \overline{B}} = A + B

Conclusion
Since we can construct NOT, AND, and OR using only NAND gates, we can
implement any Boolean function. Thus, the NAND gate is a universal gate and is
widely used in digital circuit design.
Let me know if you need further explanation! 😊

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