UNIT – I INTRODUCTION TO DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS

Simple signals, Fourier Transform of a discrete-time signal, Amplitude and phase spectrum
Frequency content and sampling rates, Transfer function, Frequency response. Review
probability, Random data, Generation of Pseudo-random noise, Filtered signals, Autocorrelatio
and power spectral density, Sampling band, Limited random signals
Distributions:

●​ Discrete: Binomial, Poisson.

●​ Continuous: Normal, Exponential.

2. Random Data

Random data refers to datasets generated without any predictable pattern. In statistical terms, it
often implies that each data point is drawn independently from a probability distribution.

●​ Characteristics:
○​ Unpredictability: Each outcome is independent of previous outcomes.
○​ Uniformity: In some cases, all outcomes are equally likely.
○​ Applications: Simulation, cryptography, modeling real-world uncertainties.
3. Generation of Pseudo-Random Noise

Pseudo-random noise (PRN) sequences are sequences that appear random but are generated
using deterministic algorithms. Unlike true random sequences, PRN sequences are
reproducible if the initial conditions (seed values) are known.

●​ Methods of Generation:
○​ Linear Congruential Generators (LCG)

●​ where aaa, ccc, and mmm are constants.

●​ Mersenne Twister: A widely used PRNG with a long period and high efficiency.
●​ Shift Registers (LFSRs): Used in digital communications for generating pseudo-random
sequences.

Applications:

●​ Cryptography: Secure key generation.

●​ Communications: Spread spectrum signals like in CDMA.
●​ Simulation: Random sampling in Monte Carlo simulations.

FILTERED SIGNALS

Filtered signals are signals that have undergone a process to remove unwanted components,
such as noise, or to extract specific features. Filters can be analog or digital, and their main
goal is to modify or enhance certain aspects of a signal.

●​ Types of Filters:
○​ Low-Pass Filter (LPF): Allows frequencies below a certain cutoff to pass
through and attenuates higher frequencies.
○​ High-Pass Filter (HPF): Allows frequencies above a cutoff to pass, attenuating
lower frequencies.
○​ Band-Pass Filter (BPF): Allows frequencies within a specific range to pass.
○​ Band-Stop Filter (BSF): Attenuates frequencies within a specific range.
●​ Applications:
○​ Noise reduction in audio signals.
○​ Signal processing in communication systems.
○​ Image processing for edge detection

2. Autocorrelation and Power Spectral Density

Autocorrelation:​
Autocorrelation measures how similar a signal is to a delayed version of itself. It helps in
identifying repeating patterns, such as periodic signals in the presence of noise.

●​ Mathematical Expression:

where τ\tauτ is the time lag.

●​ Applications:
○​ Detecting periodic signals.
○​ Estimating signal parameters in communications.
○​ Time series analysis.

Power Spectral Density (PSD):​

PSD describes how the power of a signal is distributed across different frequencies. It’s crucial
for understanding the frequency content of random or stochastic signals.

●​ Mathematical Relation with Autocorrelation (Wiener-Khinchin Theorem): The PSD

is the Fourier Transform of the autocorrelation function:

Applications:

●​ Analyzing noise in electronic circuits.

●​ Spectrum analysis in communication systems.
●​ Identifying dominant frequencies in a signal.

Sampling Band

The sampling band relates to the frequency range of a signal that can be accurately
represented when sampled. This is governed by the Nyquist-Shannon Sampling Theorem,
which states that:

●​ Nyquist Criterion:​
A signal must be sampled at at least twice its highest frequency component to be
reconstructed without aliasing
 ●​ where fsf_sfs​is the sampling frequency, and fmaxf_{max}fmax​is the maximum
frequency in the signal.
●​ Aliasing:​
When the sampling frequency is too low, different signals become indistinguishable,
leading to distortion.
●​ Applications:
○​ Digital audio processing (e.g., CDs sample at 44.1 kHz).
○​ Image digitization.
○​ Data acquisition systems.

Limited Random Signals

Limited random signals refer to stochastic signals that are band-limited or time-limited.
These signals have random characteristics but are constrained in their frequency or time range.

●​ Characteristics:
○​ Band-limited Random Signals: Their frequency content is restricted to a
specific range.
○​ Time-limited Random Signals: Their random nature is confined within a certain
time duration.
●​ Examples:
○​ White Noise: Has a flat spectral density over all frequencies.
○​ Band-limited Noise: White noise passed through a filter to limit its frequency
range.
●​ Applications:
○​ Simulation of real-world noisy environments.
○​ Testing of communication systems.
○​ Modeling random processes in control systems

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 Review questions/Assignment Questions

1.​ What defines a discrete-time signal, and how does it differ from a continuous-time
signal?
○​ A discrete-time signal is defined at specific intervals in time, usually represented
by a sequence of numbers. In contrast, a continuous-time signal is defined for
every instant in time and is usually represented by a continuous waveform.
2.​ Provide an example of a simple discrete-time signal and explain its significance.
○​ An example of a discrete-time signal is the unit impulse sequence, which is 1 at n
= 0 and 0 at all other values of n. This signal is significant because it is used as a
building block to analyze and understand more complex signals.
3.​ Explain the concept of the Fourier Transform for discrete-time signals and its
importance in signal processing.
○​ The Fourier Transform of a discrete-time signal converts it from the time domain
to the frequency domain. This helps in analyzing the frequency content of the
signal, which is crucial for many applications, such as filtering, modulation, and
spectral analysis.
4.​ How can we determine the amplitude and phase spectrum of a discrete-time signal
using the Fourier Transform?
○​ By taking the Fourier Transform of the discrete-time signal, we obtain a
complex-valued function. The magnitude of this function gives the amplitude
spectrum, while the angle (or argument) gives the phase spectrum.
5.​ Define amplitude spectrum and phase spectrum. How are these spectra used to
analyze signals?
○​ The amplitude spectrum shows the magnitude of the different frequency
components present in the signal, while the phase spectrum shows the phase
shift of each frequency component. These spectra help in understanding the
signal's frequency characteristics and how it behaves in the time domain.
6.​ Describe the relationship between sampling rates and the frequency content of a
signal. What is the Nyquist rate?
○​ The sampling rate determines the highest frequency that can be accurately
represented in a discrete-time signal. The Nyquist rate is twice the highest
frequency present in the signal, and it represents the minimum sampling rate
required to avoid aliasing and accurately reconstruct the original signal.
7.​ What is a transfer function, and how is it used to describe the behavior of a
system?
○​ The transfer function is a mathematical representation of the relationship
between the input and output of a system in the frequency domain. It is used to
analyze and design systems by understanding how the system responds to
different frequency components of the input signal.
8.​ Explain the concept of frequency response and its significance in analyzing
systems.
 ○​ The frequency response describes how a system responds to different
frequencies of an input signal. It is significant because it helps in understanding
the system's behavior, such as its stability, resonance, and filtering properties.
9.​ Provide an overview of the key concepts in probability and their application in
signal processing.
○​ Key concepts in probability include random variables, probability distributions,
expectation, variance, and statistical independence. These concepts are applied
in signal processing to model and analyze random signals and noise, which are
prevalent in real-world systems.
10.​How is pseudo-random noise generated, and why is it important in signal
analysis?
●​ Pseudo-random noise is generated using deterministic algorithms that produce
sequences with noise-like properties. It is important in signal analysis because it is used
for testing and evaluating system performance, simulating real-world scenarios, and
enhancing signal processing techniques such as spread spectrum communication.

How is pseudo-random noise generated, and why is it important in the context of random
data analysis?

●​ Answer: Pseudo-random noise is generated using deterministic algorithms like the

Linear Congruential Generator (LCG). These algorithms produce sequences of numbers
that mimic the properties of random noise. This type of noise is crucial for simulating
real-world scenarios, testing and evaluating system performance, and enhancing signal
processing techniques by providing a controlled way to introduce noise into a system.

Explain the concepts of autocorrelation and power spectral density in the analysis of
filtered signals. How are they utilized to understand the characteristics of random
signals?

●​ Answer: Autocorrelation measures the similarity between a signal and a delayed version
of itself, providing insights into the signal's repeating patterns and periodicity. Power
spectral density (PSD) represents the distribution of power across different frequencies,
showing how power varies with frequency. Both autocorrelation and PSD are used to
analyze the frequency content, stability, and behavior of random signals, especially when
these signals are passed through filters. They help in understanding how different
frequency components contribute to the overall signal and how the signal's
characteristics change after filtering.
MCQs

1.​ Which of the following best defines a discrete-time signal?

○​ A. A signal defined for every instant in time.
○​ B. A signal defined at specific intervals in time.
○​ C. A signal that is continuous and non-periodic.
○​ D. A signal that varies randomly.
2.​ The Fourier Transform of a discrete-time signal converts it from:
○​ A. Frequency domain to time domain.
○​ B. Time domain to frequency domain.
○​ C. Amplitude domain to phase domain.
○​ D. Continuous domain to discrete domain.
3.​ The Nyquist rate is:
○​ A. The highest frequency present in a signal.
○​ B. Twice the highest frequency present in a signal.
○​ C. Half the highest frequency present in a signal.
○​ D. The average frequency present in a signal.
4.​ What does the transfer function represent?
○​ A. The relationship between the input and output of a system in the time
domain.
○​ B. The relationship between the input and output of a system in the
frequency domain.
○​ C. The amplitude spectrum of a signal.
○​ D. The phase spectrum of a signal.
5.​ Which of the following best describes the amplitude spectrum?
○​ A. The plot of phase shift versus frequency.
○​ B. The plot of magnitude versus frequency.
○​ C. The plot of time versus frequency.
○​ D. The plot of amplitude versus time.
6.​ What is the purpose of pseudo-random noise in signal analysis?
○​ A. To represent continuous signals.
○​ B. To simulate real-world scenarios and evaluate system performance.
○​ C. To measure the amplitude spectrum.
○​ D. To filter out unwanted frequencies.
7.​ In signal processing, the term 'autocorrelation' refers to:
○​ A. The correlation between two different signals.
○​ B. The correlation of a signal with itself.
○​ C. The power spectrum of a signal.
○​ D. The transfer function of a system.
8.​ The frequency response of a system describes how it responds to:
○​ A. Different time intervals of an input signal.
 ○​ B. Different amplitudes of an input signal.
○​ C. Different frequencies of an input signal.
○​ D. Different phases of an input signal.
9.​ The phase spectrum of a signal represents:
○​ A. The amplitude of different frequency components.
○​ B. The phase shift of different frequency components.
○​ C. The time shift of different frequency components.
○​ D. The frequency of different time components.
10.​In probability theory, a random variable is:
●​ A. A variable that has a fixed value.
●​ B. A variable that can take different values based on random events.
●​ C. A variable that represents a deterministic process.
●​ D. A variable that is always positive.
●​ What is the primary purpose of using the autocorrelation function in signal
analysis?
●​ A. To determine the power spectrum of a signal.
●​ B. To measure the similarity between a signal and a delayed version of itself.
●​ C. To calculate the Fourier Transform of a signal.
●​ D. To filter out noise from a signal.
12.​In the context of random signals, what does the term 'power spectral
density' (PSD) refer to?
●​ A. The total power of a signal.
●​ B. The distribution of power across different frequencies.
●​ C. The autocorrelation function of a signal.
●​ D. The amplitude spectrum of a signal.
13.​What is the significance of the transfer function's poles and zeros in
system analysis?
●​ A. They represent the time-domain characteristics of a system.
●​ B. They determine the stability and frequency response of a system.
●​ C. They describe the amplitude and phase spectrum of a signal.
●​ D. They indicate the sampling rate of a signal.
14.​Which of the following methods is commonly used to generate
pseudo-random noise?
●​ A. Fourier Transform.
●​ B. Autocorrelation.
●​ C. Linear Congruential Generator (LCG).
●​ D. Transfer function analysis.
15.​In the context of limited random signals, what does 'sampling band' refer
to?
●​ A. The range of frequencies sampled in a signal.
 ●​ B. The time intervals between samples.
●​ C. The total number of samples taken.
●​ D. The amplitude range of a signal.

Answers

1.​ B. A signal defined at specific intervals in time.

2.​ B. Time domain to frequency domain.
3.​ B. Twice the highest frequency present in a signal.
4.​ B. The relationship between the input and output of a system in the frequency
domain.
5.​ B. The plot of magnitude versus frequency.
6.​ B. To simulate real-world scenarios and evaluate system performance.
7.​ B. The correlation of a signal with itself.
8.​ C. Different frequencies of an input signal.
9.​ B. The phase shift of different frequency components.
10.​B. A variable that can take different values based on random events.

11.B. To measure the similarity between a signal and a delayed version of itself.
12. B. The distribution of power across different frequencies.
13. B. They determine the stability and frequency response of a system.
14. C. Linear Congruential Generator (LCG).
15. A. The range of frequencies sampled in a signal.