Introduction to computers

What is a computer?
A computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts raw data as input and processes it with a set
of instructions (a program) to produce the result as output.

A computer is designed to execute applications and provides a variety of solutions through integrated
hardware and software components. It works with the help of programs and represents the decimal
numbers through a string of binary digits. It also has a memory that stores the data, programs, and result
of processing. The components of a computer such as machinery that includes wires, transistors, circuits,
hard disk are called hardware. Whereas, the programs and data are called software.
Definition of Terms
Data/raw facts/raw information can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts, or
instructions in a formalized manner, which should be suitable for communication, interpretation,
or processing by human or electronic machine.
Data is represented with the help of characters such as alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or special
characters (+,-, /,*, <,>, = etc.)

What is Information?
Information is organized or classified data, which has some meaningful values for the receiver.
Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based.
For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following
characteristics −
 Timely − Information should be available when required.
 Accuracy − Information should be accurate.
 Completeness − Information should be complete.

o Processor: It executes instructions from software and hardware.

o Memory: It is the primary memory for data transfer between the CPU and storage.
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o Motherboard: It is the part that connects all other parts or components of a computer.
o Storage Device: It permanently stores the data, e.g., hard drive.
o Input Device: It allows you to communicate with the computer or to input data, e.g., a
keyboard.
o Output Device: It enables you to see the output, e.g., monitor.
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Advantages of Computers:
1. Multi-tasking –
Multitasking Multi-tasking is one among the main advantage of computer.
Person can do multiple task, multiple operation at a same time, calculate
numerical problems within few seconds. Computer can perform millions or
trillions of work in one second.
2. Speed –
computers can work at incredible speed. A powerful computer is capable of
performing 5 million simple instructions per second. Nowadays computer
has vital role in human life. One of the most advantages of computer is its
incredible speed, which helps human to finish their task in few seconds.
3. Diligence- unlike human beings, computers are highly consistent. They do
not suffer from human traits such as boredom and tiredness resulting in lack
of concentration. Computer are therefore better than human in performing
voluminous and repetitive jobs.
4. Cost/ Stores huge –
Centralized database of storing information is that the major advantage
which will reduce cost.
5. Accuracy –
One among the basis advantage of computer is which will perform not only
calculations but also with accuracy.
6. Data Security –
Protecting digital data is understood as data security.
7. Task completer –
Completes tasks that might be impossible for humans to complete.
8. Communication –
Computer helps the user in better understanding and communication with
the other devices.
9. Productivity –
The level of productivity gets automatically doubled as the computer can
done the work at very fast.
10.Reduces work load –
Information are often accessed by more then one person with the necessity
for work to be duplicated.
11.Reliability –
Computers can perform same sort of work repeatedly without throwing up
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errors thanks to tiredness or boredom, which are quite common among

humans.
12.Storage –
The pc has an in-built memory where it can store an outsized amount of
knowledge . You can also store data in auxiliary storage devices.
Disadvantages of computer :
1. Virus and hacking attacks –
Virus may be a worm and hacking is just an unauthorized access over
computer for a few illicit purpose. Virus can go to other system from email
attachment, viewing an infected website advertisement, through removable
device like USB etc.
2. Online Cyber Crimes –
Online cyber-crime means computer and network may have utilized in order
to commit crime. Cyberstalking and fraud are the points which comes under
online cyber-crimes.
3. Reduction employed opportunity –
Mainly past generation wasn’t used of the pc or they need the knowledge of
computer they faced an enormous problem when computer came in field.
4. High cost –
Computers are expensive. Even the foremost affordable computers are still
very expensive for the typical person in South Africa. Since computers
empower people.
5. Distractions/disruptions –
If you’ve got ever spent hours browsing the web or watching videos on
YouTube, then you recognize how distracting computers can be! Because of
their high entertainment value.
6. Increases waste and impacts the environment –
With the speed that computers and other electronics get replaced, all of the
old devices that get thrown away have a big impact on the environment.
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APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS
Computers play a role in every field of life. They are used in homes, business, educational
institutions, research organizations, medical field, government offices, entertainment, etc.
a) Home
Computers are used at homes for several purposes like:
 Online bill payment,
 watching movies or shows at home,
 home tutoring, social media access,
 Playing games, internet access, etc.
 Communication through electronic mail.
 They help to avail work from home facility for corporate employees.
 Computers help the student community to avail online educational support.
b) Medical Field
Computers are used in hospitals to:
 Maintain a database of patients’ history,
 diagnosis, X-rays,
 Live monitoring of patients, etc.
 Surgeons nowadays use robotic surgical devices to perform delicate operations, and
conduct surgeries remotely.
 Virtual reality technologies are also used for training purposes.
 Monitoring the fetus inside the mother’s womb.
c) Entertainment
 Computers help to watch movies online,
 Play games online; act as a virtual entertainer in playing games,
 Listening to music, etc. Videos can be fed from computers to full screen televisions.
 Photo and video editing.
d) Industry and marketing
Computers are used to perform several tasks in industries and marketing like:
 Managing inventory,
 designing purpose,
 creating virtual sample products,
 Interior designing, video conferencing, etc.
 Online marketing has seen a great revolution in its ability to sell various products to
inaccessible corners like interior or rural areas.
 Stock markets have seen phenomenal participation from different levels of people
through the use of computers.
e) Education
Computers are used in education sector through:
 Online classes,
 online examinations,
 referring e-books,
 Online tutoring, etc.
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f) Government
In government sectors, computers are used in:
 Data processing,
 Maintaining a database of citizens and supporting a paperless environment.
g) Government
The country’s defense organizations have greatly benefitted from computers in their use for:
 missile development,
 satellites,
 Rocket launches, etc.
h) Banking
In the banking sector, computers are used to:
 Store details of customers and conduct transactions, such as withdrawal and deposit of
money through ATMs.
 Banks have reduced manual errors and expenses to a great extent through extensive use
of computers.
i) Business
Nowadays, computers are totally integrated into business. The main objective of business is
transaction processing, which involves transactions with suppliers, employees or customers.
Computers can make these transactions easy and accurate.
 Search Engines and Browsing
 To stay competitive, businesses must utilize search engines such
as Google or yahoo to obtain real time information and news and
conduct research.
 Financial Transactions / e-commerce
 Retail purchases, credit card transactions, automatic debits are
processed over computers, and through the internet today. Banks,
credit card companies, and other financial institutions are some of
the best examples of computer uses in business. E-commerce is a
rapidly growing industry, promising to become one of the top
computer-related professions in the future.
 Storage, Archival and Retrieval
 Thousands and thousands of manuscripts, files, charts, or other
document types can be stored on a tiny microchip. Before,
businesses needed file cabinets or warehouses to store pertinent
records and data. But now, data management is easy, thanks to
computers and software that enable businesses to encrypt,
organize, store, and easily retrieve critical information.
 Design and Presentation
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 The advent of graphic design, digital photography, and printing

technology has enabled businesses to display information more
clearly and artistically. Now people can do everything from
communication and business meetings to signing contracts
digitally.
 Organization
 Offices now use computer programs to handle scheduling,
accounting, billing, inventory management, contact management,
etc. As a result, computer application in business management is
now a must in all companies.
 Document processing
 Word Processing, for letters, manuscripts, proposals, etc has
revolutionized the business world. Today, many professionals
would actually feel lost without simple editing tools such as spell
check.
 Telecommuting and Remote Business
 Portable laptop computers, smart phones, wireless internet, air
cards and hub spots are the wave of the future when it comes to
computer uses in business. As of the moment, there are business
which can be conducted remotely from almost anywhere. With
this, we can say that computers can really establish the impact of
computer in business.
 Marketing
 Almost all marketing has gone online. Social media marketing,
website development, blogging, advertising, e-newsletters have
all become swift means of marketing in an increasingly
globalized society.

j) Training
Many organizations use computer-based training to train their employees, to save money and
improve performance. Video conferencing through computers allows saving of time and
travelling costs by being able to connect people in various locations.
k) Arts
Computers are extensively used in dance, photography, arts and culture. The fluid movement of
dance can be shown live via animation. Photos can be digitized using computers.
l) Science and Engineering
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Computers with high performance are used to stimulate dynamic process in Science and
Engineering. Supercomputers have numerous applications in area of Research and Development
(R&D). Topographic images can be created through computers. Scientists use computers to plot
and analyze data to have a better understanding of earthquakes.
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History of Computers
First Generation Computers (Vacuum tube technology)
The first generation (1946-1959) of computers.
Features:
 Computers were slow, Huge and expensive.
 Consumes more power
 In these computers, vacuum tubes were used as the basic components of CPU and
memory.
 These computers were mainly depended on batch operating system and punch cards.
 Magnetic tape and paper tape were used as output and input devices in this generation;
Some of the popular first generation computers are;
o ENIAC ( Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
o EDVAC ( Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
o UNIVACI( Universal Automatic Computer)
o IBM-701
o IBM-650
Second Generation Computers (Transistor Technology)
The second generation (1959-1965) was the era of the transistor computers.
Features:
 These computers used transistors which were cheap, compact and consuming less power;
it made transistor computers faster than the first generation computers.
 In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and magnetic disc and
tapes were used as the secondary storage.
 Assembly language and programming languages like COBOL and FORTRAN
 Batch processing and multiprogramming operating systems were used in these computers.
Some of the popular second generation computers are;
o IBM 1620
o IBM 7094
o CDC 1604
o CDC 3600
o UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation Computers (Integrated circuits technology)

The third generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs) instead of transistors. A single IC
can pack huge number of transistors which increased the power of a computer and reduced the
cost. The computers also became more reliable, efficient and smaller in size. These generation
computers used remote processing, time-sharing, multi programming as operating system. Also,
the high-level programming languages like FORTRON-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, and
ALGOL-68 were used in this generation.
Some of the popular third generation computers are;
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o IBM-360 series
o Honeywell-6000 series
o PDP(Personal Data Processor)
o IBM-370/168
o TDC-316
Fourth Generation Computers (very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits)
The fourth generation (1971-1980) computers used very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits;
a chip containing millions of transistors and other circuit elements. These chips made this
generation computers more compact, powerful, fast and affordable. These generation computers
used real time, time sharing and distributed operating system. The programming languages like C,
C++, and DBASE were also used in this generation.
Some of the popular fourth generation computers are;
o DEC 10
o STAR 1000
o PDP 11
o CRAY-1(Super Computer)
o CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)
Fifth Generation Computers
In fifth generation (1980-till date) computers, the VLSI technology was replaced with ULSI (Ultra
Large Scale Integration). It made possible the production of microprocessor chips with ten million
electronic components. This generation computers used parallel processing hardware and AI
(Artificial Intelligence) software. The programming languages used in this generation were C,
C++, Java, .Net, etc.
Some of the popular fifth generation computers are;
o Desktop
o Laptop
o NoteBook
o UltraBook
o ChromeBook
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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
We can classify the computers into the following 3 categories:
Classifications of Computers System:-
a) On the Basis of Size and Capacity, [Supercomputer, Mainframe, Mini, and Micro
Computer].
b) On the Basis of Purposes, [General and Special Purpose].
c) On the Basis of Hardware Design and Type [Analog, Digital, and Hybrid Computer].

Computers on the Basis of Size and Capacity

a)
i. Super Computer
A Supercomputer is the very fastest and powerful, and expensive type of computer for processing
data. Supercomputers’ size and storage capacity are also huge (can occupy huge premises) designed
to process vast amounts of data in a short time with high productivity.
These are specially made to perform multi-specific tasks. Therefore, many CPUs work in parallel
order on these supercomputers. This function of a Supercomputer is called Multiprocessing or
Parallel Processing.
A supercomputer’s design is complicated, like it can be heterogeneous, combining computers of
different architectures, is significantly surpassed most existing personal computers. This made this
machine an ultra-high-performance supercomputer.
Each part of a supercomputer is responsible for its own specific task, such as structuring and solving
the most complex problems requiring an incredible amount of calculations.
Applications: The uses of supercomputers are dedicated to –
 In research and study of energy and nuclear weapons and designing the aircraft, airplanes,
and flight simulators.
 Climate research and Weather Forecasting and Prediction of Natural Disasters.
 Spaceship and Satellite Launching.
 Used in scientific research laboratories.
 Used in Chemical and Biological research and for highly calculation complex tasks.
ii. Mainframe Computer
Mainframe computers are multi-programming, high-performance computers, and multi-user,
which means they can handle the workload of more than 100 users at a time on the computer.
The storage capacity of the mainframe is enormous, with a high-speed data process as well. As well
as handling hundreds of input and output devices at a time.
The mainframe is a highly efficient computer capable of simultaneously solving complex
calculations and continuously for a long time. These computers have several microprocessors that
have the ability to function the data at too high performance and speed.
Applications: Uses of Mainframe Computer –
Mainframe computers are mainly used by departmental and commercial organizations like Banks,
Companies, Scientific research centers, and governmental departments like railways. These
computers can work for 24 hours. Hundreds of users can work on these computations
simultaneously.
Using the mainframe completes the tasks, Such as keeping details of payments, research centers,
advertising, sending bills and notices, paying employees, ticket booking, maintaining details of
purchases by users, keeping detailed tax details, etc.
Examples: IBM Es000 series, ICL39 Series, and CDC 6600.
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iii. Mini Computer

Minicomputer is a digital and multi-user computer system with the connection of more than one
CPU. Thus, many people can work on these computers simultaneously instead of a single person.
Also, it can process with other accessories like a printer, plotter, etc.
iv. Micro Computer/ Personal Computer
The design of microcomputers is minimal in size and storage capacity. These computers consist of
many parts like Input and Output devices, Software, operating systems, networks, and Servers all
these need to connect to form a complete Personal Digital Computer.
There is not only a PC or laptop are examples of microcomputers. Other examples of the
microcomputer are smartphone, Tablet, PDA, server, palmtop, and workstation.
Applications: The uses of Microcomputers –
PC is being widely used in many fields like home, office, data collection, business, education,
entertainment, publishing, etc.
It keeps the details and prepares letters for correspondence in small businesses, creating bills,
accounting, word processing, and operation of the filing systems in a large company.
Some of the major PC manufacturers are IBM, Lenovo, Apple, HCL, HP, etc.

b) Computers on the Basis Purpose

i. General Purpose
General computers can do various everyday tasks such as writing a word processing letter,
Document preparation, recording, financial analysis, Printing documents, creating databases, and
calculations with accuracy and consistency.
The size, storage capacity, and cost of such computers are mainly less. The ability of these computers
is limited in performing specialized tasks. Still, it has versatility and useful for serving people basic
needs at home or in the workplace in the environment.
Examples:
Desktops, laptops, smartphones, and tablets are used on daily basis for general purposes.
ii. Special Purpose
These computers are designed to perform a particular or specialized task. The size, storage capacity,
and cost of such computers mainly depend on the nature and size of the work. The function of these
computers is consistent with any particular task.
These computers are used for special purposes in weather forecasting, space research, agriculture,
engineering, meteorology, satellite operation, traffic control, and research in chemical sciences.
Examples:
 Automatic teller machines (ATM),
 Washing machines,
 Surveillance equipment,
 Weather-forecasting simulators,
 Traffic-control computers,
 Defense-oriented applications,
 Oil-exploration systems,
 Military planes controlling computers.
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c)Computers on the Basis of Hardware Design and Data Handling.

i. Analog Computer
An analog computer performs tasks using continuous data (the physical amount that changes
continuously).
Features;
 Analog computers are used primarily to measure physical units like the voltage, pressure,
electric current, temperature, and convert them into digits.
 It is also used to measure and perform arithmetic calculations of numbers, the length of an
object, or the amount of voltage that passes through a point in an electrical circuit. Analog
computers obtain all their data from some measurement way.
 Analog computers are mainly used in the fields of science and engineering.
 Analog computers are slow and equipped to measure things rather than countable or check.
 The efficiency of this computer increases when we get the result of the data in graphs, etc.
 Analog Computers cannot store statistics.
ii. Digital Computer
As its name suggests, a digital computer represents the digital computer’s letters, numerical values,
or any other special symbols.
Features;
 This computer is the computer that calculates the number for processing the data.
 They run on electronic signs, and the binary numeral method Binary System 0 or 1 is used for
calculation. Their speed is fast.
 It can perform arithmetic operations such as addition, occurrence, subtraction,
multiplication, or division and all types of logical (mathematical) operations.
Today, most of the computers available in the market are digital computers.
Other Examples of Digital Computers
 Personal Desktop Computers,
 Calculators,
 Laptops, Smartphones, and Tablets,
 Chromebooks,
 Digital watch,
 Accounting machines,
 Workstations,
 Digital clock, etc.

iii. Hybrid Computer

A hybrid computer is a combined complex computer unit built using both analog and
digital properties and united by a single control system. The purpose of designing hybrid computers
is to provide functions and the best features that can be found on both analog and digital devices.
As both the properties of a computer consist in the form of a single hybrid computer made
possible to solve too complex calculations or problems, at the same time, these devices are not only
too expensive but also able to solve complex issues a bit fast.
Applications of hybrid Computer:
Hybrid computers are most commonly used in vast industries, research centers, organizations, and
manufacturing firms
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Computer safety and

security/cybersecurity
What is computer security?
Computer security basically is the protection of computer systems and information from harm,
theft, and unauthorized use. It is the process of preventing and detecting unauthorized use of your
computer system.
Computer security can be defined as controls that are put in place to provide confidentiality,
integrity, and availability for all components of computer systems.
Computer security is mainly concerned with three main areas:

a) Confidentiality is ensuring that information is available only to the intended audience

b) Integrity is protecting information from being modified by unauthorized parties
c) Availability is protecting information from being modified by unauthorized parties
What are types?

 Information security is securing information from unauthorized access, modification & deletion
 Application Security is securing an application by building security features to prevent from
Cyber Threats such as SQL injection, DoS attacks, data breaches and etc.
 Computer Security means securing a standalone machine by keeping it updated and patched
 Network Security is by securing both the software and hardware technologies
 Cybersecurity is defined as protecting computer systems, which communicate over the
computer networks
Reasons for cybersecurity
 To prevent theft of data, such as that of military secrets from government
computers;
 Shielding from vandalism, including the destruction of data by a computer virus;
 Prevent fraud, such as employees at a bank channeling funds into their own
accounts;
 Protection invasion of privacy, such as the illegal accessing of protected
personal financial or medical data from a large database.
 To maintain customer trust

Computer security threats

Computer security threats are possible dangers that can possibly hamper the normal functioning
of your computer. In the present age, cyber threats are constantly increasing as the world is going
digital. The most harmful types of computer security are:
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 Viruses

A computer virus is a malicious program which is loaded into the user’s

computer without user’s knowledge. It replicates itself and infects the files and programs on the
user’s PC. The ultimate goal of a virus is to ensure that the victim’s computer will never be able
to operate properly or even at all.
 Computer Worm

A computer worm is a software program that can copy itself from one
computer to another, without human interaction. The potential risk here is that it will use up your
computer hard disk space because a worm can replicate in greate volume and with great speed.
 Phishing

Disguising as a trustworthy person or business, phishers attempt to steal sensitive financial or

personal information through fraudulent email or instant messages. Phishing in unfortunately very
easy to execute. You are deluded into thinking it’s the legitimate mail and you may enter your
personal information.
 Botnet

A botnet is a group of computers connected to the internet, that have been

compromised by a hacker using a computer virus. An individual computer is called ‘zombie
computer’. The result of this threat is the victim’s computer, which is the bot will be used for
malicious activities and for a larger scale attack like DDoS.
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 Rootkit

A rootkit is a computer program designed to provide continued privileged

access to a computer while actively hiding its presence. Once a rootkit has been installed, the
controller of the rootkit will be able to remotely execute files and change system configurations
on the host machine.
 Key logger

Also known as a keystroke logger, keyloggers can track the real-time activity
of a user on his computer. It keeps a record of all the keystrokes made by user keyboard. Keylogger
is also a very powerful threat to steal people’s login credential such as username and password.

Also known as a keystroke logger, keyloggers can track the real-time activity of a user on his
computer. It keeps a record of all the keystrokes made by user keyboard. Keylogger is also a
very powerful threat to steal people’s login credential such as username and password.
Computer Security Practices
Computer security threats are becoming relentlessly inventive these days. There is much need for
one to arm oneself with information and resources to safeguard against these complex and growing
computer security threats and stay safe online. Some preventive steps you can take include:

 Secure your computer physically by:

o Installing reliable, reputable security and anti-virus software
o Activating your firewall, because a firewall acts as a security guard between the internet
and your local area network
 Stay up-to-date on the latest software and news surrounding your devices and perform software
updates as soon as they become available
 Avoid clicking on email attachments unless you know the source
 Change passwords regularly, using a unique combination of numbers, letters and case types
 Use the internet with caution and ignore pop-ups, drive-by downloads while surfing
 Taking the time to research the basic aspects of computer security and educate yourself on
evolving cyber-threats
 Perform daily full system scans and create a periodic system backup schedule to ensure your data
is retrievable should something happen to your computer.
Apart from these, there are many ways you can protect your computer system. Aspects such as
encryption and computer cleaners can assist in protecting your computers and its files.
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COMPUTER MEMORY
Memory is the most essential element of a computing system because without it computer can’t
perform simple tasks. Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is
to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored. Computer memory is of
two basic types – Primary memory (RAM and ROM) and Secondary memory (hard drive, CD,
etc). Non-volatile memory. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells.
Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one.
For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536
memory locations( Data structures containing such different sized words refer to them as WORD (16
bits/2 bytes), DWORD (32 bits/4 bytes) and QWORD (64 bits/8 bytes) respectively. ). The address of
these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types −

 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts
as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and
program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can
access them.

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −
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 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory is a segment of computer memory that can be accessed directly by the
processor. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM. Primary Memory is the
main memory of the computer system. Accessing data from primary memory
is faster because it is an internal memory of the computer. The primary
memory is most volatile, meaning data in primary memory does not exist if it is
not saved when a power failure occurs.
The primary memory is a semiconductor memory. It is costlier compared with
secondary memory. The capacity of primary memory is very much limited and
is always smaller compares to secondary memory.

Two types of Primary Memory are:

 RAM
 ROM

KEY DIFFERENCE
 Primary memory is also called internal memory whereas Secondary
memory is also known as a Backup memory or Auxiliary memory.
 Primary memory can be accessed by the data bus whereas Secondary
memory is accessed by I/O channels.
 Primary memory data is directly accessed by the processing unit
whereas Secondary memory data cannot be accessed directly by the
processor.
 Comparing primary and secondary storage devices, Primary storage
devices are costlier than secondary storage device whereas Secondary
storage devices are cheaper compared to primary storage device.
 When we differentiate primary and secondary memory, Primary memory
is both volatile & nonvolatile whereas Secondary memory is always a
non-volatile memory.
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Random Access Memory (RAM)

It is also called read-write memory or the main memory or the primary memory. The programs
and data that the CPU requires during the execution of a program are stored in this
memory.

It is a volatile memory as the data is lost when the power is turned off. RAM is further classified
into two types- SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) and DRAM (Dynamic Random Access
Memory).

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

Stores crucial information essential to operate the system, like the program essential to boot the
computer.

 It is not volatile.
 Always retains its data.
 Used in embedded systems or where the programming needs no change.
 Used in calculators and peripheral devices.

ROM is further classified into four types- MROM, PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM.

Types of Read-Only Memory (ROM)

PROM (Programmable read-only memory) – It can be programmed by the user. Once

programmed, the data and instructions in it cannot be changed.
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EPROM (Erasable Programmable read-only memory) – It can be reprogrammed. To erase data

from it, expose it to ultraviolet light. To reprogram it, erase all the previous data.

EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory) – The data can be erased by
applying an electric field, with no need for ultraviolet light. We can erase only portions of the
chip.

MROM(Mask ROM) – Mask ROM is a kind of read-only memory, that is masked off at the
time of production. Like other types of ROM, mask ROM cannot enable the user to change the
data stored in it. If it can, the process would be difficult or slow.
Difference between RAM and ROM

Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories.
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 It is known as the main memory.

 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main
memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access
these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary
memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example,
disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.
 Introduction to computers

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Computer software, is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides the instructions
for telling a computer what to do and how to do it.
Any set of instructions that guides the hardware and tells it how to accomplish each task.
Computer software, or just software, is a collection of computer programs and related data that
provides the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. • Any set of instructions
that guides the hardware and tells it how to accomplish each task
Type of Software
The software has mainly divided into two categories: Application software and System
software.

Application Software

Applications software also called end-user programs or merely an application. It

resides above system software. The end-user uses applications software for a specific
purpose. It programmed for simple as well as complex tasks. It either be installed or
access online. It can be a single program or a group of small programs that referred to
as an application suite.
Application software can be used by the user to complete specific tasks, such as creating
word processors documents, spreadsheets, presentations, graphics, CAD/CAM,
sending the email, etc.
System Software

System Software (the type of computer program) provides a platform to run a

computer’s hardware and computer application to utilize system resources and solve
their computation problem. It is written in a low-level language, like assembly language,
so it can easily interact with hardware with the primary level. It controls the working of
peripheral devices. System software act as a scheduler for the execution of the
processes and arrange the sequence according to their priority and I/O devices
requirement and creation of the process. The best-known example of system software
is the operating system (OS).

Important functions of an operating System:

Security –

The operating system uses password protection to protect user data and similar other
techniques. it also prevents unauthorized access to programs and user data.

Control over system performance –

 Introduction to computers

Monitors overall system health to help improve performance. records the response time
between service requests and system response to having a complete view of the system
health. This can help improve performance by providing important information needed
to troubleshoot problems.

Job accounting –

Operating system Keeps track of time and resources used by various tasks and users,
this information can be used to track resource usage for a particular user or group of
users.

Error detecting aids –

The operating system constantly monitors the system to detect errors and avoid the
malfunctioning of a computer system.

Coordination between other software and users –

Operating systems also coordinate and assign interpreters, compilers, assemblers, and
other software to the various users of the computer systems.

Memory Management –

The operating system manages the Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory is
made up of a large array of bytes or words where each byte or word is assigned a certain
address. Main memory is fast storage and it can be accessed directly by the CPU. For
a program to be executed, it should be first loaded in the main memory. An Operating
System performs the following activities for memory management:

It keeps track of primary memory, i.e., which bytes of memory are used by which user
program. The memory addresses that have already been allocated and the memory
addresses of the memory that has not yet been used. In multipr1` ogramming, the OS
decides the order in which processes are granted access to memory, and for how long.
It Allocates the memory to a process when the process requests it and deallocates the
memory when the process has terminated or is performing an I/O operation.
 Introduction to computers

Processor Management –

In a multi-programming environment, the OS decides the order in which processes have

access to the processor, and how much processing time each process has. This function
of OS is called process scheduling. An Operating System performs the following
activities for processor management.

Keeps track of the status of processes. The program which performs this task is known
as a traffic controller. Allocates the CPU that is a processor to a process. De-allocates
processor when a process is no more required.

Device Management –

An OS manages device communication via their respective drivers. It performs the

following activities for device management. Keeps track of all devices connected to the
system. designates a program responsible for every device known as the Input/Output
controller. Decides which process gets access to a certain device and for how long.
Allocates devices in an effective and efficient way. Deallocates devices when they are
no longer required.

File Management –

A file system is organized into directories for efficient or easy navigation and usage.
These directories may contain other directories and other files. An Operating System
carries out the following file management activities. It keeps track of where information
is stored, user access settings and status of every file, and more… These facilities are
collectively known as the file system.

Utility: Utility Program-Usually utility software installed during the installation of OS.
Utility program helps in analyze, configure, secure, optimize and maintain the system.
List of utility program-Disk checker, disk cleaner, disk derangement, disk space analyzer,
disk backup etc.
Open Source: Open source software is available with source code. Software is an
intellectual or collaborative effort of programmers to improve the quality of software.
Usually, the software is available with a license for those programmers who want to
change the functionality according to their choice. Examples are- Apache, Tomcat,
Ubuntu, MySQL (database), and Firefox etc.
 Introduction to computers

COMPUTER NETWORKS