CS1602-Mobile Computing Department of CSE

UNIT I INTRODUCTION
Introduction to Mobile Computing - Mobile Computing Vs Wireless networking - Applications
of Mobile Computing - Structure of Mobile Computing Applications - Generations of Mobile
Communication Technologies - MAC Protocols - Wireless MAC Issues – SDMA - TDMA-
FDMA - CDMA.

Mobile Computing
Mobile Computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice and
video via a computer or any other wireless enabled device without having to be
connected to a fixed physical link.
Mobile computing Wireless networking
Mobile computing refers to computing Information between a computing device
devices that are not restricted to a Wireless refers to the method of
desktop. A mobile device may be a PDA, transferring, and a data source, such as an
a smart phone or a web phone, a laptop agency database server, without a
computer, or any one of numerous other physical connection
Wireless communication refers to the method of
devices that allow the user to complete transferring information between a computing device
tasks without being tethered, or (such as a smartphone, laptop, or tablet) and a data
source (such as a database server managed by an
connected, to a network. Accessing agency), without the need for a physical connection
information and remote computational like cables or wires. This enables data to be
accessed and transmitted using technologies like
service while on the move.
Wi-Fi, cellular networks, or Bluetooth, ensuring
mobility and convenience.
Mobile computing
Applications
1.Vehicles:
Music, news, road conditions, weather reports, and other broadcast info are
received via digital audio broadcasting (DAB) with 1.5 Mbit/s. For personal
communication, a universal mobile telecommunications system (UMTS) phone
might be available offering voice and data connectivity with 384 kbits/s. The
current position of the car is determined via the global positioning system (GPS).
Cars driving in the same area build a local ad-hoc network for the fast exchange of
information in emergency situations or to help each other keep a safe distance. In
case of an accident, not only will the airbag be triggered, but the police and
ambulance service will be informed via an emergency call to a service provider.
2. Emergencies:
An ambulance with a high-quality wireless connection to a hospital can carry vital
information about injured persons to the hospital from the scene of the accident.
All the necessary steps for this particular type of accident can be prepared and
specialists can be consulted for an early diagnosis. Wireless networks are the only
means of communication in the case of natural disasters such as hurricanes or
earthquakes. In the worst cases, only decentralized, wireless ad-hoc networks
survive.

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3. Credit Card Verification:
At Point of Sale (POS) terminals in shops and Supermarkets, when customers use credit
cards for transactions, the intercommunication required between the bank central
computer and the POS terminal, in order to effect verification of the card usage, can take
place quickly and securely over cellular channels using a mobile computer unit. This can
speed up the transaction process and relieve congestion at the POS terminals.
4. Replacement of Wired Networks:
Wireless networks can also be used to replace wired networks, e.g., remote sensors, for
tradeshows, or in historic buildings. Due to economic reasons, it is often impossible to wire
remote sensors for weather forecasts, earthquake detection, or to provide environmental
information. Wireless connections, e.g., via satellite, can help in this situation. Other
examples for wireless networks are computers, sensors, or information displays in
historical buildings, where excess cabling may destroy valuable walls or floors.
5. Infotainment:
Wireless networks can provide up-to-date information at any appropriate location. The
travel guide might tell you something about the history of a building (knowing via GPS,
contact to a local base station, or triangulation where you are) downloading information
about a concert in the building at the same evening via a local wireless network. Another
growing field of wireless network applications lies in entertainment and games to enable,
e.g., ad-hoc gaming networks as soon as people meet to play together.

Characteristics of Mobile Computing

A computing environment is said to be “mobile”, when either the sender or receiver of
information can be on the move while transmitting or receiving information. The following
are some of the important characteristics of a mobile computer environment.
Ubiquity:
The meaning of ubiquity is present everywhere. In the context of mobile computing,
ubiquity means the ability of a user to perform computations from anywhere and at any
time. E.g A business executive can receive business notifications and issue business
transactions as long as he is in the wireless coverage area.
Location Awareness:
A hand held device equipped with global positioning system can transparently provide
info about the current location of the user to a tracking station. Many applications, ranging
from the strategic to personalized services require or get value additions by location based
services.(Eg)A person travelling by road in a car, may need to find out a car maintenance
service through mobile computing where an application may show the nearby
maintenance shop. A few other examples are traffic control, fleet management, emergency

At Point of Sale (POS) terminals in shops and supermarkets, when customers use credit cards for
transactions, the POS terminal communicates with the bank's central computer to verify the card's validity.
This communication can happen quickly and securely over cellular networks using a mobile computing unit.
By utilizing cellular channels, the verification process is accelerated, ensuring faster transactions and reducing
congestion at the POS terminals.

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services etc .In a traffic control application, the density of traffic along various roads can be
dynamically monitored and traffic can be directed appropriately to reduce congestions.
Location awareness can also make emergency services more effective by directing the
emergency service to the site of the call.
Adaptation:
Adaptation in the context of mobile computing implies the ability of a system to adjust to
bandwidth fluctuation without unconvincing the user. In a mobile computing
environment, adaptation is crucial because of intermittent disconnections and bandwidth
fluctuations that can arise due to a number of factors such as handoff, obstacles,
environmental noise etc.
Broadcast:
Due to the broadcast nature of the underlying communication network of a mobile
computing environment, efficient delivery of data can be made simultaneously to
hundreds of mobile users.(Eg)All users at a specific location such as those near a railway
station may be sent advertising information by a taxi service operator.
Personalization:
Services in a mobile environment can be easily personalized according to a user's profile.
This is required to let the users easily avail information with their hand-held devices.(Eg)A
mobile user may need only a certain type of information from specific sources. This can be
easily done through personalization.
Reference model for Mobile communication

Influence of Mobile communications to the layer model

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A handheld device equipped with a Global Positioning System (GPS) can seamlessly transmit the user’s current location to a tracking station. Location-based services (LBS) add significant
value to various applications, ranging from strategic operations to personalized services.
For example, a person traveling by car might need to locate a nearby car maintenance shop. A mobile computing application can use GPS to identify and display the closest service centers.
Other applications of LBS include:
Traffic Control: Real-time monitoring of traffic density on different roads enables dynamic adjustments to traffic flow, reducing congestion.
Fleet Management: Transportation companies can track and optimize the movement of their vehicles.
Emergency Services: LBS can help emergency responders, such as ambulances or firefighters, quickly locate and reach the exact site of an incident or distress call.
CS8601-Mobile Computing Department of CSE

Generations of Mobile Communication Technologies

First Generation, 1G

These phones were the first mobile phones to be used, which was introduced in 1982 and completed
in early 1990. It was used for voice services and was based on technology called as Advanced
Mobile Phone System (AMPS). The AMPS system was frequency modulated and used frequency
division multiple access (FDMA) with a channel capacity of 30 KHz and frequency band of 824-
894MHz. Its basic features are:
Wireless networks enable the delivery of up-to-date information at
 Speed-2.4 kbps relevant locations. For example, a travel guide app can use GPS, contact
with a local base station, or triangulation to determine your location and
 Allows voice calls in 1 country provide historical details about a building. It can also download real-time
 Use analog signal. information, such as details about a concert happening in that building
 Poor voice quality later in the evening, through a local wireless network.
 Poor battery life
Another expanding area of wireless network applications is in
 Large phone size entertainment and gaming. Wireless networks can facilitate ad-hoc
 Limited capacity gaming networks, allowing people to connect and play multiplayer games
 Poor handoff reliability together instantly when they meet, without requiring any pre-existing
 Poor security infrastructure.
 Offered very low level of spectrum efficiency
It introduces mobile technologies such as Mobile Telephone System (MTS), Advanced Mobile
Telephone System (AMTS), Improved Mobile Telephone Service (IMTS), and Push to Talk (PTT).
It has low capacity, unreliable handoff, poor voice links, and no security at all since voice calls were
played back in radio towers, making these calls susceptible to unwanted eavesdropping by third
parties

Architecture of AMPS

Second Generation (2G)

2G refers to the second generation based on GSM and was emerged in late 1980s. It uses digital
signals for voice transmission. Main focus of this technology was on digital signals and provides
services to deliver text and picture message at low speed (in kbps). It use the bandwidth of 30 to 200
KHz. Next to 2G, 2.5G system uses packet switched and circuit switched domain and provide data
rate up to 144 kbps. e.g. GPRS, CDMA and EDGE.. The main features of 2G and 2.5G are :
Second generation, 2G:
 Data speed was upto 64kbps
 Use digital signals
 Enables services such as text messages, picture messages and MMS(Multimedia message)
 Provides better quality and capacity
 Unable to handle complex data such as videos.
 Required strong digital signals to help mobile phones work. If there is no network coverage in any
specific area, digital signals would weak.

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2.5 G : The GSM technology was continuously improved to provide better services which led to
development of advanced Technology between 2g and 3g
 Provides phone calls
 Send/receive e-mail messages
 Web browsing
 Speed : 64-144 kbps
 Camera phones
 Take a time of 6-9 mins. to download a 3 mins. MP3 song.
Third Generation (3G)
3G is based on GSM and was launched in 2000. The aim of this technology was to offer high speed
data. The original technology was improved to allow data up to 14 Mbps and more using packet
switching. It uses Wide Band Wireless Network with which clarity is increased. It also offers data
services, access to television/video, new services like Global Roaming. It operates at a range of
2100MHz and has a bandwidth of 15-20MHz used for High-speed internet service, video chatting.
The main features of 3G are:
 Speed 2 Mbps
 Typically called smart phones
 Increased bandwidth and data transfer rates to accommodate web-based applications and audio
and video files.
 Provides faster communication
 Send/receive large email messages
 High speed web/more security/video conferencing/3D gaming
 Large capacities and broadband capabilities
 TV streaming/mobile TV/Phone calls
 To download a 3 minute MP3 song only 11 sec-1.5 mins time required.
 Expensive fees for 3G licenses services
 It was challenge to build the infrastructure for 3G
 High bandwidth requirement
 Expensive 3G phones
 Large cell phones 3G mobile system was called as UMTS(Universal Mobile Telecommunication
System) in Europe, while CDMA2000 is the name of American 3G variant. Also the IMT2000 has
accepted a new 3G standard from China, i.e TD-SCDMA. WCDMA is the air-interface technology
for UMTS.
Fourth Generation (4G)
4G offers a downloading speed of 100Mbps. 4G provides same feature as 3G and additional services
like Multi-Media Newspapers, to watch T.V programs with more clarity and send Data much faster
than previous generations. LTE (Long Term Evolution) is considered as 4G technology. 4G is being
developed to accommodate the QoS and rate requirements set by forthcoming applications like
wireless broadband access, Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), video chat, mobile TV, HDTV
content, Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB), minimal services like voice and data, and other services
that utilize bandwidth.
The main features of 4G are :
 Capable of provide 10Mbps-1Gbps speed
 High quality streaming video
 Combination of Wi-Fi and Wi-Max
 High security
 Provide any kind of service at any time as per user requirements anywhere
 Expanded multimedia services

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 Low cost per-bit
 Battery uses is more
 Hard to implement
 Need complicated hardware
 Expensive equipment required to implement next generation network
Fifth Generation (5G)
5G refer to Fifth Generation which was started from late 2010s. Facilities that might be seen with
5G technology includes far better levels of connectivity and coverage. The main focus of 5G will be
on world-Wireless World Wide Web (WWWW). It is a complete wireless communication with no
limitations.
The main features of 5G are :
 It is highly supportable to WWWW (wireless World Wide Web)
 High speed, high capacity
 Provides large broadcasting of data in Gbps.
 Multi-media newspapers, watch TV programs with the clarity(HD Clarity)
 Faster data transmission that of the previous generation
 Large phone memory, dialing speed, clarity in audio/video
Support interactive multimedia, voice, streaming video, internet and other
 More effective and attractive

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Spread Spectrum
A collective class of signaling techniques are employed before transmitting a signal to
provide a secure communication, known as the Spread Spectrum Modulation. The main
advantage of spread spectrum communication technique is to prevent “interference” .
These spread spectrum signals transmit at low power density and has a wide spread of
signals.

Pseudo-Noise Sequence
A coded sequence of 1s and 0s with certain auto-correlation properties, called as Pseudo-
Noise coding sequence is used in spread spectrum techniques. It is a maximum-length
sequence, which is a type of cyclic code.

Following are some of its features −

 Band of signals occupy a narrow range of frequencies.

 Power density is high.
 Spread of energy is low and concentrated.
With these features, the spread spectrum signals are highly resistant to interference or
jamming. Since multiple users can share the same spread spectrum bandwidth without
interfering with one another, these can be called as multiple access techniques.

Spread spectrum multiple access techniques uses signals which have a transmission
bandwidth of a magnitude greater than the minimum required RF bandwidth.

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Effects of spreading and interference

These are of two types.

 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

 Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum DSSS

Whenever a user wants to send data using this DSSS technique, each and every bit of the
user data is multiplied by a secret code, called as chipping code. This chipping code is
nothing but the spreading code which is multiplied with the original message and
transmitted. The receiver uses the same code to retrieve the original message.

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Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum FHSS

This is frequency hopping technique, where the users are made to change the frequencies
of usage, from one to another in a specified time interval, hence called as frequency
hopping. For example, a frequency was allotted to sender 1 for a particular period of time.
Now, after a while, sender 1 hops to the other frequency and sender 2 uses the first
frequency, which was previously used by sender 1. This is called as frequency reuse.
The frequencies of the data are hopped from one to another in order to provide a secure
transmission. The amount of time spent on each frequency hop is called as Dwell time.

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Comparison between FHSS and DSSS

Both the spread spectrum techniques are popular for their characteristics. To have a clear
understanding, let us take a look at their comparisons.

FHSS DSSS / CDMA

Multiple frequencies are used Single frequency is used

Hard to find the user’s frequency at any instant User frequency, once allotted is always
of time the same

Frequency reuse is allowed Frequency reuse is not allowed

Sender need not wait Sender has to wait if the spectrum is busy

Power strength of the signal is high Power strength of the signal is low

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Stronger and penetrates through the obstacles It is weaker compared to FHSS

It is never affected by interference It can be affected by interference

It is cheaper It is expensive

This is the commonly used technique This technique is not frequently used

Advantages of Spread Spectrum

Following are the advantages of spread spectrum −

 Cross-talk elimination
 Better output with data integrity
 Reduced effect of multipath fading
 Better security
 Reduction in noise
 Co-existence with other systems
 Longer operative distances
 Hard to detect
 Not easy to demodulate/decode
 Difficult to jam the signals

Objectives of a MAC protocol

- to enforce discipline in the access of a shared channel when multiple nodes
contend to access that channel
- maximization of the utilization of the channel and
- minimization of average latency of transmission
-MAC protocol must be fair and ensure that no node has to wait for an unduly
long time, before it is allowed to transmit .
Properties required for MAC protocols
 It should implement some rules that help to enforce discipline when multiple nodes
contend for a shared channel

 It should help maximize the utilization of the channel

 Channel allocation needs to be fair. No node should be discriminated against at any

time and made to wait for an unduly long time for transmission

 It should be capable of supporting several types of traffic having different

maximum and average bit rates.

 It should be robust in the face of equipment failures and changing network

connections

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 IEEE 802.11 - popular and standard MAC protocol for wireless networks

 IEEE 802.11 is a set of media access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY)
specifications for implementing wireless local area network (WLAN) computer
communication in the 900 MHz and 2.4, 3.6, 5, and 60 GHz frequency bands.

Wireless MAC Protocols: Issues

It is difficult to implement a collision detection scheme in a wireless env., since
collisions are hard to be detected by the transmitting nodes.
In infrastructure less networks, the issue of hidden and exposed terminals makes a
MAC Protocol extremely inefficient, unless special care is taken to overcome these
problems.
Hidden Terminal Problem
Exposed Terminal Problem
A Taxonomy of MAC Protocols
MAC Protocols can be broadly divided into the following categories:
 Fixed Assignment Schemes

 Random Assignment Schemes

 Demand-based schemes

Fixed assignment schemes

- Usually called circuit-switched schemes
- Resources required for a call are assigned for the entire duration of the call
Random Assignment Schemes
-connection-less packet switching schemes
- No resource reservations are made; nodes simply start to transmit as soon as they
have a packet to send
Reservation schemes
- A node makes explicit reservation of the channel for an entire call for before
transmitting
-Analogous to a connection-based packet-switching scheme
- Suitable to handle calls with widely varying traffic characteristics
Important Categories of fixed assignment MAC protocols:
 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

1. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

- The available bandwidth (frequency range) is divided in to many narrower
frequency bands called channel.
For Full duplex communication – each user is allocated a forward link (channel) for

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communicating from it (mobile handset) to the base station (BS), and a reverse channel for
communication from the BS to it .Thus each user is making a call is allocated two
frequency bands(channels), one for transmitting and the other for receiving signals during
the call. When a call is underway, no other user would be allocated the same frequency
band to make a call. Unused transmission time in a frequency band that occurs when the
allocated caller pauses between transmissions, or when no user is allocated a band, goes
idle and is wasted .FDMA, does not achieve a high channel utilization

960

935.2 200

20
915

890.2
t

2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

- Access methods in which nodes are allotted different time slots to access the same
physical channel
- Timeline is divided into fixed-sized time slots and these are divided among
multiple nodes who can transmit in a round robin manner.
- Each user of the channel owns the channel for exclusive use for one time slot at a
time in a round robin fashion
- All sources use the same channel, but take turns in transmitting
- Unused time slots go idle, leading to low channel utilization
TDD/TDMA - general scheme, example DECT

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417 µs

1 2 3 11 12 1 2 3 11 12

t
downlink uplink

3. Code Division Multiple Access

- Multiple users are allotted different codes that consist of sequences of 0 and 1 to
access the same channel.
1. Code for a user should be orthogonal (non-interfering) to the codes assigned to other
nodes.
 Two vectors are said to be orthogonal if their inner product =0.

Let p and q be 2 vectors and suppose

p = (2, 5, 0) and q = (0, 0, 17), then
inner product of p*q = (2*0+5*0+0*17) = 0

2. Good autocorrelation uses the bipolar notation

 For good autocorrelation, binary 0 is represented as -1 and binary 1 is represented as
+1.

let the binary sequence be 1001, then the representation sequence is +1-1-1+1
On the receiving end, only the same PN sequence is able to demodulate the signal to
successfully convert the input data
Pseudorandom sequence generator(PRSG)
 To generate a series of pseudorandom numbers,

 a seed(starting point) is required

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 Based on the seed selected, the next number can be generated using a deterministic
mathematical transformation or can be generated probabilistically

a) In CDMA, a code actually denotes a starting point (seed) for a PSRG.

b) PSRG generates a series of bits at a frequency which is much higher than the actual user
data (such as digitized voice)
c) These bits are XOR d with the user data and subsequently the results are transmitted.
This occurs in the case of multiple transmitters
If someone listens to this signal with the help of a suitable wideband receiver, the person
will hear something similar to what is produced by random noise all other users who are
on the same frequency will send a similar signal, but with a different PSRG seed. So these
apparent random noises will all coexist in the band of frequencies, but would not interfere
with each other. This due to the reason that the exact frequency of any transmitter at any
instant (which is in effect determined by the seed) is almost always unique error correction
takes care of occasional bit errors The receiver is aware of the PRSG seed for each
transmitter. It hears just one of the transmitters by correlating the noise it receives, against
its own PRSG, which is also running with the same seed. It is slightly similar to FDMA, but
the difference is that the transmitters do not stay on one frequency.
Steps:
1. For simplicity we assume that all nodes transmit on the same frequency at the same
time using the entire bandwidth of the transmission channel.
2. Each sender has a unique random number key, and the sender XORs the signal with
this random number key.
3. The receiver can tune into this signal if it knows the pseudorandom number.
Example:
X, Y - transmitters
Z – receiver
Sender X_data =1 and X_key = (010011)
Its autocorrelation representation is (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1)
Signal to be calculated at sender X is
Xs = X_data * X_key = +1 * X_key = (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1)
Sender Y_data =0 and Y_key = (110101)
Its autocorrelation representation is (+1, +1, -1, +1, -1, +1)
Signal to be calculated at sender Y is
Ys = Y_data * Y_key = -1 * Y_key = (-1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1)
Signal received at Z is Xs + Ys = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0)
At the receiver, in order to receive the data sent by sender X, the signal Z is
dispread.

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If Z wants to get info of sender X data, then
Z * X_key = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) * (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1)
= 2+0+0+2+2+0 = 6 > 0 (positive) that is original bit was 1.
If Z wants to get info of sender Y data, then
Z * Y_key = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) * (+1, +1, -1, +1, -1, +1)
= -2+0+0-2-2+0 = -6 < 0 (negative) that is Y data original bit was 0.
II .Random Assignment Schemes
 ALOHA
 Slotted ALOHA
 CSMA
 CSMA/CD
 CSMA/CA
ALOHA
- Simple communication scheme developed at the university of Hawaii
- Basic called pure ALOHA scheme
- if a node has data to send, it begins to transmit
- it does not check whether the channel is busy before transmitting
- if the frame successfully reaches the destination, the next frame is sent
- if frame fails to be received, it is sent again
-Works acceptably when the chances of contention are small
- collisions can become unacceptably high if the number of contenders for
transmission is high
Aloha

collision

sender A
sender B
sender C
Slotted Aloha
t
collision

sender A
sender B
sender C
t

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 Slotted ALOHA

- chances of collisions are attempted to be reduced by enforcing the force of

restrictions.
- time is divided into equal-sized slots in which a pkt can be sent. Size of the
pkt is restricted
- a node wanting to send a pkt, can start to do so only at the beginning of a
slot
- employs beacon signals that are sent at precise intervals that mark the
beginning of a slot, at which point the nodes having data to send and can
start to transmit
- all senders have to be synchronized, transmission can only start at the
beginning of a time slot & Still, access is not coordinated.
- does not work very well if the number of stations contending to send data is
high
CSMA
- Carrier Sense Multiple Access
- a node senses the medium before starting to transmit
- if it senses that some transmission is underway, it defers its transmission
- Sensing the carrier and accessing the medium only if the carrier is idle decreases
the probability of a collision.
- But hidden terminals cannot be detected, so, if a hidden terminal transmits at the
same time as another sender, a collision might occur at the receiver.
- This basic scheme is still used in most wireless LANs
Non-persistent CSMA:
Stations sense the carrier and start sending immediately if the medium is idle.
If the medium is busy, the station pauses a random amount of time before sensing
the medium again and repeating this pattern.
p-persistent CSMA
nodes also sense the medium, but only transmit with a probability of p, with the
station defering to the next slot with the probability 1-p, i.e., access is slotted in addition.
persistent CSMA
all stations wishing to transmit access the medium at the same time, as soon as it
becomes idle.
This will cause many collisions if many stations wish to send and block each other.
To create some fairness for stations waiting for a longer time, back-off algorithms
can be introduced, which are sensitive to waiting time as this is done for standard
Ethernet.
Two popular extensions of the basic CSMA technique are
 Collision detection (CSMA/CD) and

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 Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)

CSMA/CD
- sender starts to transmit if it senses the channel to be free
- even if it senses the channel to be free, there can be a collision during transmission
- in wireless network, it is very difficult for a transmitting node to detect a collision,
since any received signal from other nodes would be too feeble compared to its own signal
and can easily be masked by noise.
- As result, a transmitting node would continue to transmit frame, and only the
destination node would notice the corrupted frame after it computes checksum.
This leads to retransmission and severe wastage of channel utilization
In a wired network when a node detects a collision, it immediately stops transmitting ,
thereby minimizing channel wastage
In wireless network, CA scheme works much better than CD.
CA scheme - based on the idea that is necessary to prevent collisions at the moment they
are most likely to occur ie., when the bus is released after a pkt transmission
- During the time a node is transmitting, several nodes might be wanting to transmit
- these nodes would be monitoring the channel and waiting for it to become free
- the moment the transmitting node completes its transmission, these waiting nodes would
sense the channel to be free, and would all start transmitting at the same time
To overcome such collisions, in CD scheme, all nodes are forced to wait for a random time
and then sense the medium again, before starting their transmission
If the medium is sensed to be busy, a node waiting to transmit waits for a further random
amount of time and so on. Thus, the chance of 2 nodes starting to transmit at the same time
would be greatly reduced
III. Reservation-based Schemes
- RTS/CTS Scheme - short, fixed-length (32 byte) signalling packets
– a sender transmits an RTS (Ready To Send) pkt to receiver before the actual data
transmission
- on receiving this, the receiver sends a CTS (Clear To Send) pkt, and the actual data
transfer commences only after that
- when the other node sharing the medium senses the CTS pkt, they refrain from
transmitting until the transmission from the sending node is complete
In contention-based MAC protocol a node wanting to send amsg first reserves the medium
by using an appropriate control msg
Eg. Reservation of the medium can be achieved by transmitting a RTS msg and
corresponding destination node accepting this request answers with a CTS msg
Every node that hears the RTS and CTS msgs defers its transmission during the specified
tome period in order to avoid a collision
Egs of RTS-CTS based MAC protocols are
MACA - Multiple Access Collision Access

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CS8601-Mobile Computing Department of CSE
MACAW - MACA for wireless networks
MACA
- Multiple Access Collision Avoidance
- solves the hidden/exposed terminal problems by regulating the transmitter
power.
- node running MACA requests to use the medium by sending an RTS to the
receiver
- Since radio signals propagate omni-directionally , every terminal within the
sender’s radio range will hear this and then refrain from transmitting
-as soon as the receiver is ready data, it responds with a CTS
MACA – solves hidden terminal problem
-Before the start of its transmission, A sends a RTS. B receives the RTS that contains the
sender’s name and receiver’s name , length of the future transmission.
- In response to RTS, B triggered CTS as ack. CTS contains sender and receiver and the
length of the planned transmission.
- this CTS is heard by C and the medium is reserved for use by A for the duration of the
transmission.
- on receipt of CTS from B, C refrains from transmitting anything for the time indicated in
the CTS. Thus collision cannot occur at B during data trn, and the hidden terminal problem
is solved.
 When a node wants to transmit a data packet, it first transmits a RTS (Request To
Send) frame.
 The receiver node, on receiving the RTS packet, if it is ready to receive the data
packet, transmits a CTS (Clear to Send) packet.
 Once the sender receives the CTS packet without any error, it starts transmitting the
data packet.
 If a packet transmitted by a node is lost, the node uses the binary exponential back-
off (BEB) algorithm to back off a random interval of time before retrying.
The binary exponential back-off mechanism used in MACA might starves flows
sometimes. The problem is solved by MACAW.

The MACA protocol. (a) A sending an RTS to B. (b) B responding with a CTS to A.

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MACA avoids the problem of exposed terminals

 B wants to send to A, C to another terminal
 now C does not have to wait for it cannot receive CTS from A

RTS RTS

CTS

A B C

MACAW (MACA for Wireless) is a revision of MACA.

 The sender senses the carrier to see and transmits a RTS (Request To Send) frame if
no nearby station transmits a RTS.
 The receiver replies with a CTS (Clear To Send) frame.
 Neighbors
 see CTS, then keep quiet.
 see RTS but not CTS, then keep quiet until the CTS is back to the sender.
 The receiver sends an ACK when receiving an frame.
 Neighbors keep silent until see ACK.
 Collisions
 There is no collision detection.
 The senders know collision when they don’t receive CTS.
 They each wait for the exponential backoff time.

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Differentiate be tween FDMA, TDMA and CDMA.
Approach SDMA TDMA FDMA CDMA
Idea Segment Space Segment Segment the Spread the
into Sending time frequency spectrum
cells/sectors into disjoint band into using
time-slots, disjoint sub- orthogonal
demand driven bands codes
or fixed patterns
Terminals Only one All terminals Every terminal All terminals
terminal can be are active for has its own can be active at
active in one short periods of frequency, the same place
cell/one sector time on the uninterrupted at the same
same frequency moment,
uninterrupted
Signal Cell structure Synchronization Filtering in the Code plus
Preparation directed in the time frequency special
antennas domain domain receivers
Advantages Very simple, Established, Simple, Flexible, less
increase fully digital, established, planning
capacity per very flexible robust needed, soft
km2 handover
Disadvantag Inflexible, Guard space Inflexible, Complex
es antenna needed, frequencies are receivers,
typically fixed Synchronization a scarce needs more
difficult resource complicated
power control
for senders
Comment Only in Standard in Typically Used in many
combination fixed networks, combined with 3G systems,
with TDMA, together with TDMA higher
FDMA or FDMA/SDMA complexity,
CDMA useful used in many lowered
mobile expectations,
networks integrated
with
TDMA/FDMA

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