System

The word System is derived from Greek word Systema, which means an organized
relationship between any set of components to achieve some common cause or
objective.

A system is “an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together

according to a plan to achieve a specific goal.”

Constraints of a System

A system must have three basic constraints –

 A system must have some structure and behavior which is designed to

achieve a predefined objective.
 Interconnectivity and interdependence must exist among the system
components.
 The objectives of the organization have a higher priority than the objectives
of its subsystems.

For example, traffic management system, payroll system, automatic library

system, human resources information system.

Properties of a System:
A system has the following properties –

Organization

Organization implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of components that

helps to achieve predetermined objectives.

Interaction

It is defined by the manner in which the components operate with each other.
For example, in an organization, purchasing department must interact with
production department and payroll with personnel department.

Interdependence

Interdependence means how the components of a system depend on one another.

For proper functioning, the components are coordinated and linked together
according to a specified plan. The output of one subsystem is the required by other
subsystem as input.

Integration

Integration is concerned with how a system components are connected together. It

means that the parts of the system work together within the system even if each
part performs a unique function.

Central Objective

The objective of system must be central. It may be real or stated. It is not

uncommon for an organization to state an objective and operate to achieve another.

The users must know the main objective of a computer application early in the
analysis for a successful design and conversion.
Elements of a System:
The following diagram shows the elements of a system –

Outputs and Inputs

 The main aim of a system is to produce an output which is useful for its user.
 Inputs are the information that enters into the system for processing.
 Output is the outcome of processing.

Processor(s)

 The processor is the element of a system that involves the actual

transformation of input into output.
 It is the operational component of a system. Processors may modify the
input either totally or partially, depending on the output specification.
 As the output specifications change, so does the processing. In some cases,
input is also modified to enable the processor for handling the
transformation.
Control

 The control element guides the system.

 It is the decision–making subsystem that controls the pattern of activities
governing input, processing, and output.
 The behavior of a computer System is controlled by the Operating System
and software. In order to keep system in balance, what and how much input
is needed is determined by Output Specifications.

Feedback

 Feedback provides the control in a dynamic system.

 Positive feedback is routine in nature that encourages the performance of the
system.
 Negative feedback is informational in nature that provides the controller
with information for action.

Environment

 The environment is the “supersystem” within which an organization

operates.
 It is the source of external elements that strike on the system.
 It determines how a system must function. For example, vendors and
competitors of organization’s environment, may provide constraints that
affect the actual performance of the business.
Boundaries and Interface

 A system should be defined by its boundaries. Boundaries are the limits that
identify its components, processes, and interrelationship when it interfaces
with another system.
 Each system has boundaries that determine its sphere of influence and
control.
 The knowledge of the boundaries of a given system is crucial in determining
the nature of its interface with other systems for successful design.

Types of Systems:
The systems can be divided into the following types –

Physical System
 Physical systems are tangible entities. We can touch and feel them.
 Physical System may be static or dynamic in nature. For example, desks and
chairs are the physical parts of computer center which are static. A
programmed computer is a dynamic system in which programs, data, and
applications can change according to the user's needs.

Abstract System
 Abstract systems are conceptual on non-physical entities. They may be
formulas of relationships among sets of variables or models- the abstract
conceptualization of physical situations. For example : A model is a
representation of a real or planned system. The utilization of models makes
it simpler for the analyst to visualize relationships in the system under study.
Open System
 An open system is one which has several interfaces with its environment. It
allows interface across its boundary. It receives inputs and delivers outputs
to the outside. The library system falls into this category, since it must adapt
to the changing demands of the user.

Closed System
 A closed system is one that is isolated from environmental influences. In
actual, a closed system is uncommon. In system analysis, organizations,
applications, and computers are invariably open, dynamic systems
influenced by their environment. The concept of closed system is more
relevant to scientific systems than to social systems. A completely closed
system is rare in reality.

Software Development Life Cycle

SDLC is a systematic process for building software that ensures the quality and
correctness of the software built. SDLC process aims to produce high-quality
software that meets customer expectations. The system development should be
complete in the pre-defined time frame and cost. SDLC consists of a detailed plan
which explains how to plan, build, and maintain specific software. Every phase of
the SDLC life Cycle has its own process and deliverables that feed into the next
phase. SDLC stands for Software Development Life Cycle

Phases of SDLC:

Following figure is a graphical representation of the various stages of a typical

SDLC.
A typical Software Development Life Cycle consists of the following stages −

Stage 1: Planning and Requirement Analysis

Requirement analysis is the most important and fundamental stage in SDLC. It is

performed by the senior members of the team with inputs from the customer, the
sales department, market surveys and domain experts in the industry. This
information is then used to plan the basic project approach and to conduct product
feasibility study in the economical, operational and technical areas.

Planning for the quality assurance requirements and identification of the risks
associated with the project is also done in the planning stage. The outcome of the
technical feasibility study is to define the various technical approaches that can be
followed to implement the project successfully with minimum risks.

Stage 2: Defining Requirements

Once the requirement analysis is done the next step is to clearly define and
document the product requirements and get them approved from the customer or
the market analysts. This is done through an SRS (Software Requirement
Specification) document which consists of all the product requirements to be
designed and developed during the project life cycle.

Stage 3: Designing the Product Architecture

SRS is the reference for product architects to come out with the best architecture
for the product to be developed. Based on the requirements specified in SRS,
usually more than one design approach for the product architecture is proposed
and documented in a DDS - Design Document Specification.
This DDS is reviewed by all the important stakeholders and based on various
parameters as risk assessment, product robustness, design modularity, budget and
time constraints, the best design approach is selected for the product.
A design approach clearly defines all the architectural modules of the product
along with its communication and data flow representation with the external and
third party modules (if any). The internal design of all the modules of the
proposed architecture should be clearly defined with the minutest of the details in
DDS.

Stage 4: Building or Developing the Product

In this stage of SDLC the actual development starts and the product is built. The
programming code is generated as per DDS during this stage. If the design is
performed in a detailed and organized manner, code generation can be
accomplished without much hassle.
Developers must follow the coding guidelines defined by their organization and
programming tools like compilers, interpreters, debuggers, etc. are used to
generate the code. Different high level programming languages such as C, C++,
Pascal, Java and PHP are used for coding. The programming language is chosen
with respect to the type of software being developed.

Stage 5: Testing the Product

This stage is usually a subset of all the stages as in the modern SDLC models, the
testing activities are mostly involved in all the stages of SDLC. However, this
stage refers to the testing only stage of the product where product defects are
reported, tracked, fixed and retested, until the product reaches the quality
standards defined in the SRS.

Stage 6: Deployment in the Market and Maintenance

Once the product is tested and ready to be deployed it is released formally in the
appropriate market. Sometimes product deployment happens in stages as per the
business strategy of that organization. The product may first be released in a
limited segment and tested in the real business environment (UAT- User
acceptance testing).
Then based on the feedback, the product may be released as it is or with suggested
enhancements in the targeting market segment. After the product is released in the
market, its maintenance is done for the existing customer base.

SDLC Models
There are various software development life cycle models defined and designed
which are followed during the software development process. These models are
also referred as Software Development Process Models". Each process model
follows a Series of steps unique to its type to ensure success in the process of
software development.
Following are the most important and popular SDLC models followed in the
industry −

 Waterfall Model
 Iterative Model
 Spiral Model
 V-Model
 Prototyping Model
Other related methodologies are Agile Model, RAD Model, Rapid Application
Development and Prototyping Models.

SDLC - Waterfall Model

The Waterfall Model was the first Process Model to be introduced. It is also
referred to as a linear-sequential life cycle model. It is very simple to understand
and use. In a waterfall model, each phase must be completed before the next phase
can begin and there is no overlapping in the phases.
The Waterfall model is the earliest SDLC approach that was used for software
development.
The waterfall Model illustrates the software development process in a linear
sequential flow. This means that any phase in the development process begins
only if the previous phase is complete. In this waterfall model, the phases do not
overlap.

Waterfall Model - Design

Waterfall approach was first SDLC Model to be used widely in Software

Engineering to ensure success of the project. In "The Waterfall" approach, the
whole process of software development is divided into separate phases. In this
Waterfall model, typically, the outcome of one phase acts as the input for the next
phase sequentially.
The following illustration is a representation of the different phases of the
Waterfall Model.
The sequential phases in Waterfall model are −
 Requirement Gathering and analysis − All possible requirements of the
system to be developed are captured in this phase and documented in a
requirement specification document.
 System Design − The requirement specifications from first phase are
studied in this phase and the system design is prepared. This system design
helps in specifying hardware and system requirements and helps in defining
the overall system architecture.
 Implementation − With inputs from the system design, the system is first
developed in small programs called units, which are integrated in the next
phase. Each unit is developed and tested for its functionality, which is
referred to as Unit Testing.
 Integration and Testing − All the units developed in the implementation
phase are integrated into a system after testing of each unit. Post integration
the entire system is tested for any faults and failures.
 Deployment of system − Once the functional and non-functional testing is
done; the product is deployed in the customer environment or released into
the market.
 Maintenance − There are some issues which come up in the client
environment. To fix those issues, patches are released. Also to enhance the
product some better versions are released. Maintenance is done to deliver
these changes in the customer environment.
All these phases are cascaded to each other in which progress is seen as flowing
steadily downwards (like a waterfall) through the phases. The next phase is started
only after the defined set of goals are achieved for previous phase and it is signed
off, so the name "Waterfall Model". In this model, phases do not overlap.

Waterfall Model - Application

Every software developed is different and requires a suitable SDLC approach to

be followed based on the internal and external factors. Some situations where the
use of Waterfall model is most appropriate are −
 Requirements are very well documented, clear and fixed.
 Product definition is stable.
 Technology is understood and is not dynamic.
  There are no ambiguous requirements.
 Ample resources with required expertise are available to support the
product.
 The project is short.

Waterfall Model - Advantages

The advantages of waterfall development are that it allows for departmentalization

and control. A schedule can be set with deadlines for each stage of development
and a product can proceed through the development process model phases one by
one.
Development moves from concept, through design, implementation, testing,
installation, troubleshooting, and ends up at operation and maintenance. Each
phase of development proceeds in strict order.
Some of the major advantages of the Waterfall Model are as follows −
 Simple and easy to understand and use
 Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model. Each phase has specific
deliverables and a review process.
 Phases are processed and completed one at a time.
 Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well
understood.
 Clearly defined stages.
 Well understood milestones.
 Easy to arrange tasks.
 Process and results are well documented.

Waterfall Model - Disadvantages

The disadvantage of waterfall development is that it does not allow much

reflection or revision. Once an application is in the testing stage, it is very difficult
to go back and change something that was not well-documented or thought upon
in the concept stage.
The major disadvantages of the Waterfall Model are as follows −
 No working software is produced until late during the life cycle.
  High amounts of risk and uncertainty.
 Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.
 Poor model for long and ongoing projects.
 Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to high
risk of changing. So, risk and uncertainty is high with this process model.
 It is difficult to measure progress within stages.
 Cannot accommodate changing requirements.
 Adjusting scope during the life cycle can end a project.
 Integration is done as a "big-bang. at the very end, which doesn't allow
identifying any technological or business bottleneck or challenges early.

SDLC - Iterative Model

In the Iterative model, iterative process starts with a simple implementation of a
small set of the software requirements and iteratively enhances the evolving
versions until the complete system is implemented and ready to be deployed.
An iterative life cycle model does not attempt to start with a full specification of
requirements. Instead, development begins by specifying and implementing just
part of the software, which is then reviewed to identify further requirements. This
process is then repeated, producing a new version of the software at the end of
each iteration of the model.

Iterative Model - Design

Iterative process starts with a simple implementation of a subset of the software

requirements and iteratively enhances the evolving versions until the full system is
implemented. At each iteration, design modifications are made and new functional
capabilities are added. The basic idea behind this method is to develop a system
through repeated cycles (iterative) and in smaller portions at a time (incremental).
The following illustration is a representation of the Iterative and Incremental
model −

Iterative and Incremental development is a combination of both iterative design or

iterative method and incremental build model for development. "During software
development, more than one iteration of the software development cycle may be
in progress at the same time." This process may be described as an "evolutionary
acquisition" or "incremental build" approach."
In this incremental model, the whole requirement is divided into various builds.
During each iteration, the development module goes through the requirements,
design, implementation and testing phases. Each subsequent release of the module
adds function to the previous release. The process continues till the complete
system is ready as per the requirement.
The key to a successful use of an iterative software development lifecycle is
rigorous validation of requirements, and verification & testing of each version of
the software against those requirements within each cycle of the model. As the
software evolves through successive cycles, tests must be repeated and extended
to verify each version of the software.

Iterative Model - Application

Like other SDLC models, Iterative and incremental development has some
specific applications in the software industry. This model is most often used in the
following scenarios −
 Requirements of the complete system are clearly defined and understood.
 Major requirements must be defined; however, some functionalities or
requested enhancements may evolve with time.
  There is a time to the market constraint.
 A new technology is being used and is being learnt by the development
team while working on the project.
 Resources with needed skill sets are not available and are planned to be used
on contract basis for specific iterations.
 There are some high-risk features and goals which may change in the future.

Iterative Model - Pros and Cons

The advantage of this model is that there is a working model of the system at a
very early stage of development, which makes it easier to find functional or
design flaws. Finding issues at an early stage of development enables to take
corrective measures in a limited budget.
The disadvantage with this SDLC model is that it is applicable only to large and
bulky software development projects. This is because it is hard to break a small
software system into further small serviceable increments/modules.
The advantages of the Iterative and Incremental SDLC Model are as follows −
 Some working functionality can be developed quickly and early in the life
cycle.
 Results are obtained early and periodically.
 Parallel development can be planned.
 Progress can be measured.
 Less costly to change the scope/requirements.
 Testing and debugging during smaller iteration is easy.
 Risks are identified and resolved during iteration; and each iteration is an
easily managed milestone.
 Easier to manage risk - High risk part is done first.
 With every increment, operational product is delivered.
 Issues, challenges and risks identified from each increment can be
utilized/applied to the next increment.
 Risk analysis is better.
 It supports changing requirements.
  Initial Operating time is less.
 Better suited for large and mission-critical projects.
 During the life cycle, software is produced early which facilitates customer
evaluation and feedback.
The disadvantages of the Iterative and Incremental SDLC Model are as follows −
 More resources may be required.
 Although cost of change is lesser, but it is not very suitable for changing
requirements.
 More management attention is required.
 System architecture or design issues may arise because not all requirements
are gathered in the beginning of the entire life cycle.
 Defining increments may require definition of the complete system.
 Not suitable for smaller projects.
 Management complexity is more.
 End of project may not be known which is a risk.
 Highly skilled resources are required for risk analysis.
 Projects progress is highly dependent upon the risk analysis phase.

SDLC - Spiral Model

The spiral model combines the idea of iterative development with the systematic,
controlled aspects of the waterfall model. This Spiral model is a combination of
iterative development process model and sequential linear development model i.e.
the waterfall model with a very high emphasis on risk analysis. It allows
incremental releases of the product or incremental refinement through each
iteration around the spiral.

Spiral Model - Design

The spiral model has four phases. A software project repeatedly passes through
these phases in iterations called Spirals.
Identification

This phase starts with gathering the business requirements in the baseline spiral.
In the subsequent spirals as the product matures, identification of system
requirements, subsystem requirements and unit requirements are all done in this
phase.
This phase also includes understanding the system requirements by continuous
communication between the customer and the system analyst. At the end of the
spiral, the product is deployed in the identified market.

Design

The Design phase starts with the conceptual design in the baseline spiral and
involves architectural design, logical design of modules, physical product design
and the final design in the subsequent spirals.

Construct or Build

The Construct phase refers to production of the actual software product at every
spiral. In the baseline spiral, when the product is just thought of and the design is
being developed a POC (Proof of Concept) is developed in this phase to get
customer feedback.
Then in the subsequent spirals with higher clarity on requirements and design
details a working model of the software called build is produced with a version
number. These builds are sent to the customer for feedback.

Evaluation and Risk Analysis

Risk Analysis includes identifying, estimating and monitoring the technical

feasibility and management risks, such as schedule slippage and cost overrun.
After testing the build, at the end of first iteration, the customer evaluates the
software and provides feedback.
The following illustration is a representation of the Spiral Model, listing the
activities in each phase.
Based on the customer evaluation, the software development process enters the
next iteration and subsequently follows the linear approach to implement the
feedback suggested by the customer. The process of iterations along the spiral
continues throughout the life of the software.

Spiral Model Application

The Spiral Model is widely used in the software industry as it is in sync with the
natural development process of any product, i.e. learning with maturity which
involves minimum risk for the customer as well as the development firms.
The following pointers explain the typical uses of a Spiral Model −
 When there is a budget constraint and risk evaluation is important.
 For medium to high-risk projects.
 Long-term project commitment because of potential changes to economic
priorities as the requirements change with time.
 Customer is not sure of their requirements which is usually the case.
  Requirements are complex and need evaluation to get clarity.
 New product line which should be released in phases to get enough
customer feedback.
 Significant changes are expected in the product during the development
cycle.

Spiral Model - Pros and Cons

The advantage of spiral lifecycle model is that it allows elements of the product to
be added in, when they become available or known. This assures that there is no
conflict with previous requirements and design.
This method is consistent with approaches that have multiple software builds and
releases which allows making an orderly transition to a maintenance activity.
Another positive aspect of this method is that the spiral model forces an early user
involvement in the system development effort.
On the other side, it takes a very strict management to complete such products and
there is a risk of running the spiral in an indefinite loop. So, the discipline of
change and the extent of taking change requests is very important to develop and
deploy the product successfully.
The advantages of the Spiral SDLC Model are as follows −
 Changing requirements can be accommodated.
 Allows extensive use of prototypes.
 Requirements can be captured more accurately.
 Users see the system early.
 Development can be divided into smaller parts and the risky parts can be
developed earlier which helps in better risk management.
The disadvantages of the Spiral SDLC Model are as follows −
 Management is more complex.
 End of the project may not be known early.
 Not suitable for small or low risk projects and could be expensive for small
projects.
 Process is complex
 Spiral may go on indefinitely.
  Large number of intermediate stages requires excessive documentation.

SDLC - V-Model
The V-model is an SDLC model where execution of processes happens in a
sequential manner in a V-shape. It is also known as Verification and Validation
model.
The V-Model is an extension of the waterfall model and is based on the
association of a testing phase for each corresponding development stage. This
means that for every single phase in the development cycle, there is a directly
associated testing phase. This is a highly-disciplined model and the next phase
starts only after completion of the previous phase.

V-Model - Design
Under the V-Model, the corresponding testing phase of the development phase is
planned in parallel. So, there are Verification phases on one side of the ‘V’ and
Validation phases on the other side. The Coding Phase joins the two sides of the
V-Model.
The following illustration depicts the different phases in a V-Model of the SDLC.

V-Model - Verification Phases

There are several Verification phases in the V-Model, each of these are explained
in detail below.

Business Requirement Analysis

This is the first phase in the development cycle where the product requirements
are understood from the customer’s perspective. This phase involves detailed
communication with the customer to understand his expectations and exact
requirement. This is a very important activity and needs to be managed well, as
most of the customers are not sure about what exactly they need. The acceptance
test design planning is done at this stage as business requirements can be used as
an input for acceptance testing.

System Design

Once you have the clear and detailed product requirements, it is time to design the
complete system. The system design will have the understanding and detailing the
complete hardware and communication setup for the product under development.
The system test plan is developed based on the system design. Doing this at an
earlier stage leaves more time for the actual test execution later.

Architectural Design

Architectural specifications are understood and designed in this phase. Usually

more than one technical approach is proposed and based on the technical and
financial feasibility the final decision is taken. The system design is broken down
further into modules taking up different functionality. This is also referred to
as High Level Design (HLD).
The data transfer and communication between the internal modules and with the
outside world (other systems) is clearly understood and defined in this stage. With
this information, integration tests can be designed and documented during this
stage.

Module Design

In this phase, the detailed internal design for all the system modules is specified,
referred to as Low Level Design (LLD). It is important that the design is
compatible with the other modules in the system architecture and the other
external systems. The unit tests are an essential part of any development process
and helps eliminate the maximum faults and errors at a very early stage. These
unit tests can be designed at this stage based on the internal module designs.

Coding Phase

The actual coding of the system modules designed in the design phase is taken up
in the Coding phase. The best suitable programming language is decided based on
the system and architectural requirements.
The coding is performed based on the coding guidelines and standards. The code
goes through numerous code reviews and is optimized for best performance
before the final build is checked into the repository.

Validation Phases

The different Validation Phases in a V-Model are explained in detail below.

Unit Testing

Unit tests designed in the module design phase are executed on the code during
this validation phase. Unit testing is the testing at code level and helps eliminate
bugs at an early stage, though all defects cannot be uncovered by unit testing.

Integration Testing

Integration testing is associated with the architectural design phase. Integration

tests are performed to test the coexistence and communication of the internal
modules within the system.

System Testing

System testing is directly associated with the system design phase. System tests
check the entire system functionality and the communication of the system under
development with external systems. Most of the software and hardware
compatibility issues can be uncovered during this system test execution.

Acceptance Testing

Acceptance testing is associated with the business requirement analysis phase and
involves testing the product in user environment. Acceptance tests uncover the
compatibility issues with the other systems available in the user environment. It
also discovers the non-functional issues such as load and performance defects in
the actual user environment.

V- Model ─ Application
V- Model application is almost the same as the waterfall model, as both the
models are of sequential type. Requirements have to be very clear before the
project starts, because it is usually expensive to go back and make changes. This
model is used in the medical development field, as it is strictly a disciplined
domain.
The following pointers are some of the most suitable scenarios to use the V-Model
application.
 Requirements are well defined, clearly documented and fixed.
 Product definition is stable.
 Technology is not dynamic and is well understood by the project team.
 There are no ambiguous or undefined requirements.
 The project is short.

V-Model - Pros and Cons

The advantage of the V-Model method is that it is very easy to understand and
apply. The simplicity of this model also makes it easier to manage. The
disadvantage is that the model is not flexible to changes and just in case there is a
requirement change, which is very common in today’s dynamic world, it becomes
very expensive to make the change.
The advantages of the V-Model method are as follows −
 This is a highly-disciplined model and Phases are completed one at a time.
 Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well
understood.
 Simple and easy to understand and use.
 Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model. Each phase has specific
deliverables and a review process.
The disadvantages of the V-Model method are as follows −
 High risk and uncertainty.
 Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.
 Poor model for long and ongoing projects.
 Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to high
risk of changing.
  Once an application is in the testing stage, it is difficult to go back and
change a functionality.
 No working software is produced until late during the life cycle.

SDLC - Software Prototype Model

The Software Prototyping refers to building software application prototypes which
displays the functionality of the product under development, but may not actually
hold the exact logic of the original software.
Software prototyping is becoming very popular as a software development model,
as it enables to understand customer requirements at an early stage of
development. It helps get valuable feedback from the customer and helps software
designers and developers understand about what exactly is expected from the
product under development.

What is Software Prototyping?

Prototype is a working model of software with some limited functionality. The

prototype does not always hold the exact logic used in the actual software
application and is an extra effort to be considered under effort estimation.
Prototyping is used to allow the users evaluate developer proposals and try them
out before implementation. It also helps understand the requirements which are
user specific and may not have been considered by the developer during product
design.
Following is a stepwise approach explained to design a software prototype.

Basic Requirement Identification

This step involves understanding the very basics product requirements especially
in terms of user interface. The more intricate details of the internal design and
external aspects like performance and security can be ignored at this stage.

Developing the initial Prototype

The initial Prototype is developed in this stage, where the very basic requirements
are showcased and user interfaces are provided. These features may not exactly
work in the same manner internally in the actual software developed. While, the
workarounds are used to give the same look and feel to the customer in the
prototype developed.

Review of the Prototype

The prototype developed is then presented to the customer and the other important
stakeholders in the project. The feedback is collected in an organized manner and
used for further enhancements in the product under development.

Revise and Enhance the Prototype

The feedback and the review comments are discussed during this stage and some
negotiations happen with the customer based on factors like – time and budget
constraints and technical feasibility of the actual implementation. The changes
accepted are again incorporated in the new Prototype developed and the cycle
repeats until the customer expectations are met.
Prototypes can have horizontal or vertical dimensions. A Horizontal prototype
displays the user interface for the product and gives a broader view of the entire
system, without concentrating on internal functions. A Vertical prototype on the
other side is a detailed elaboration of a specific function or a sub system in the
product.
The purpose of both horizontal and vertical prototype is different. Horizontal
prototypes are used to get more information on the user interface level and the
business requirements. It can even be presented in the sales demos to get business
in the market. Vertical prototypes are technical in nature and are used to get
details of the exact functioning of the sub systems. For example, database
requirements, interaction and data processing loads in a given sub system.

Software Prototyping - Application

Software Prototyping is most useful in development of systems having high level

of user interactions such as online systems. Systems which need users to fill out
forms or go through various screens before data is processed can use prototyping
very effectively to give the exact look and feel even before the actual software is
developed.
Software that involves too much of data processing and most of the functionality
is internal with very little user interface does not usually benefit from prototyping.
Prototype development could be an extra overhead in such projects and may need
lot of extra efforts.

Software Prototyping - Pros and Cons

Software prototyping is used in typical cases and the decision should be taken
very carefully so that the efforts spent in building the prototype add considerable
value to the final software developed. The model has its own pros and cons
discussed as follows.
The advantages of the Prototyping Model are as follows −
 Increased user involvement in the product even before its implementation.
 Since a working model of the system is displayed, the users get a better
understanding of the system being developed.
 Reduces time and cost as the defects can be detected much earlier.
 Quicker user feedback is available leading to better solutions.
 Missing functionality can be identified easily.
 Confusing or difficult functions can be identified.
The Disadvantages of the Prototyping Model are as follows −
 Risk of insufficient requirement analysis owing to too much dependency on
the prototype.
 Users may get confused in the prototypes and actual systems.
 Practically, this methodology may increase the complexity of the system as
scope of the system may expand beyond original plans.
 Developers may try to reuse the existing prototypes to build the actual
system, even when it is not technically feasible.
 The effort invested in building prototypes may be too much if it is not
monitored properly.
SDLC - RAD Model:

The RAD (Rapid Application Development) model is based on prototyping and

iterative development with no specific planning involved. The process of writing
the software itself involves the planning required for developing the product.

Rapid Application Development focuses on gathering customer requirements

through workshops or focus groups, early testing of the prototypes by the customer
using iterative concept, reuse of the existing prototypes (components), continuous
integration and rapid delivery.

What is RAD?

Rapid application development is a software development methodology that uses

minimal planning in favor of rapid prototyping. A prototype is a working model
that is functionally equivalent to a component of the product.

In the RAD model, the functional modules are developed in parallel as prototypes
and are integrated to make the complete product for faster product delivery. Since
there is no detailed preplanning, it makes it easier to incorporate the changes
within the development process.

RAD projects follow iterative and incremental model and have small teams
comprising of developers, domain experts, customer representatives and other IT
resources working progressively on their component or prototype.

The most important aspect for this model to be successful is to make sure that the
prototypes developed are reusable.

RAD Model Design

RAD model distributes the analysis, design, build and test phases into a series of
short, iterative development cycles.

Following are the various phases of the RAD Model −

Business Modelling

The business model for the product under development is designed in terms of
flow of information and the distribution of information between various business
channels. A complete business analysis is performed to find the vital information
for business, how it can be obtained, how and when is the information processed
and what are the factors driving successful flow of information.

Data Modelling

The information gathered in the Business Modelling phase is reviewed and

analyzed to form sets of data objects vital for the business. The attributes of all
data sets is identified and defined. The relation between these data objects are
established and defined in detail in relevance to the business model.

Process Modelling

The data object sets defined in the Data Modelling phase are converted to establish
the business information flow needed to achieve specific business objectives as per
the business model. The process model for any changes or enhancements to the
data object sets is defined in this phase. Process descriptions for adding, deleting,
retrieving or modifying a data object are given.

Application Generation

The actual system is built and coding is done by using automation tools to convert
process and data models into actual prototypes.

Testing and Turnover

The overall testing time is reduced in the RAD model as the prototypes are
independently tested during every iteration. However, the data flow and the
interfaces between all the components need to be thoroughly tested with complete
test coverage. Since most of the programming components have already been
tested, it reduces the risk of any major issues.

The following illustration describes the RAD Model in detail.

RAD Model Vs Traditional SDLC

The traditional SDLC follows a rigid process models with high emphasis on
requirement analysis and gathering before the coding starts. It puts pressure on the
customer to sign off the requirements before the project starts and the customer
doesn’t get the feel of the product as there is no working build available for a long
time.

The customer may need some changes after he gets to see the software. However,
the change process is quite rigid and it may not be feasible to incorporate major
changes in the product in the traditional SDLC.

The RAD model focuses on iterative and incremental delivery of working models
to the customer. This results in rapid delivery to the customer and customer
involvement during the complete development cycle of product reducing the risk
of non-conformance with the actual user requirements.

RAD Model - Application

RAD model can be applied successfully to the projects in which clear

modularization is possible. If the project cannot be broken into modules, RAD may
fail.

The following pointers describe the typical scenarios where RAD can be used −

• RAD should be used only when a system can be modularized to be delivered

in an incremental manner.

• It should be used if there is a high availability of designers for Modelling.

• It should be used only if the budget permits use of automated code

generating tools.

• RAD SDLC model should be chosen only if domain experts are available
with relevant business knowledge.

• Should be used where the requirements change during the project and
working prototypes are to be presented to customer in small iterations of 2-3
months.

RAD Model - Pros and Cons

RAD model enables rapid delivery as it reduces the overall development time due
to the reusability of the components and parallel development. RAD works well
only if high skilled engineers are available and the customer is also committed to
achieve the targeted prototype in the given time frame. If there is commitment
lacking on either side the model may fail.

The advantages of the RAD Model are as follows −

• Changing requirements can be accommodated.

• Progress can be measured.

• Iteration time can be short with use of powerful RAD tools.

• Productivity with fewer people in a short time.

• Reduced development time.

• Increases reusability of components.

• Quick initial reviews occur.

• Encourages customer feedback.

• Integration from very beginning solves a lot of integration issues.

The disadvantages of the RAD Model are as follows −

• Dependency on technically strong team members for identifying business

requirements.

• Only system that can be modularized can be built using RAD.

• Requires highly skilled developers/designers.

• High dependency on Modelling skills.

• Inapplicable to cheaper projects as cost of Modelling and automated code

generation is very high.

• Management complexity is more.

• Suitable for systems that are component based and scalable.
• Requires user involvement throughout the life cycle.
• Suitable for project requiring shorter development times.