see

2m 2000 am

1 Significant figures

2 Rounding off

3 Errors 2 25 201

t 2 912
T
4
 ooo
1000g
10 099

1 1
1 10

1 100
Also variable is declared then it's
ifin anature
exact
 we shall continue our discussion from Units and
Measurements

can be roughly segregated

Physical quantities
into three category Force etc
Mechanical
for e
g velocity
a Current Voltage etc
for e.g
b Electromagnetic Pressure Temperature
c Thermodynamic for e g

Mechanical Physical quantity

L
a Position x
y 4
Ms LTD
b
a
velocity
acceleration Ms
Eff CLF
d Force F ma
kgmysz MLT
is identical in nature
e
Any form of Energy
Heat K E Potential Energy work

W FIX MLT 2 LJ METZ

Metz
d Energy density Effy MEI L
Force x Moment arm MLT 2
e Torque
METZ
Note Torquey Work Energy
ti
f Angular velocity
w unit is
feted
9 Angular acceleration
d unit is gadgana FD
Force
MEI MET 2
f stress
Area
i wire is streaked then it will
Strain If a
deform
 LE Length of wire
If D2 Change in length
strain MOLTO L
strain
21
Modulus of a material
j Young's
stress
Y strain
MEE
Y stress Forte MEI
Thermodynamic Physical quantity
MET D
a Pressure E MEI
b Volume m3 23
c Temperature K
LI MET 2
d PV E V
MEI
PV has the dimensions of Energy work
Note
e R Gas constant
Pr net R
IT Imig
ME T Z K OLT

Electromagnetic physical quantities

a Current A
b charge Q
I Q It
Q AT

a Voltage or potential or
Emf s
 95 Energy
E METZ MEAT T 3
Emerge AT
d MEAT 73 MEAT 3
R
E A
2 59 2.60

2 54 2.50

2 37 2.4
Rounding off
cc
Rules for Rounding Off: 2.7311519
Rule 1- If the number lying to the right of cut off digit is less than 5, then the cut
off digit is retained as such. However, if it is more than 5, then the cut off digit is
increased by 1.
13.73 5
Ex(1): 𝑥 = 6.24 . Round off to two S.F. 6.2
Ex(2): 𝑥 = 5.328 . Round off to three S.F. 5 33 3.73

Rule 2- If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, then the
preceding digit is increased by 1.
Ex(1): 𝑥 = 14.252 . Round of to three S.F. 14.3
Ex 2 x 7 795 7.79
Rule 3- If the digit to be dropped is simply 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the
preceding digit is left unchanged if it is even.
Ex: 𝑥 = 6.250 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 6.25 . Round of to two S.F.
Ans. : 6 250

Rule 4- If the digit to be dropped is simply 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the

preceding digit is raised by 1 if it is odd.
Ex: 𝑥 = 6.350 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 6.35 . Round of to two S.F.
Ans. : 7 39 2 51
7.393
7 39250
7.39350
7.392 7 394
Measured Value After rounding off to three S.F.

7.364
7.36
7.367 7 37
8.3251 8.33
9.445
9.44
9.4450
9.44
15.75 15.8
15.7500 15.8
Calculations with Significant Figures
Addition and Subtraction
The result is rounded off to the least number of decimal places of the
numbers involved in addition/subtraction.
Example 1:- 2.73 + 4.6 + 5.198 = _ _ _ _ _

Example 2 :- 8.462 − 3.14 = _ 5_ _ 322

__ 5.32
Multiplication or Division
The result is rounded off to the least number of significant figures of the
numbers involved in the multiplication/division.
Example:- 2.11 x 1.2 = _ _ _ _

105.6
Example:- =____
11.2

53.001 5.3001 10
 P.Q.in terms order and magnitude
writing a
of
P a 105
a 10 and be I
where 1

a magnitude
be order ofphysical Qty

5432 round off 3 significant

103 5.43 103 5430

5.432

5432 round off to 2 significant

5 432 103 5.4 103 5400

5 432 103 5 43200 103

Example:- Find, volume of a cube of side 𝑎 = 1.5 × 10−2 𝑚.

1.5 1.5 1.5 100

6
3 375 10
6
3 4 10
The area of a rectangular field (in m2) of length 55.3 m and
breadth 25 m after rounding off the value of correct
significant digits is:
[NEET-2022]
𝟏𝟑𝟖𝟐
a
b 𝟏𝟑𝟖𝟐 . 𝟓

c 𝟏𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐
1382.5
d 𝟏𝟑𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏
Taking into account off the significant figures,
what is the value of 𝟗 . 𝟗𝟗 𝒎 − 𝟎 . 𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟗 𝒎 ?
[NEET-2020]

𝟗 . 𝟗𝟖 𝒎
a
b 𝟗 . 𝟗𝟖𝟎 𝒎

c 𝟗.𝟗 𝒎

𝟗 . 𝟗𝟖𝟎𝟏 𝒎
d
 10
101 3.70
3.703 37.0
 Recap
Problem (1). Count total number of S.F. in the following measurements:
(i) 5.060 cm
(ii) 0.053 cm
(iii) 860 cm
(iv) 20.00 cm
(v) 6.08030 cm
(vi) 6.040 x 106 cm
Problem (2). Round off the following numbers to three S.F.
(i) 24.452
(ii) 3.4650
(iii) 83.7500
(iv) 45.963
(v) 36482
 Recap
Problem (3). Find out the result by Rounding off to the appropriate
number of significant digits:
(i) 5.060 +3.6 − 2.52 =

P 1m 1am 1mn 2.3570 1

(ii) 312.5 x 26.4 = iii i i

1 2
In limit
β 1mF
y
2.210.1
Example:- Find, volume of a cube of side 𝒂 = 𝟏 . 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒎.

In

15 3
2.3
2
13 2
3,1
i i I it til I lit
Error Analysis
The smallest measurement that can be measured accurately by an instrument is
called its least count.

Meterscale
Classification based on cause of errors

BASED ON THE CAUSE OF THE ERROR

Least count
error
Arises due to
the limitof precision
a
Systematic errors
Random errors of instrument
The random errors occur irregularly and
These are the errors occurring due therefore random in magnitude and sign. These
to the instruments used, errors tends to move in both directions. They
imperfection in experimental may arise due to unpredictable fluctuation
technique or carelessness of the while performing the experiment. These errors
age
person performing the experiment.
These errors tends to move in one
can be minimised by taking a large number of
observations for the same physical quantity.
direction only.
 1,2 3 4,5
que
2 3 4 5
Theatre 3
p 5 in

DX 3 1 2 1 0 112
AXE
5
Δ X2 3 2 10
65 1.2
DX 3 0
F0
xu 3 41 10
2
XmE I
5 3 51

ratio
1000 10.5
9
error

100
1 emr
I
40
 Dealing with Random Errors
Classification based on magnitude of errors
BASED ON THE MAGNITUDE OF ERRORS

Absolute Error Mean Absolute Error Relative or fractional Error Percentage Error
 Let a physical quantity is measured with an instrument. Various reading taken are a1, a2, a3 . . . . . . . an

The true value of the measurement is taken as the mean of above readings.

atrue = (a1 + a2 + . . . . . . an)/n Also called

a
Freebie
Absolute error δa:- The magnitude of difference between the true value and the measured value of
quantity is called an absolute error. Usually the mean value a is taken the true value. So if
o_
δa1 = | a − a1 |
δa2 = | a − a2 |
Absolute
error in the
δan = | a − an | individual
Note:- Absolute errors are always positive
readings
Mean absolute error:- The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is taken as
the final or mean absolute error in the value of physical quantity.
δamean = (δa1 + δa2 + . . . . . . δan)/n 25000
sugar
The final answer or result of the experiment is reported as: astone
aexp = atrue ± δamean

Relative or fractional error:- The ratio of mean absolute to the mean value of the
quantity measured is called relative or fractional error. Thus,
δarel = δamean /atrue ratio
2 000
Samean 100
Percentage error
ATrue
Example:- The diameter of a wire as measured by screw gauge
was found to be 2.620, 2.625, 2.630, 2.628 and 2.626 cm. Calculate
(i) Mean value of diameter 2.6258 2.626
(ii) Absolute error in each measurement
0.006,0 001,0 004,0 002
(iii) Mean absolute error 0.013 5 0.000
0.0026
(iv) Fractional error (Relative error) 0.0026
(v) Percentage error
(vi) Express the result
LF 2 626

2.626 0 0026
Time intervals measured by a clock give the following
readings:
1.25s, 1.24s, 1.27s, 1.21s and 1.28s
What is the percentage error ? [NEET-2020]
𝟏.𝟔 % 1.25 1 24 1 27 1.21 1 28
a Xm
5
b 𝟐% Xm 1.25
0 01 1 3 000.02 1 4 0.02
𝟒% DX O 9 2
c 1 5 0.03
0.02 0.06 003 0.02
d 𝟏𝟔 % Dx 0 0 01
5
051
X XmIAx 1.2510 02 tenor 9 5
100
 Errors in Arithmatical
Propagation of
operations A XIAX
b Y by
Addition atb xty Caxtay
sub d a b x
y Axtay
Note Error is always added
a aotsa
2 ab b botab
Multiplication
end Ina lnb
both sides
Taking differentials
dene dema d lnb
oh
dz b

B
Note In multiplication we can directly get the
value of fractional error
C 3 0.8
A my y 2 0.2
3
A n oA EE 11 E 1
 SA 0 2X A
Division 2 0.2 6 12

end tna Inb

both sides
Taking differential
dz at
the above into fractional error
Transposing
1

A 2411
b 6 2

axb True error

C
b 24 6
w̅ 144
1 Abg 124 Eat's
3 29 8
DC C 164 54
3g
C 144154 emo 7 100
33
Errors in addition, subtraction X I I 0 I
4 2 I 0.2
The maximum absolute error in sum and difference of two (or more) quantities
is equal to sum of the absolute errors in the individual quantities.
x y 310 3

If X Xo I DX Y Yo I DY X 7 6 103

then L XI Y 2 IDK

Where To Roy AR Dx ay
Errors in product
The maximum fractional error in product of two (or more) quantities is equal
to sum of the fractional errors in the individual quantities.
A XI DY i b YI DY
I ab then Ink Inatenb
If on dad
Taking differentials day dbz
both sides

It of
 1510.3
for e.g If a
b 5 0.1

Calculate L ab

01 11 11 01st tests
11
Ab 15 5 75
Ltrue True

3
from As
Leg 2
i 2 7512

5 7 1282
21
de 28 11
 Generalising the Result

a x y where a is a
If Q Constant
xp
In Q In a menu then y Pln 2
both sides
Taking differentials
dog
m
dy th dy page

gt MY
PIA
NY
Q X 210 1
Y 1 I 0.2
2 5 I 0 1
Calculate a Amat da

fly
a 5

5
Atrue
51 3
2 15

If 2412 4 34 2 1 0,2 3
to 6 0 5 6 0 69
44
A a 0.69 A true 0 69 1225

A reported A true IAA 0.69 1252

135 I
Errors in division
The maximum fractional error in division of two quantities is equal to sum of
the fractional errors in the individual quantities.
Errors in Quantity raised to some power

P
MEI
b4
C
BE
Is
a
aft
 the result 8
let's generalize b
a do sa
a
P 2 b bot Ab
CK C Co IAC

Inp Inqtadnatylnb alnc

both sides
Taking differentials
x
dat of y
a dg
and
x dat t
y of
II C
Example:- If values of 𝑎 and 𝑏 are 𝑎 = (20 ± 0.5) 𝑚 , 𝑏 = (10 ± 0.1) 𝑚, then
find the following :
(i) 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 30 I 0 6
(ii) 𝑦 = 𝑎 – 𝑏 10 I 0.6
(iii) 𝑧 = 𝑎 . 𝑏 L TDY 2 20 10 200
𝑎
(iv) 𝑤 =
𝑏
DI Agt Eg
8 200
92 1200 2 200 7
2200
I 2 20017
2
WE 8 I Aq Ag
A AW
3 2
7
0 210.07 0.07
Example:- The percentage error in the measurement of radius of sphere is
0.6 % . Find the percentage error in the measurement of volume.

U DR CR
3 0.6 1 8
I 372
 The radius of a sphere is (𝟐 . 𝟓 ± 𝟎 . 𝟏)𝐜𝐦 . The percentage
error in its volume is

𝟐% V
a T R
0
3
b 𝟒% 39 5

100 3 X
c 𝟖%

12
𝟏𝟐%
d
 The length and breadth of a rectangle are (𝟑 ± 𝟎 . 𝟎𝟑)𝐜𝐦
and (𝟐 ± 𝟎 . 𝟎𝟏)𝐜𝐦. The percentage error in area of
rectangle is
𝟐%
a A lx b
Δ
b 𝟒%
of 0ft

SI
c 𝟏% 0
0,9

d 𝟏 . 𝟓% error in Area
Solve both questions and compare the difference:
Q(1).The length of a simple Q(2).The length of a simple
pendulum is about 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒎 pendulum is about 𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒎
known to have accuracy of known to have accuracy of
𝟏𝒎𝒎. Its period of oscillation is 𝟏𝒎𝒎 and time for 𝟓𝟎
𝟐 𝒔 determined by measuring oscillations of the pendulum is
the time for 𝟏𝟎𝟎 oscillations 𝟖𝟎 𝒔 using a wrist watch of 𝟏 𝒔
using a clock of 𝟎 . 𝟏 𝒔 resolution. % error in 𝒈 will be
resolution. % error in 𝒈 will be
 A wire has mass 𝒎 = (𝟎 . 𝟑 ± 𝟎 . 𝟎 . 𝟎𝟎𝟑)𝒈, radius
or
𝒓 = (𝟎 . 𝟓 ± 𝟎 . 𝟎 . 𝟎𝟎𝟓)𝒎𝒎 and length 𝒍 = (𝟔 ± 𝟎 . 𝟎 . 𝟎𝟔)𝒄𝒎 .The
maximum percentage error in the measurement of its
density is

𝟒% V Area
O_0
a length
E
𝟑% are
b l
samite
c 𝟐% f
f g
of of 29ft
𝟏% 2 0
d
100 1 2
1 47
 Its measurement
Which of the following is the most accurate

a 𝟑 𝒄𝒎

b 𝟑 . 𝟏 𝒄𝒎

c 𝟑 . 𝟏𝟔 𝒄𝒎

d𝟑 . 𝟏𝟔𝟒 𝒄𝒎
A physical quantity 𝑷 is related to four variables a, b, c and d as
𝒂 𝟑𝒃 𝟐 1
𝑷 = 93 B a
𝒄 𝒅

3%, 4% and 2% respectively. Find the percentage error in 𝑷.

The percentage errors of measurements in a, b, c and d are 1%,

a 𝟏𝟒% JEE 2020 s

11
31 2
1ᵈ
b 𝟏𝟐% 3 4 2
100 3 1 2
91
c 𝟏𝟎% 3 6 4 1

d 𝟕% 14
 𝑽
In Ohm’s law, 𝑹 = , the potential difference was measured
𝑰
𝑽 = (𝟓𝟎 + 𝟎 . 𝟓) 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 and electric current was measured was
𝑰 = (𝟒 . 𝟎 + 𝟎 . 𝟐) 𝑨 .
The percentage error in R is
R R IDR 5
1

𝟒%
a R
𝟔% 0 06
b
𝟏 . 𝟓%
DE
c
d 𝟎 . 𝟔% 025
11 0 01 0 05
 𝑽
In Ohm’s law, 𝑹 = , the potential difference was
𝑰
measured 𝑽 = 𝟓 . 𝟎 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 and electric current was
measured 𝑰 = 𝟐 . 𝟎𝟎 𝑨 . The percentage error in R is
JEE

𝟑% R
a
𝟕% 100X
1 100 021 100
b
10X 10X 2 2 5
𝟏 . 𝟓%
c
𝟐 . 𝟓%
d
e 0
 A wire has mass 𝒎 = (𝟎 . 𝟑 ± 𝟎 . 𝟎 . 𝟎𝟎𝟑)𝒈, radius
𝒓 = (𝟎 . 𝟓 ± 𝟎 . 𝟎 . 𝟎𝟎𝟓)𝒎𝒎 and length 𝒍 = (𝟔 ± 𝟎 . 𝟎 . 𝟎𝟔)𝒄𝒎 .The
maximum percentage error in the measurement of its
density is

𝟒%
a
b 𝟑%

𝟐%
c
𝟏%
d
 To find the value of ‘g’ using simple pendulum, 𝑻 = 𝟐 . 𝟎𝟎 𝒔
and 𝒍 = 𝟏 . 𝟎𝟎 𝒎 were measured. The percentage error in g
is

a 𝟑% T 4R
f4M
F QRF
b 𝟐% g 92
2
Ag of
𝟏 . 𝟓%
c
𝟐 . 𝟓%
d 205
e 0 89 100 2
 To find the value of ‘g’ using simple pendulum, 𝑻 = 𝟐 . 𝟎𝟎 𝒔
and 𝒍 = 𝟏 . 𝟎𝟎 𝒎 were measured. The value of g with error
limits is (given, 𝝅 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎)
JEE

a (𝟗 . 𝟖 ± 𝟐)𝒎𝒔
−𝟐
T
zrff
9 417242 4 10 10m12
(𝟗 . 𝟖 ± 𝟎 . 𝟐)𝒎𝒔
−𝟐
b
2
( ± )
−𝟐
c 𝟏𝟎 . 𝟎 𝟎 . 𝟎𝟐 𝒎𝒔
2 0.02
041
(𝟏𝟎 . 𝟎 ± 𝟎 . 𝟐)𝒎𝒔
−𝟐
d 0.2
Ag 9 0.02 10 0 02
 The maximum error in measurement of mass and radius
of a solid sphere are 3% and 2% respectively. The
maximum error in density is

𝟑%
a
b 𝟖%

𝟗%
c
𝟓%
d
 The least count of a stop watch is 𝟏/𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅. The time of
𝟓𝟎 oscillations of a pendulum is measured to be
𝟒𝟎 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔. The maximum percentage error in the
measurement of time will be

𝟏%
a
b 𝟏 . 𝟐𝟓%

𝟏 . 𝟓%
c
𝟐%
d
 Calculating The time period of a

pendulum using
a
stop watch
watch of L.C
use a
If we
3 cycles take
1s andsuppose
0 0
of
5 seconds then T 53s
3cycle 5sec hence
1 cycle
F
Is
T
In 3 cycles error of 1sec is propagated
Hence in 1 cycle in At sec is propagate

T Tm AT E f seconds
Q 15 cycles of a pendulum took
If watch L C 0.5
7 seconds using a
stop of
then Express the Time period of the pendulum
as T To IDT
 P my
EA
3 9
12
1.5 3 1
 I
I Dh 103
I DIFF
If 9 9 5

100
17 f
E 12T