Chapter 4:

Resource Monitoring & Management

4.1. Resource Monitoring & Management

As stated earlier, a great deal of system administration revolves around resources and their
efficient use. By balancing various resources against the people and programs that use those
resources, you waste less money and make your users as happy as possible. However, this leaves
two questions:

i. What are resources?

i. How isit possible to know what resources are being used (and to what extent)?

The purpose of this chapter is to enable you to answer these questions by helping you to learn
more about resources and how they can be monitored.

Before you can monitor resources, you first have to know what resources there are to monitor.
All systems have the following resources available:

 CPU power
 Bandwidth
 Memory
 Storage

These resources have a direct impact on system performance, and therefore, on your users’
productivity and happiness. At its simplest, resource monitoring is nothing more than
obtaining information concerning the utilization of one or more system resources.

However, it is rarely this simple. First, one must take into account the resources to be monitored.
Then it is necessary to examine each system to be monitored, paying particular attention to each
system’s situation.

The systems you monitor fall into one of two categories:

 The system is currently experiencing performance problems at least part of the time and
you would like to improve its performance.
 The system is currently running well and you would like it to stay that way.

The first category means you should monitor resources from a system performance perspective,
while the second category means you should monitor system resources from a capacity planning
perspective.
Because each perspective has its own unique requirements, the following sections explore each
category in more depth.

System Performance Monitoring

System performance monitoring is normally done in response to a performance problem. Either

the system is running too slowly, or programs (and sometimes even the entire system) fail to run
at all. In either case, performance monitoring is normally done as the first and last steps of a
three-step process:

i. Monitoring to identify the nature and scope of the resource shortages that are causing the
performance problems
ii. The data produced from monitoring is analyzed and a course of action (normally
performance tuning and/or the procurement of additional hardware) is taken to resolve
the problem
iii. Monitoring to ensure that the performance problem has been resolved

Because of this, performance monitoring tends to be relatively short-lived in duration and more
detailed in scope.

Note: System performance monitoring is an iterative process, with these steps being repeated
several times to arrive at the best possible system performance. The primary reason for this is
that system resources and their utilization tend to be highly interrelated, meaning that often the
elimination of one resource bottleneck uncovers another one.

Monitoring System Capacity

Monitoring system capacity is done as part of an ongoing capacity planning program. Capacity
planning uses long-term resource monitoring to determine rates of change in the utilization of
system resources. Once these rates of change are known, it becomes possible to conduct more
accurate long- term planning regarding the procurement of additional resources.

Monitoring done for capacity planning purposes is different from performance monitoring in two
ways:

i. The monitoring is done on a more-or-less continuous basis

i. The monitoring is usually not as detailed

The reason for these differences stems from the goals of a capacity planning program. Capacity
planning requires a “big picture” viewpoint; short-term or anomalous resource usage is of little
concern. Instead, data is collected over a period of time, making it possible to categorize resource
utilization in terms of changes in workload. In more narrowly-defined environments, (where only
one application is run, for example) it is possible to model the application’s impact on system
resources. This can be done with sufficient accuracy to make it possible to determine, for
example, the impact of 5 more customer service representatives running the customer service
application during the busiest time of the day.

4.1.1. What to Monitor?

As stated earlier, the resources present in every system are CPU power, bandwidth, memory, and
storage. At first glance, it would seem that monitoring would need only consist of examining
these four different things.

Unfortunately, it is not that simple. For example, consider a disk drive. What things might you
want to know about its performance?

 How much free space is available?

 How many I/O operations on average does it perform each second?

 How long on average does it take each I/O operation to be completed?

 How many of those I/O operations are reads? How many are writes?
 What is the average amount of data read/written with each I/O?

There are more ways of studying disk drive performance; these points have only scratched the
surface. The main concept to keep in mind is that there are many different types of data for
each resource.

The following subsections explore the types of utilization information that would be helpful for
each of the major resource types.

4.1.1.1. Monitoring CPU Power

In its most basic form, monitoring CPU power can be no more difficult than determining if CPU
utilization ever reaches 100%. If CPU utilization stays below 100%, no matter what the system is
doing, there is additional processing power available for more work.

However, it is a rare system that does not reach 100% CPU utilization at least some of the time.
At that point it is important to examine more detailed CPU utilization data. By doing so, it
becomes possible to start determining where the majority of your processing power is being
consumed. Here are some of the more popular CPU utilization statistics:

 User Versus System

o Context Switches
 Interrupts
 Runnable Processes

A process may be in different states. For example, it may be:

 Waiting for an I/O operation to complete

 o Waiting for the memory management subsystem to handle a page fault In these
cases, the process has no need for the CPU.

However, eventually the process state changes, and the process becomes runnable. As the name
implies, a runnable process is one that is capable of getting work done as soon as it is scheduled
to receive CPU time. However, if more than one process is runnable at any given time, all but
one (assuming a single-processor computer system) of the runnable processes must wait for their
turn at the CPU. By monitoring the number of runnable processes, it is possible to determine
how CPU-bound your system is.

Other performance metrics that reflect an impact on CPU utilization tend to include different
services the operating system provides to processes. They may include statistics on memory
management, I/O processing, and so on. These statistics also reveal that, when system
performance is monitored, there are no boundaries between the different statistics. In other
words, CPU utilization statistics may end up pointing to a problem in the I/O subsystem, or
memory utilization statistics may reveal an application design flaw.

Therefore, when monitoring system performance, it is not possible to examine any one statistic
in complete isolation; only by examining the overall picture it is possible to extract meaningful
information from any performance statistics you gather.

4.1.1.2. Monitoring Bandwidth

Monitoring bandwidth is more difficult than the other resources described here. The reason for
this is due to the fact that performance statistics tend to be device-based, while most of the places
where bandwidth is important tend to be the buses that connect devices. In those instances where
more than one device shares a common bus, you might see reasonable statistics for each device,
but the aggregate load those devices place on the bus would be much greater.

Another challenge to monitoring bandwidth is that there can be circumstances where statistics
for the devices themselves may not be available. This is particularly true for system expansion
buses and datapaths. However, even though 100% accurate bandwidth-related statistics may not
always be available, there is often enough information to make some level of analysis possible,
particularly when related statistics are taken into account.

Some of the more common bandwidth-related statistics are:

 Bytes received/sent: Network interface statistics provide an indication of the bandwidth

utilization of one of the more visible buses — the network.
o Interface counts and rates: These network-related statistics can give indications
of excessive collisions, transmit and receive errors, and more. Through the use of
these statistics (particularly if the statistics are available for more than one system
on your network), it is possible to perform a modicum of network troubleshooting
even before the more common network diagnostic tools are used.
 Transfers per Second: Normally collected for block I/O devices, such as
disk and high- performance tape drives, this statistic is a good way of
 determining whether a particular device’s bandwidth limit is being
reached. Due to their electromechanical nature, disk and tape drives can
only perform so many I/O operations every second; their performance
degrades rapidly as this limit is reached.

4.1.1.3. Monitoring Memory

If there is one area where a wealth of performance statistics can be found, it is in the area of
monitoring memory utilization. Due to the inherent complexity of today’s demand-paged virtual
memory operating systems, memory utilization statistics are many and varied. It is here that the
majority of a system administrator’s work with resource management takes place.

The following statistics represent a cursory overview of commonly-found memory management

statistics:

 Page Ins/Page Outs: These statistics make it possible to gauge the flow of pages from
system memory to attached mass storage devices (usually disk drives). High rates for
both of these statistics can mean that the system is short of physical memory and is
thrashing, or spending more system resources on moving pages into and out of memory
than on actually running applications.
o Active/Inactive Pages: These statistics show how heavily memory-resident pages
are used. A lack of inactive pages can point toward a shortage of physical
memory.

 Free, Shared, Buffered, and Cached Pages: These statistics provide additional detail
over the more simplistic active/inactive page statistics. By using these statistics, it is
possible to determine the overall mix of memory utilization.
o Swap Ins/Swap Outs: These statistics show the system’s overall swapping
behavior. Excessive rates here can point to physical memory shortages.

Successfully monitoring memory utilization requires a good understanding of how demand-

paged virtual memory operating systems work, which alone could take up an entire book.

4.1.1.4. Monitoring Storage

Monitoring storage normally takes place at two different levels:

 Monitoring for sufficient disk space

o Monitoring for storage-related performance problems

The reason for this is that it is possible to have dire problems in one area and no problems
whatsoever in the other. For example, it is possible to cause a disk drive to run out of disk space
without once causing any kind of performance-related problems. Likewise, it is possible to have
a disk drive that has 99% free space, yet is being pushed past its limits in terms of performance.
However, it is more likely that the average system experiences varying degrees of resource
shortages in both areas. Because of this, it is also likely that — to some extent — problems in
one area impact the other. Most often this type of interaction takes the form of poorer and poorer
I/O performance as a disk drive nears 0% free space although, in cases of extreme I/O loads, it
might be possible to slow I/O throughput to such a level that applications no longer run properly.

In any case, the following statistics are useful for monitoring storage:

 Free Space: Free space is probably the one resource all system administrators watch
closely; it would be a rare administrator that never checks on free space (or has some
automated way of doing so).
o File System-Related Statistics: These statistics (such as number of
files/directories, average file size, etc.) provide additional detail over a single free
space percentage. As such, these

statistics make it possible for system administrators to configure the system to give the best
performance, as the I/O load imposed by a file system full of many small files is not the same as
that imposed by a file system filled with a single massive file.

 Transfers per Second: This statistic is a good way of determining whether a particular
device’s bandwidth limitations are being reached.
o Reads/Writes per Second: A slightly more detailed breakdown of transfers per
second, these statistics allow the system administrator to more fully understand
the nature of the I/O loads a storage device is experiencing. This can be critical, as
some storage technologies have widely different performance characteristics for
read versus write operations.

4.1.2. Monitoring Tools

As your organization grows, so does the number of servers, devices, and services you depend on.
The term system covers all of the computing resources of your organization. Each element in the
system infrastructure relies on underlying services or provides services to components that are
closer to user.

In networking, it is typical to think of a system as a layered stack. User software sits at the top
of the stack and system applications and services on the next layer down. Beneath the services
and applications, you will encounter operating systems and firmware. The performance of
software elements needs to be monitored as an application stack.

Users will notice performance problems with the software that they use, but those problems
rarely arise within that software. All layers of the application stack need to be examined to find
the root cause of performance issues. You need to head off problems with real-time status
monitoring before they occur. Monitoring tools help you spot errors and service failures before
they start to impact users.
The system stack continues on below the software. Hardware issues can be prevented through
hardware monitoring. You will need to monitor servers, network devices, interface
performance, and network link capacity. You need to monitor many different types of interacting
system elements to keep your IT services running smoothly.

Why do System Performance Monitoring?

Knowing whether a computer has issues is fairly straightforward when the computer is right in
front of you. Knowing what’s causing the problem? That’s harder. But a computer sitting by
itself is not as useful as it could be. Even the smallest small-office/home-office network has
multiple nodes: laptops, desktops, tablets, WiFi access points, Internet gateway, smartphones,
file servers and/or media servers, printers, and so on. That means you are in charge of
“infrastructure” rather than just “equipment.” Any component might start misbehaving and could
cause issues for the others.

You most likely rely on off-premises servers and services, too. Even a personal website raises
the nagging question, “Is my site still up?” And when your ISP has problems, your local
network’s usefulness suffers. You need an activity monitor. Organizations rely more and more
on servers and services hosted in the cloud: SaaS applications (email, office apps, business
packages, etc); file storage; cloud hosting for your own databases and apps; and so on. This
requires sophisticated monitoring capabilities that can handle hybrid environments.

Bandwidth monitoring tools and NetFlow and sFlow based traffic analyzers help you stay
aware of the activity, capacity, and health of your network. They allow you to watch traffic as it
flows through routers and switches, or arrives at and leaves hosts.

But what of the hosts on your network, their hardware, and the services and applications running
there? Monitoring activity, capacity, and health of hosts and applications is the focus of system
monitoring.

System Monitoring Software Essentials

In order to keep your system fit for purpose, your monitoring activities need to cover the
following priorities:

 Acceptable delivery speeds

 Constant availability
 Preventative maintenance
 Software version monitoring and patching
 Intrusion detection

 Data integrity
 Security monitoring
 Attack mitigation
 Virus prevention and detection
Lack of funding may cause you to compromise on monitoring completeness. The expense of
monitoring can be justified because of it:

 reduces user/customer support costs

 prevents loss of income caused by system outages or attack vulnerability
 prevents data leakage leading to litigation
 prevents hardware damage and loss of business-critical data

Minimum system monitoring software capabilities

More sophisticated system monitoring package provides a much broader range of capabilities,
such as:

 Monitoring multiple servers. Handling servers from various vendors running various
operating systems. Monitoring servers at multiple sites and in cloud environments.
 Monitoring a range of server metrics: availability, CPU usage, memory usage, disk
space, response time, and upload/download rates. Monitoring CPU temperature and
power supply voltages.
 Monitoring applications. Using deep knowledge of common applications and services
to monitor key server processes, including web servers, database servers, and application
stacks.
 Automatically alerting you of problems, such as servers or network devices that are
overloaded or down, or worrisome trends. Customized alerts that can use multiple
methods to contact you – email, SMS text messages, pager, etc.
 Triggering actions in response to alerts, to handle certain classes of problems
automatically.
 Collecting historical data about server and device health and behavior.

 Displaying data. Crunching the data and analyzing trends to display illuminating
visualizations of the data.
 Reports. Besides displays, generating useful predefined reports that help with tasks like
forecasting capacity, optimizing resource usage, and predicting needs for maintenance
and upgrades.
 Customizable reporting. A facility to help you create custom reports.
 Easy configurability, using methods like auto-discovery and knowledge of server and
application types.
 Non-intrusive: imposing a low overhead on your production machines and services.
Making smart use of agents to offload monitoring where appropriate.
 Scalability: Able to grow with your business, from a small or medium business (SMB) to
a large enterprise.

4.1.2.1. Windows Task Manager

Task Manager (old name Windows Task Manager) is a task manager, system monitor, and
startup manager included with all versions of Microsoft Windows since Windows NT 4.0 and
Windows 2000.
Windows Task Manager provides information about computer performance and shows detailed
information about the programs and processes running on the computer, including name of
running processes, CPU load, commit charge, I/O details, logged-in users, and Windows
services; if connected to the network, you can also view the network status and quickly
understand how the network works.

Microsoft improves the task manager between each version of Windows, sometimes quite
dramatically. Specifically, the task managers in Windows 10 and Windows 8 are very different
from those in Windows 7and Windows Vista, and the task managers in Windows 7 and Vista are
very different from those in Windows XP. A similar program called Tasks exists in Windows 98
and Windows 95.

How to Open the Task Manager

Starting Task Manager is always a concern for many of you. Now we will list some easy and
quick ways for you to open it. Some of them might come in handy if you don’t know how to
open a Task Manager or you can’t open Task Manager the way you’re used to.

You are probably familiar with the way that pressing Ctrl+Alt+Delete on your keyboard. Before
Windows Vista was released, this way can bring you directly to Task Manager. Starting with
Windows Vista, pressing Ctrl+Alt+Delete now leads to the Windows Security interface, which
provides options for locking your PC, switching users, signing out, changing a password, and
running Task Manager. The quickest way to start Task Manager is to press Ctrl+Shift+Esc, and
it will take you directly to it.

If you prefer using a mouse over a keyboard, one of the quickest ways to launch Task Manager is
to

right-click on any blank area on the taskbar and select Task Manager. Just need two clicks.

You can also run Task Management by hitting Windows+R to open the Run box, typing
taskmgr and then hitting Enter or clicking OK.

In fact, you can also open the Task Manager by Star menu, Windows Explorer, or creating a
shortcut… While we have listed these four convenient ways which are totally enough for you.
Figure 4.1. How to Start Task Manager

Explanation of the Tabs in Task Manager

Now we are going to discuss all the useful tabs you can find in the Task Manager nowadays,
mostly in Windows 8 and Windows 10.
Figure 4.2. Sample Screen Shot of a Task Manager Window

Processes
The Processes tab contains a list of all running programs and applications on your computer
(listed under Apps), as well as any background processes and Windows processes that are
running.

In this tab, you can close running programs, see how each program uses your computer
resources, and more.

The Processes tab is available in all versions of Windows. Starting with Windows 8, Microsoft
has combined the Applications and Processes tab into the Processes tab, so Windows 8/10
displays all running programs in addition to processes and services.

Performance

The Performance tab is available in all versions of Windows that is a summary of what’s going
on, overall, with your major hardware components, including CPU, memory, disk drive, Wi-Fi,
and network usage. It displays how much the computer’s available system resources are being
used, so you can check the valuable information.

For example, this tab makes it easy to see your CPU model and maximum speed, RAM slots in
use, disk transfer rate, your IP address…Newer versions of Windows also display usage charts.
What’s more? There is a quick link to the Resource Monitor at the bottom of this tab.

App History

The App History tab displays the CPU usage and network utilization that each Windows app has
used from the date listed on the screen until the time you enter Task Manager. App History is
only available in Task Manager in Windows 10 and Windows 8.

Startup

The Startup tab shows every program that is launched automatically each time you start your
computer, along with several important details about each program, including the Publisher,
Status, and Startup impact which is the most valuable information – shows the impact rating of
high, medium or low.

This tab is great for identifying and then disabling programs that you don’t need them to run
automatically. Disabling Windows auto-start programs is a very simple way to speed up your
computer. Startup tab is only available in Task Manager in Windows 10 and Windows 8.

Users

The Users tab shows users currently signed in to the computer and the processes are running
within each. The Users tab is available in all Windows versions of Task Manager but only shows
processes that each user is running in Windows 10 and Windows 8.

Details
The Details tab contains full details of each process running on your computer. The information
provided in this tab is useful during advanced troubleshooting. Details tab is available in Task
Manager in Windows 10 and Windows 8, and the features of the Processes tab are similar to
Details in earlier versions of Windows.

Services

The Services tab is available in Task Manager in Windows 10, 8, 7, and Vista that shows all of
the Windows Services currently running on the computer with the Description and Status. The
status is Running or Stopped, and you can change it.

What to Do in the Task Manager?

Task manager always gives you some limited control over those running tasks, like set process
priorities, processor affinity, start and stop services, and forcibly terminate processes.

Well, one of the most common things done in Task Manager is to use End Task to prevent
programs from running. If a program no longer responds, you can select End Task from the Task
Manager to close the program without restarting the computer.

4.1.1.1. Windows Resource Monitoring (Resmon)

Resource Monitor (Resmon) is a system application included in Windows Vista and later
versions of Windows that allows users to look at the presence and allocation of resources on a
computer. This application allows administrators and other users determine how system
resources are being used by a particular hardware setup.

How to start Resource Monitor

Users and administrators have several options to start Resource Monitor. It is included in several
versions of Windows, and some options to start the tool are only available in select versions of
the operating system.

The first two methods should work on all versions of Windows that are supported by Microsoft.

1. Windows-R to open the run box. Type resmon.exe, and hit the Enter-key.
2. Windows-R to open the run box. Type perfmon.exe /res, and hit the Enter-key.
3. On Windows 10: Start → All Apps → Windows Administrative Tools → Resource
Monitor
4. Old Windows: Start → All Programs → Accessories → System Tools → Resource
Monitor
5. Open Task Manager with Ctrl+Shift+Esc→ Performance tab, click open Resource
Monitor.
Figure 4.3. Opening Resource Monitor from Task Manager

The Resource Monitor interface looks the same on Windows 7, 8.1 and 10. The program uses
tabs to separate data, it loads an overview when you start it, including CPU, Memory, Disk, and
Network are the five tabs of the program including all the processes that use the resources.

The sidebar displays graphs that highlight the CPU, Disk, Network, and Memory use over a
period of 60 seconds.

You can hide and show elements with a click on the arrow icon in title bars. Another option that
you have to customize the interface is to move the mouse cursor over dividers in the interface to
drag the visible area. Use it to increase or decrease the visible area of the element.
You may want to hide the graphs, for instance, to make more room for more important data and
run the Resource Monitor window in as large of a resolution as possible.

The overview tab is a good starting point, as it gives you an overview of the resource usage. It
highlights CPU and memory usage, disk utilization, and network use in real-time.

Each particular listing offers a wealth of information. The CPU box lists process names and IDs,
the network box IP addresses and data transfers, the memory box hard faults, and the disk box
read and write operations.

One interesting option that you have right here and there is to select one or multiple processes
under CPU to apply filters to the Disk, Network and Memory tab.

If you select a particular process under CPU, Resource Monitor lists the disk, network and
memory usage of that process only in its interface. This is one of the differences to the Task
Manager, as you cannot do something like that in the tool.
Figure 4.4. Sample Screen Shot of Resource Monitor

Monitor CPU Usage with Resource Monitor

You need to switch to the CPU tab if you want to monitor CPU utilization in detail. You find the
processes listing of the overview page there, and also the three new listings Services, Associated
Handles and Associated Modules.

You can filter by processes to display data only for those processes. This is quite handy, as it is a
quick way to see links between processes, and services and other files on the system. Note that
the graphs are different to the ones displayed before. The graphs on the CPU tab lists the usage
of each core, Service CPU usage, and total CPU usage.

Associated Modules lists files such as dynamic link libraries that are used by a process.
Associated Handles point to system resources such as files or Registry values. These offer
specific information but are useful at times. You can run a search for handles, for instance, to
find out why you can’t delete a file at that point in time.

Resource Monitor gives you some control over processes and services on the CPU tab. Right-
click on any process to display a context menu with options to end the selected process or entire
process tree, to suspend or resume processes, and to run a search online.

The Services context menu is limited to starting, stopping and restarting services, and to search
online for information.

Processes may be displayed using colors. A red process indicates that it is not responding, and a
blue one that it is suspended

Memory in Resource Monitor

The memory tab lists processes just like the CPU tab does, but with a focus on memory usage. It
features a physical memory view on top of that that visualizes the distribution of memory on the
Windows machine.

If this is your first time accessing the information, you may be surprised that quite a bit of
memory may be hardware reserved. The graphs highlight the used physical memory, the commit
charge, and the hard faults per second. Each process is listed with its name and process ID, the
hard faults, and various memory related information.

 Commit: Amount of virtual memory reserved by the operating system for the process.
 Working Set: Amount of physical memory currently in use by the process.
 Shareable: Amount of physical memory in use by the process that can be shared with
other processes.
 Private: Amount of physical memory in use by the process that cannot be used by other
processes.

Disk Activity information

The Disk tab of the Windows Resource Monitor lists the disk activity of processes and storage
information. It visualizes the disk usage in total and for each running process. You get a reading
of each processes’ disk read and write activity, and can use the filtering options to filter by a
particular process or several processes.

The Storage listing at the bottom lists all available drives, the available and total space on the
drive, as well as the active time. The graphs visualize the disk queue length. It is an indicator for
requests of that particular disk and is a good indicator to find out if disk performance cannot
keep up with I/O operations.

Network Activity in Resource Monitor

The Network tab lists network activity, TCP connections and listening ports. It lists network
activity of any running process in detail. It is useful, as it tells you right away if processes
connect to the Internet.

You do get TCP connection listings that highlight remote servers that processes connect to, the
bandwidth use, and the local listening ports.

Bandwidth

Bandwidth describes the maximum data transfer rate of a network. It measures how much data
can be sent over a specific connection in a given amount of time. For example, a gigabit Ethernet
connection has a bandwidth of 1,000 Mbps (125 megabytes per second). An Internet connection
via cable modem may provide 25 Mbps of bandwidth.

While bandwidth is used to describe network speeds, it does not measure how fast bits of data
move from one location to another. Since data packets travel over electronic or fiber optic cables,
the speed of each bit transferred is negligible. Instead, bandwidth measures how much data can
flow through a specific connection at one time.

When visualizing bandwidth, it may help to think of a network connection as a tube and each bit
of data as a grain of sand. If you pour a large amount of sand into a skinny tube, it will take a
long time for the sand to flow through it. If you pour the same amount of sand through a wide
tube, the sand will finish flowing through the tube much faster. Similarly, a download will finish
much faster when you have a high-bandwidth connection rather than a low-bandwidth
connection.

Data often flows over multiple network connections, which means the connection with the
smallest bandwidth acts as a bottleneck. Generally, the Internet backbone and connections
between servers have the most bandwidth, so they rarely serve as bottlenecks. Instead, the most
common Internet bottleneck is your connection to your ISP.

Bandwidth vs. Speed

Internet speed is a major vice to any Internet user. Even though Internet speed and data transfer
mostly revolve around bandwidth, your Internet speed can also be different from the Internet
bandwidth expectations. What tends to make it complicated is that the terms bandwidth, speed,
and bandwidth speed are used interchangeably, but they are actually different things. Most
people refer to speed as how long it takes to upload and download files, videos, livestreams, and
other content.
Bandwidth is the size of the pipe or the overall capacity for data. Keep in mind that you could
have great bandwidth and not so great speed if your end system, your network, can’t handle all
of the flow of information.

They key is making sure everything matches up. If you want to know more about your Internet
performance, you can use an Internet speed test. This could help you see if your Internet service
provider is providing the actual Internet connection that you are expecting, or if there are
problems at the network level with being able to handle the data.

Network bandwidth

Use of bandwidth can also be monitored by a network bandwidth monitor. Network bandwidth is
a fixed commodity. There are several ways to use network bandwidth. First, you can control the
data flow in your Internet connection. That is you can streamline data from one point to another
point. Next, you can also optimize data so that it consumes less bandwidth from what is
allocated.

In summary, bandwidth is the amount of information and Internet connection can handle in a
given period. An Internet connection operates much faster or slower depending on whether the
bandwidth is large or small. With a larger bandwidth, the set of data transmission is much faster
than an Internet connection with a lower bandwidth.

4.1.1. Network Printers

Network printing allows us to efficiently use printing resources. With network printing we first
connect all of our work stations to a network and then we implement a network printer. In
general there are two ways this can be done. In first method we take a regular printer and plug it
into the back of one of the PCs. On the picture below that PC is named Workstation 1. Then we
share that printer on the network by going to the printer properties in Windows.
Figure 4.5. Sample Shared Printer through a workstation

In this configuration other hosts on the network can send the print job through the network to the
Workstation 1, which then sends the print job to the print device. This is the cheaper method, but
we depend on the Workstation 1, which has to be turned on all the time. If someone is using that
computer, then we depend on that person too. This method is used in home or small office
scenarios. To connect to the shared printer we can use the UNC path in the format:
\\computername\sharename.

UNC (Universal Naming Convention) path is a standard for identifying servers, printers and
other resources in a network. It uses double slashes (for Unix and Linux) or backslashes (for
Windows) to precede the name of the computer.
//servername/path Unix\\servername\path DOS/Windows

In second method we implement the type of printer that has its own network interface installed
(either wired or wireless). This way we can connect our printer directly to the network so the
print jobs can be sent from workstations directly to that network printer.
 Figure
4.6. Shared printer with its own dedicated NIC (Network Interface Card)

The print job doesn’t have to go through the workstation such as in the first case. To connect to a
network attached printer we can create a printer object using a TCP/IP port. We use the IP
address and port name information to connect to the printer.

Print Port

When a client needs to send a print job to the network printer, client application formats the print
job and sends it to the print driver. Just as a traditional print job, it’s saved on the local work
station in the spool. Then the job is sent from the spool to the printer. In traditional set up the
computer will send the job through the parallel or USB cable to the printer. In the network
printing set up, the job is redirected. The print job goes out through the network board, then the
network, and then arrives at the destination network printer.

Drivers

Each network host that wants to use the network printer must have the corresponding printer
driver installed. When we share a printer in Windows, the current printer driver is automatically
delivered to clients that connect to the shared printer. If the client computers run a different
version of Windows, we can add the necessary printer drivers to the printer object. To add
drivers for network users we can use the ‘Advanced’ and ‘Sharing’ tab in printer properties.
Print Server

An important component of any network printer that we have is the print server. The print server
manages the flow of documents sent to the printer. Using a print server lets us customize when
and how documents print. There are different types of print servers. In the first scenario where
we have attached ordinary printer to our workstation, the printer has no print server hardware
built in. In this case the operating system running on Workstation 1 functions as a print server.
It receives the jobs from the other clients, saves them locally in a directory on the hard drive and
spools them off to the printer one at a time as the printer becomes ready. The computer can fill
other roles on the network in addition to being the print server. Most operating systems include
print server software.

Some printers, like our printer from the second scenario, have a built in print server that’s
integrated into the hardware of the printer itself. It receives the print jobs from the various
clients, queues them up, gives them priority and sends them on through the printing mechanism
as it becomes available. We often refer to this type of print server as internal print server. We use
special management software to connect to this kind of print server and manage print jobs.

Print servers can also be implemented in another way. We can purchase an external print server.
The external print server has one interface that connects to the printer (parallel or USB interface),
and it also has a network jack that plugs into our HUB or switch. It provides all the print server
functions but it’s all built into the hardware of the print server itself. So, when clients send a job
to the printer, the jobs are sent through the network to the hardware print server which then
formats, prioritizes, saves them in the queue, and then spools them off to the printer one at a time
as the printer becomes available. Different operating systems implement servers in different
ways, and different external or internal print servers also function in different ways. Because of
that we need to check our documentation to see how to set it up with our specific hardware or
software.

Remember: We can share our existing printers on the network or we can set up a printer which
has its own NIC and which is then directly connected to the network. Print server formats,
prioritizes, queues and then spools print jobs.
 By: Abraham A. (MSc).

IT,CCI, WKU, Wolkite, Ethiopia.

1
 Chapter One
Computer Basics

Chapter Content:-
 General concepts about PC and tech support
 Lab procedures and maintenance tools
 Static energy and its effect on computers
 Safety rules
 Preventive maintenance and troubleshooting

2
 General concepts about PC and Technical Support

General concepts about PC

What are computers?

 Computers are machines that perform tasks or calculations according to a set
of instructions, or programs. The first fully electronic computers, introduced
in the 1940s.
 Compared to those early machines, today's computers are amazing. Not only
are they thousands of times faster, they can fit on your desk, even in your
pocket.
3
 Cont…

 Computers work through an interaction of hardware and software. Hardware

refers to the parts of a computer that you can see and touch, including the case
and everything inside it.

 Software refers to the instructions, or programs, that tell the hardware what to
do. The operating system (OS) is software that manages your computer and the
devices connected to it.

4
How computer works
 Computer is an electronics device that accept data, then process finally
produces meaningful information in a form that is useful to the user.
• Input: Recognizing input from the keyboard or mouse.
• Processing: Manipulating data according to the user's instructions.
• Output: Sending output to the video screen or printer.
• Storage: Keeping track of files for later use. Examples of storage
devices include floppy disks and hard drives.

5
Cont…

6
 Types of computers

 Computers can be categorized broadly three bases.

 Based on:
• The type of data processing (method of operation) Analog & Digital,
Hybrid
• The purposes of application (Special & General)
• Their physical size, speed, storage capacity, and price. (Super, Mini
Mainframe, Micro/PC etc.)

7
 Cont…
 The personal computer, or PC, is designed to be used by one person at a time.
This section describes the various kinds of personal computers: desktops,
laptops, handheld computers, and tablet PCs.

8
1. Desktop computers
 Desktop computers are designed for use at a desk or table. They are typically
larger and more powerful than other types of personal computers. Desktop
computers are made up of separate components. The main component, called
the system unit, is usually a rectangular case that sits on or underneath/under
a desk. Other components, such as the monitor, mouse, and keyboard,
connect to the system unit.

9
2. Laptop Computers and Small Notebook PCs
 Laptop computers are lightweight mobile PCs with a thin screen. Laptops
can operate on batteries, so you can take them anywhere. Unlike desktops,
laptops combine the CPU, screen, and keyboard in a single case.

10
3. Small notebook
 Small notebook PCs (often referred to as mini-notebooks), are small,
affordable laptops that are designed to perform a limited number of
tasks. They're usually less powerful than a laptop, so they're used mainly
to browse the web and check e-mail.

11
4. Smart phones
 Smart phones are mobile phones that have some of the same capabilities as
a computer. You can use a smart phone to make telephone calls, access the
internet, organize contact information, send e-mail and text messages, play
games, and take pictures etc.

12
5. Handheld computers
 Handheld computers, also called personal digital assistants (PDAs), are
battery-powered computers small enough to carry almost anywhere.
 This type of computers are useful for scheduling appointments, storing
addresses and phone numbers, and playing games. Some have more
advanced capabilities, such as making telephone calls or accessing the
internet.
 Instead of keyboards, handheld computers have touch screens that you use
with your finger or a stylus (a pen-shaped pointing tool).
13
Cont…

14
6. Tablet PCs
 Tablet PCs are mobile PCs that combine features of laptops and handheld
computers. Like laptops, they're powerful and have a built-in screen and
Like handheld computers, they allow you to write notes or draw pictures on
the screen, usually with a tablet pen instead of a stylus. They can also
convert your handwriting into typed text.

15
Technical Support
 It is focuses on PC support strategy. A strategy provides the technician
direction, purpose, and a plan.
 Staying safe and protecting equipment is essential to the strategy as a
professional support technician. The best support technicians are good at
preventing a problem from happening in the first place.

16
 Lab Procedures and Maintenance Tools

Safe Lab Procedures

The workplace should have safety guidelines to:
• Protect people from injury.
• Protect equipment from damage.
• Protect the environment from contamination.

17
Maintenance
 It is a continuous process.
 It includes both hardware & software in it.
• Hardware maintenance includes cleaning dust, maintaining constant
voltage, etc.
• Software maintenance includes reinstallation, upgrading & removal
of different software's.

18
Servicing
 Servicing is mainly associated with hardware equipment.
 It includes checkups, repairs and updating of all physical components.
 Service provider should have proper knowledge about various components
and their installation procedures.

19
Maintenance Work/Job Order
 A work order is an order received by an organization from a customer or
client, or an order created internally within the organization. A work order
may be for products or services.
 The basic work order is a document that provides important detail about
goods and services that a client wishes to obtain from a vendor or supplier.
 A job order is a written document which contains orders to perform a job.

20
 Cont…

 Job orders are also known as work orders.

 It is may be internal, used for organization within a company, or external,

and used by customers.

 A job order is an internal document extensively used by projects-based,

manufacturing, building and fabrication businesses.

21
 Cont…

Job order (work order )will probably state:

1.The Nature of problem

2.The Cause of problem

3.The Action code

4.The Work order steps

22
 Implement maintenance procedure

 It include the following steps:

1.Identify equipment and software to be maintained
2. Identify resource for maintenance
• identify type of materials (parts) required,
• identify tools required during the process
3. Identify best practice and document including, precautions to be
considered during the process.

23
 Maintenance Tools

Hardware Equipment's

 Screw driver

 Lead

 Continuity

 Multi meter

 Knife

 Light 24
 Cont…
Software‘s

 Device deriver (printer, speaker/audio, scanner, NIC,)

 Diagnosis software

 Utility software

 System software

 Application software

25
 Static energy and its effect on computers

Static Energy :-

Electrostatic Discharge(ESD)
 Buildup of an electric charge resting on a surface.
 Static electricity can build up on you as they walk across a carpeted floor.
When you touch another person, you both receive a shock. If the discharge
causes pain or makes a noise, the charge was probably above 10,000 volts.
 At least 3,000 volts of static electricity must build up before a person can
feel/touch ESD, but less than 30 volts of static electricity can damage a
computer component. 26
 Cont…
 It is the sudden and temporary electric current that flows between two
objects at different electrical potentials caused by direct contact or induced
by an electrostatic field.
 It is a rapid transfer of electrostatic charge between two objects, usually
resulting when two objects at different potentials come into direct contact
with each other.
 It is momentary/temporary unwanted currents that may cause damage to
electronic equipment.

27
 Cont…

 ESD can also occur when a high electrostatic field develops between two objects
in close proximity.

 ESD is a serious issue in solid state electronics, such as integrated circuits.

• Integrated circuits are made from semiconductor materials such as silicon and
insulating materials such as silicon dioxide.

 High voltages; as a result there are now a number of antistatic devices that help
prevent static build up.

 Note : ESD is one of the major causes of device failures in the semiconductor
industry. 28
Avoiding ESD
 Keep all components in antistatic bags until you are ready to install them.
 Use antistatic wrist straps when working on computers.
 Use grounded mats on workbenches.
 Use grounded floor mats in work areas.

29
Additionally
 Zero Potential - Most importantly, make sure you and the computer are at
Zero Potential by continuously touching an un-painted metal surface of the
chassis or the computer power supply case.

 Standing - Standing at all times when working on the computer. Setting on

a chair can generate more electrostatic.

 Cords - Make sure everything is removed from the back of the computer
(power cord, mouse, keyboard, etc.).

30
 Cont…
 Clothes - Make sure not to wear any clothing that conducts a lot of electrical
charge, such as a wool sweater.

 Weather - Electrical storms can increase the ESD risk; unless absolutely
necessary, try not to work on a computer during an electrical storm.

 Accessories - To help reduce ESD and help prevent other problem, it is also a
good idea to remove all jewelry.

31
Static energy effect’s on computer
 When internal workings of a computer are exposed it is possible to damage
the computer with static electricity held by the human body.
 Whenever the casing of a computer is opened and its internal workings are
exposed to change a hard drive or add memory chips for example there is a
danger of damaging the computer with the buildup of static electricity that
is held by the human body.

32
 Safety Rules

The safety rules categories into two precautions:

 General precautions
 Special precautions

General precautions
 Ensure all peripherals are switched off before the main power is switched off.
 Remove all CD’s from the drives before switching off the system.
 Do not switch off the system when activity LED(Light emitting diodes) in
hard disk drive glows.
33
 Cont…
 Switch off power before plugging and removing a cable, or inserting and
removing a PCB(printed circuit board)
 Store CDs in clean and cool place where electromagnetic interference is
absent.
 Do not block air circulation to the computer site.
 Do not eat or drink while working on the computer system.
 When not in use, use dust covers for monitor, printer, etc.
 Do not bend/turn or scratch on CDs.
34
Special precaution
 Do not apply force on key switches.
 Do not rest hands on the keyboard.
 Do not play with the keyboard after switching off the power.
 Cable at keyboard end should not be subjected to high stress.
 Do not use rough materials to clean the components of the system.
 Use quality ribbon or ink to avoid damage to print head.
 The internal parts of printer like stepper motor, print head, etc. should be
cleaned properly periodically.
35
 Preventive maintenance and troubleshooting

Types of Maintenance

 Preventive Maintenance

 Predictive Maintenance

 Schedule Maintenance

 Adaptive Maintenance

 Corrective Maintenance

 Perfectives Maintenance
36
Preventive Maintenance (PM)
 Preventive maintenance can be defined as follows: Actions performed on a
time- or machine-run-based schedule that detect, preclude/prevent, or mitigate
degradation of a component or system with the aim of sustaining or extending
its useful life through controlling degradation to an acceptable level.
 Careful handling of the computer enhances the life of the system and is called
preventive maintenance.
 It used to reduce the likelihood of hardware or software problems by
systematically and periodically checking HW and SW to ensure proper
operation.
37
 Cont…

 It Reduce the possibility of HW or SW problems by implementing a

Preventive Maintenance Plan (PMP) based on at least two factors:
• Computer location
• Computer use

 Preventive maintenance may add the cost but saves operation time.

 It is often emphasis on repair maintenance policy.

 It enforces maintenance through servicing.

38
Benefits/Advantages of PM are:
 Reduced computer/device down time.
 Extended or increases plant/device/resource/components life time.
 Increased data protection and safety of workers.
 Increased equipment stability.
 Lower maintenance and repair costs.
 Less stand-by equipment's and spare parts.
 Better product quality and fewer reworks and scraps/outs.
 Increases chances to get production incentive bonus.
39
PM can be divided into:
 Hardware maintenance
 Software maintenance

Hardware Maintenance Tasks

 It includes proper cleaning, servicing, repairing or replacing components of
the computer. That means:-

 Check the condition of cables, components, and peripherals.

 Repair or replace any components that show signs of excess wear.

 Keep components clean to reduce the likelihood of overheating.40

 Cont…
Use these tasks as a guide to create a hardware maintenance program that fits
the needs of your computer equipment.

 Remove the dust from fan intakes.

 Remove dust from power supply.

 Remove dust from components inside the computer.

 Clean mouse and keyboard.

 Check and secure any loose cables.

41
Software Maintenance tasks
It includes updating, enhancements, changes, repair and replacements.
 Verify current version/updated software.

 Review security, software, and driver updates.

 Update virus definition files.

 Scan for viruses and spyware.

 Remove unwanted programs.

 Scan hard drives for errors.

 Defragment hard drives.

42
Troubleshooting
 The detection and removal of faults in the computer system is known as
troubleshooting.
 Troubleshooting depends on the following four factors:
• Problem solving approach.
• Techniques adopted in troubleshooting.
• Tools and test equipment's used.
• Diagnostic aids/tools in the PC.

43
Troubleshooting is of two types :
 Hardware troubleshooting
 Software troubleshooting

When we troubleshooting the device :

 Follow an organized and logical procedure.

 Eliminate variables one at a time.

 Troubleshooting is a skill that is refined over time.

 The first and last steps involve effectively communicating with the
customer. 44
Data Protection
 Before troubleshooting problems, always follow the necessary precautions to
protect data on a computer.

 If unsure that a backup has been done, do not attempt any troubleshooting
activities until the following are verified:

• Date of the last backup

• Contents of the backup

• Data integrity of the backup

• Availability of all backup media for data restore. 45

 Cont…
 If no backup can be created, ask customer to sign a release form.

CAUTION: Although data protection is not one of the six troubleshooting steps,
you must protect data before beginning any work on a customer's computer. If
your work results in data loss for the customer, you or your company could be
held liable.

46
Troubleshooting is a systematic approach to locating the cause of a fault in a
computer system. It has 6 steps

47
 Troubleshooting Process Steps

Step 1 - Identify the problem

 During the troubleshooting process, gather as much information from the

customer as possible, but always be respectful.

 Use the following strategy during this step:

1.Start by using open-ended questions to obtain general information.

2.Continue using closed-ended (yes/no) questions to get relevant information.

48
3. Document the responses in the work order and in the repair journal.

4. Verify the customer’s description by gathering data from the computer

using applications such as:

 Event Viewer

 Device Manager

 Beep Codes

 BIOS Information

 Diagnostic Tools
49
Step 2 - Establish a theory of probable cause

 Create a list of the most common reasons why the error would occur.
 Start with the easiest or most obvious causes at the top.

Step 3 - Test the Theory to Determine cause

 Determine the exact cause by testing the theories of probable cause one at a time,
starting with the quickest and easiest.
 After identifying an exact cause of the problem, determine the steps to resolve the
problem.
 If the exact cause of the problem has not been determined after all theories have
been tested, establish a new theory of probable causes and test it. 50
Step 4 - Establish a Plan of Action to Resolve the Problem and Implement the
solution

 After the exact cause of the problem is determined, establish a plan of action to
resolve the problem and implement the solution.
 Sometimes quick procedures can determine the exact cause of the problem or even
correct the problem.
 If a quick procedure does not correct the problem, further research is needed to
establish the exact cause.
 Divide larger problems into smaller problems that can be analyzed and solved
individually.
 Create a list of possible solutions and implement them one at a time. 51
Step 5 - Verify Full System Functionality and, If Applicable, Implement
Preventive Measures

 Verify full system functionality and implement any preventive measures if needed.
 Ensure that you have not created another problem while repairing the computer.

52
Step 6 - Document Findings, Actions, and Outcomes

 Discuss the solution with the customer

 Have the customer confirm that the problem has been solved.

Document the process:

 Problem description

 Steps to resolve the problem

 Components used in the repair

53
PC Common Problems and Solutions
 Storage device problems - loose or incorrect cable connections, incorrect
drive and media formats, and incorrect jumper and BIOS settings.
 Motherboard and internal component problems - incorrect or loose
cables, failed components, incorrect drivers, and corrupted updates.
 Power supply problems - faulty power supply, loose connections, and
inadequate wattage.
 CPU and memory problems - faulty installations, incorrect BIOS settings,
inadequate cooling and ventilation, and compatibility issues
54
End of Chapter One
.
.
.
.
.
Chapter Two
55
 Chapter Two

Computer Cases and the Motherboard

1
After completing this chapter, the students will be able to know:

 Identify computer cases

 Safety and the computer
 System Cover removal and replacement
 System board defined
 System board evolution
 Removing and replacing motherboard
 Troubleshooting the motherboard
2
What is Computer/PC Case
 Computer cases are a visible part of our computers called PC towers or
computer towers. Its function is to serve as a protective structure for the
rest of the internal components where they will be assembled.
 Should be durable, easy to service, and have enough room for expansion.
 The size and shape of the computer case is usually determined by the
motherboard and other internal components.

3
 Cont…

 The cooling system is one of the main components of any PC case. There
should be enough space inside for air circulation and large radiators that a
powerful PC needs.

 The key characteristics for case design include mounting/escalating methods for
components, ventilation characteristics, drive capacity, and footprint.

 The main feature of each computer case is its form and size factor this is due to
the motherboard, whose form factor must be compatible with that of the tower to
fit perfectly.
4
 Computer cases/system unit and different types of form factors

 Full Tower – ATX Motherboard.

 Mid Tower - ATX or Micro ATX Motherboards.

 Mini Tower - Micro ATX or Mini ATX motherboards.

 Desktop tower - Micro ATX or Mini ATX motherboards.

 Small Form Factor (SFF) - Micro ATX or Mini ATX motherboards.

5
Cont…

6
 Let’s summarize types of computer case

Features Full Tower MidTower Mini Tower SFF/HTPC

The SFF and

HTPC are
The full tower is It has the most The size of the very small in
the largest size common size mini tower is size and light
1. Size for PC users for the smaller than in weight
than all types of average the full and compared to
computer cases. desktop users. mid tower. all the
computer
case.
7
 Cont…

The mid tower The mini The HTPC

The full tower
ranges tower ranges and SFF
ranges
between 15 - between 12 - ranges
between 22 -
2. Length in 22 inches tall 18 inches tall between 10 -
30 inches tall
Inches and 6-10 and 6 -10 14 inches tall
and 9 -13
inches in inches in and 5 - 8
inches in
width. width. inches in
width.
width.
8
 Cont…

The full tower

The mid-tower
supports HTPC and
supports
motherboards It mainly SFF
motherboards
3. like ATX, supports Micro supports Mic
like Mini-ITX,
Motherbo Extended ATX, -ATX and ro-ATX and
Micro ATX,
ard Micro ATX, XL- Mini-ATX Mini-ITX
ATX, E-ATX,
ATX, Mini ITX, motherboards. motherboard
M-ATX.
SSI EEB. s.

9
 Cont…

A mini tower
Full tower is best
case is best for It will be best
for hardcore and It can be best
basic tasks to use as a
professional choice for
such as web home media
Gamers, so as to casual users
browsing, center for
upgrade the PC and even for
accessing streaming
4. Uses later as it provides regular
web-based videos and
additional slots gaming. Best
applications, audios via
and space for choice for the
audio/video connecting
optical bays, newbie
playback, and TV or
airflow units, etc. desktop users.
document monitor.
processing.
10
 Cont…
If you try
fitting
The enormous additional
size and tends graphics cards
It can be a lot
to be very into the tower
There is of work
heavy, which but then
limitation for customizing it
occupies a cooling
additional to fit your
5. Drawback great deal of becomes a
cards and slots wants/needs.
room and is hassle also
for RAM and Also,
difficult to there is no
ROM. upscaling is
hide and much ability
not great
transport. for custom
cooling water
system. 11
 Cont…

It can be
Available at
Very Inexpensive Expensive or
Mid and
6. Cost Expensive. and mid range cost
affordable
affordable. depends on your
range.
needs.

12
Inside the system unit/computer case

13
i.e. Motherboard contain
 Central Processing Unit/Processor/CPU socket/slot
 RAM
 Hard Disk Drive/disk drives
 Cooling Fan
 Power Supply Unit
 Chipsets
 Ports
 BIOS Chip
14
 Cont…

 CMOS Battery (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)

 Power connectors

 Jumpers: used to set up or configure, close, open or bypass part of an electronic

circuit.

 Expansion cards/adapter cards

• Video Cards
• Sound Cards
• Graphic Cards
• Network Adapter 15
System Cover Removal and Replacement
 Computer cases are produced in a variety of form factors. Form factors
refer to the size and shape of the case.

 The standard way of removing tower cases used to be 4-6 screws or one on
the back of the case, slide the cover back about an inch and lift it off.
 To do properly use user manual or manufacturer's website.

oDon't Force Anything

16
Some of the methods system cover removal includes the following:

 Turn off the computer, monitor, and peripherals.

 Unplug your computer from the wall or uninterruptible power supply.
 Remove the screws from your PC’s back or outside edges.
 Remove the PC’s cover or side panel.
 While the case is off, take your PC outside and use a can of compressed air
to blow out all the dust from inside.
 To replace the cover, reverse these steps.

17
Motherboard/System board
 A motherboard is a multi‐layered printed circuit board. It is sometimes
called as Planner Board/ System Board.
 It is the data and power infrastructure for the entire computer.
 It consists CPU, RAM, expansion slots, heat sink/fan assembly, BIOS
chip, chipset, sockets, internal and external connectors, various ports, and
the embedded wires that interconnect the motherboard components, buses,
or electrical pathways found in a computer.
 Buses allow data to travel among the various components.
18
Motherboard Evolution
 System boards fundamentally change for three reasons: new microprocessor
designs, new expansion slot types, and reduced chip counts.
• Reduced chip counts are typically the result of improved microprocessor
support chipsets.
 Even though the system board’s physical structure has changed over time, its
logical structure has remained relatively constant.

19
 Cont…

 Different motherboards have different form factors. Form Factor refers to the

design of the motherboard.

 The form factor is essentially the size, shape and design of the actual

motherboard.

 It describes how the components are laid out /placed and what type of case they
fit into, and what type of power supply the motherboard uses.

 Popular Form Factors include ATX, Micro ATX, BTX, and NLX.
20
Motherboard Form Factor

21
Let’s discuss some of the form factors

AT & Baby AT

 Prior to 1997, IBM computers used large motherboards. After that, however,
the size of the motherboard was reduced and boards using the AT (Advanced
Technology) form factor was released. The AT form factor is found in older
computers.
 Some of the problems with this form factor mainly the physical size of the
board, which is 12" wide, often causing the board to overlap with space
required for the drive bays.
22
 Cont…
 Following the AT form factor, the Baby AT form factor was introduced.
With the Baby AT form factor the width of the motherboard was decreased
from 12" to 8.5", limiting problems associated with overlapping on the
drive bays'
 Baby AT was not without problems however. The processors became
larger, the Baby AT form factor did not allow for space to use a
combination of processor, heat sink, and fan.

23
 Cont…

Figure 2.7 AT motherboard

24
 Cont…

Figure. A late-model Baby-AT motherboard, the Tyan Trinity 100AT (S1590).

Photo courtesy of Tyan Computer Corporation.
25
ATX(Advanced Technology Extended)
 The ATX is a form factor developed by Intel in 1995 to allow easier
expansion.
 Currently, ATX motherboards are the most popular motherboards.
 With most of the components integrated onto the motherboard, there is still
sufficient scope to add additional components.
 ATX provides maximum space for expansion slots and I/O ports. It uses
different I/O ports, USB connector and the PS/2 keyboard and mouse
connectors are stacked or 'layered‘ and hardwired directly to the
motherboard.
26
Some Improvements of the ATX Motherboard Form Factor

 Built-in double high external I/O connector panel

 Single main keyed internal power supply connector

 Relocated CPU and memory

 Relocated internal I/O connectors

 Improved cooling

 Lower cost to manufacture

27
 Cont…

Figure. ATX motherboard 28

BTX (Balanced Technology Extended )
 The major concern behind this design is the layout of heat-producing
components such as chipsets, processors, and graphics controllers.
 BTX is designed to eventually replace the venerable ATX form factor while
addressing ever-increasing component power and cooling requirements, as
well as enabling improved circuit routing and more flexible chassis designs.
 This design specifies that all heat-producing components can use the primary
airflow of the computer thereby reducing the need for additional cooling fans
that produce more noise
29
Cont…

30
 Types of System Boards

There are two major types of system boards: Integrated and Non-integrated.

 Integrated motherboards

 In this type of motherboard is that all major functions are handled by a single

circuit board.

 Advantages integrated system boards were designed for their simplicity.

 Disadvantages when one component fails/breaks, you can’t just replace the

component that’s broken; the whole motherboard must be replaced. Although

they are cheaper to produce, they are more expensive to repair. 31

Non-integrated motherboards
 Non-integrated motherboards do not have all components on them but are
installed as adapter cards on expansion slots. These components include
video cards, disk controllers, network adapters, and audio card.
 Advantage is that if an individual component fails, it can be replaced easily.
 Disadvantage is that the inside of the computer is full of adapters and wires.
 Nonintegrated system boards are also classified by their form factor
(design): AT, ATX, etc.

32
Cont…

33
Chipset
 In a computer system, a chipset is a set of electronic components in an
integrated circuit known as a "Data Flow Management System" that manages
the data flow between the processor, memory and peripherals. It is usually
found on the motherboard.
 The chipset of a motherboard refers to the collection of semiconductor chips
that provide interfaces for expansion cards, memory, peripherals, and
interfaces.
 The chipset usually contains the processor bus interface (called front‐side bus, or
FSB), memory controllers, bus controllers, I/O controllers, and more.
34
 Cont…
 The processor can't talk to the memory, adapter boards, devices, and so on
without going through the chipset.

 If you think of the processor as the brain, the chipset is the spine/backbone, main
hub and central nervous system of the PC.

 The chipset controls mange which type of processor you have; how fast it will
run; how fast the buses will run; the speed, type, and amount of memory you can
use; and more.

35
 Cont…
 The chipset of a motherboard allows the CPU to communicate and interact with the
other components of the computer, and to exchange data with system memory, or
RAM, hard disk drives, video cards, and other output devices.

36
 Motherboard/ Chipset Architecture

Northbridge
 The Northbridge is used to allow communication among high‐speed
peripherals such as memory, the Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
bus, the Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) bus and the Level 2 processor
cache (L2 Cache).
 Northbridge is a chip in the chipset of a motherboard that directly connects to
the CPU.

37
 Cont…

Southbridge
 The Southbridge chipset controls all of the computer’s onboard
Input/output (I/O) functions such as USB, PS/2, parallel, serial, wired, and
wireless LAN ports, audio, and so on.
 Southbridge is a chip in the chipset of a motherboard that directly connects
to the I/O,USB etc.

38
Cont…

39
 Removing and replacing motherboard

Motherboard are generally removed for one of two possible reasons.

 Either the system board has failed and needs to be replaced or

 The user wants to install a new system board with better features.

40
Removal of Motherboard

The removal procedure can be defined in five steps,

1.Remove all external I/O systems.
2.Remove the system unit’s outer cover.
3.Remove the adapter cards.
4.Remove the cables from the system board.
5.Remove the system board.

41
Select a Motherboard
 When you select a replacement motherboard, make sure it supports the CPU,
RAM, video adapter, and other adapter cards.
 The socket and chipset on the motherboard must be compatible with the
CPU.
 The motherboard must accommodate the existing heat sink/fan assembly.
 The existing power supply must have connections that fit the new
motherboard.
 The number and type of expansion slots must match the existing adapter
cards.
 The new motherboard must physically fit into the current computer case.42
Cont…

43
Replace a Motherboard

 To replace a system board, the easiest way to handle this use tape (preferably

masking tape) to mark the wires and their connection points (on the new

system board) before removing any wires from the old system board.

44
 Cause of motherboard problems/failure
 Anything can cause a hardware failure like
 Environmental issues: Heat, humidity, dust, temperature Overheat/extreme
Heat-Cool cycles
 Electrical issues :Static discharge, poor line quality, voltage spikes, fan
failure or heating issues, bad Flash

 Age

 Force or pressure

45
 Motherboard problem symptoms

1.It could be an indication of a motherboard failure when a machine doesn't

function correctly doesn't turn on or keeps freezing.
 These symptoms may also be related to other hardware device failures or
even software failures. In addition, the machine has a known malfunction
issue with the power supply that can cause the motherboard to fail.

2.Machines with power issues will not turn on.

 This may be caused by a power supply failure that can short the motherboard.
Power issues can also be caused by something as simple as a bad power cord.
46
3.Machines with failed motherboards often have blue screens. A user may be
working normally on an application and suddenly experience a blue screen, then
the computer needs to be restarted.
 These blue screens can occur after just a few minutes of turning the computer
on or after a few hours of working on the machine.
 Blue screens are not necessarily an indication of a motherboard issue, but can
also be an indication of failing RAM.
 The solution is to test the memory or replace it to see if the blue screens
continue. If so, then it is probable that the motherboard is failing and needs to
be replaced.
47
4.Computer freezing can be a motherboard problem, but are also associated
with other computer hardware or software issues.
 These freezes are caused by software conflicts or outdated drivers in many
cases. This is particularly true in older machines.
 The easiest way to eliminate the possible causes of the freezing is to update
the BIOS and motherboard drivers from the machine manufacturer site.

48
 Cont…
 After these are downloaded and installed, the computer needs to be used
normally to see if the freezing issue continues.
 Cleaning the inside fans and heat sinks may also eliminate the freezing
issue, since heat caused by slow running fans can also cause freezing.
 Remove RAM modules and switching slots, as well. This may also
eliminate the problem. If none of these work, then the issue may be a failing
machine motherboard.

49
 Memory problem symptoms

Signs of bad memory: some of indicators of faulty memory are :

1. Distorted graphics on screen. This can also be related to the video card.

2. Failure to boot. This can be accompanied by repeated long beeps, which is the accepted
BIOS beep code for a memory problem. In this circumstance, you cannot test the
memory with diagnostic software, so your only option is testing by replacement, either
at home or at your computer dealer. (black screen with beep sound)

• Note : black screen with out beep sound is symptom for VGA card failure.

3. Continuous restart of the system. (This system may be the symptom for operating
system failure)
50
System Board Symptoms

So much of the system’s operation is based on the system board that it can have
several different types of symptoms. Typical symptoms associated with system
board hardware failures include the following:

 The On/Off indicator lights are visible, the display is visible on the monitor
screen, but there is no disk drive action and no boot up.

 The On/Off indicator lights are visible, the hard drive spins up, but the
system appears dead and there is no boot up.

51
 Cont…
 The system locks up during normal operation.

 The system produces a beep code of 1 long and 3 short beeps.

 The system will not hold date and time.

 An 8042 Gate A20 Error message displays—error getting into protected

mode.

 An Invalid Switch Memory Failure message displays.

 A DMA Error message displays—DMA controller failed page register test.

 A 201 error code displays, indicating a RAM failure.

52
 Cont…

 A CMOS Battery Low message displays, indicating failure of CMOS battery

or CMOS checksum test.

 A CMOS System Option Not Set message displays indicating failure of

CMOS battery or CMOS checksum test.

 A CMOS Checksum Failure message displays, indicating CMOS battery low

or CMOS checksum test failure.

 A parity check error message displays, indicating a RAM error.

53
 Cont….

Typical symptoms associated with system board setup failures include the
following:
 A CMOS In operational message displays, indicating failure of CMOS
shutdown register.
 A Display Switch Setting Not Proper message displays—failure to verify
display type.
 A CMOS Display Mismatch message displays—failure of display-type
verification.
54
 Cont…
 A CMOS Memory Size Mismatch message displays—system
configuration and setup failure.
 A CMOS Time & Date Not Set message displays—system configuration
and setup failure.
 An IBM-compatible error code displays, indicating that a configuration
problem has occurred.

55
 Cont…
 RAM chip failure
 Video Card failure
 CPU chip failure
 Leaky CMOS battery
 Foreign material that allows a short to occur
 Dust - Conductive Thermal Compound -
 Power Supply Failure/Out of Tolerance
 Powerful Magnetic field nearby
56
 Cont…
Typical symptoms associated with system board I/O failures include the
following:
 Speaker doesn’t work during operation. The rest of the system works, but
no sounds are produced through the speaker.
 Keyboard does not function after being replaced with a known good unit.

57
 Cont….

The system board normally marks the end of any of the various troubleshooting
schemes given for different system components. It occupies this position for two
reasons.

 First, the system board supports most of the other system components,
either directly or indirectly.

 Second, it is the system component that requires the most effort to replace
and test.

58
Motherboard/ System Board Troubleshooting
 A computer motherboard is one of the most hardest pieces of hardware to
troubleshoot, because the symptoms are too similar to other pieces, the best
way to make sure the motherboard is failing is to boot your computer with
just crucial components connected (CPU, RAM, and motherboard), and see
what happens, if it displays the same symptoms, then you have 3 suspects..

59
 Cont…
 If the problem is when booting Windows, then you will have to include the
hard drive, but the hard drive troubleshooting symptoms are much
different from that of a motherboard, so don't worry about this, just install
it if your computer seems to pass the initial boot.
 Remember that troubleshooting your computer it's just like playing the
game "Clue" you need to eliminate the suspects in order to find the culprit.
Keep in mind that it's very rare for a motherboard to fail especially if it's a
good motherboard, so try every troubleshooting available.

60
Failure symptoms

Motherboard failures can be similar to the ones the power supply has,

 Everything powers on but you can't see a live screen

 Computer turns on for just a few seconds then turns off

 Some peripherals work others don't

 System shuts off randomly.

61
 Cont…
 If you live in a place with a lot of voltage spikes, I suggest you get a voltage
regulator outlet or a backup (this usually comes with this feature) and will
prolong your motherboard life over time. Clean your fans at least once a year
even if you live in a clean place, dust can play a significant part in hardware
failures, from fans not working to hardware connectors not working well
because of dust.

62
Solutions

There are two things that can be done to try to save your motherboard, these
things can be done whenever your BIOS fails to register a new component
and you are sure it's the motherboard:

 Check the cable connections

 Reset the CMOS

 Update the BIOS

63
 Cont…
Prolong your motherboard life
 To keep your motherboard running effectively for years, just make sure
your computer is clear of dust, dust makes the fan work more and this
cause a reduced life span, if the fans fail to produce enough cooling to your
computer not just the motherboard, ALL of the hardware components take
a beating, so be careful about this.

64
End of Chapter Two
.
.
.
.
.
Chapter Three

65
 1

Chapter Four

Computer Memory
 2

Chapter content:

 Memory

 What is Physical memory packaging

 Types of memory

oRandom Access Memory

oRead-only Memory and

oCache Memory

 Identify Memory Problems and Upgrading

 3

What is Memory?
 4

Memory

 A memory is just like a human brain. It used to store data and instructions.

 It is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and

instructions required for processing are stored.

 The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each

location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size
minus one.

 For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 *

1024 = 65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to
65535.
 5

Physical memory packaging

 Memory is added in the form of modules is called physical memory packaging

(PMP). PMP divided into two categories:

Signal Inline Memory Module (SIMM): it appears with a 30 pin and 72 pin
variations. SIMMs are considered legacy components and can be found in older
machines. It providing a single line of communication paths between the module
and system.

Dual Inline Memory Module (DIMM): is becoming the standard for new PCs
and it has 168 pins in size. It providing two line of connection paths between the
module and the system one in the front and on in the back.
6

Cont…
 7

Types of Memory

 Primary /Main Memory

 Secondary/Auxiliary Memory

 Cache Memory
 8

Primary Memory

 Primary Memory (also known as main memory ). It is the component of

the computer that holds data , programs and instructions that are currently
in use.

 The data and instruction required to be processed reside in main memory.

 Data can be read from and written to primary storage extremely quickly.

 Primary Memory is located on the motherboard.

 9

Characteristics of Primary Memory

 Made up of semiconductor device

 It has limited capacity

 It has faster than secondary memories and are not as fast as registers.

 They are volatile Memory. How?

 A computer cannot run without primary memory.

 They can be accessed directly with the CPU

 10

Functions of Primary Memory:

 It holds the OS instructions while the computer is booting.

 It temporarily holds the input instructions from the input devices while the

data is being processed.

 It stores the results temporarily until it is transferred to the respective

output devices.
 11

Types of Primary Memory/Main Memory

 12

Random Access Memory (RAM)

 It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As

soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased (it is volatile). .

 It used for holding programs and data being executed.

 A common RAM sizes are 1GB, 2GB, 4GB, 8GB, & more (in multiples of 2).

 If a computer is running a 32-bit processor, the maximum amount of

RAM it can address is 4GB. Computers running 64-bit processors can

hypothetically handle hundreds of terabytes of RAM.
13

Cont.…
 14

Advantages of RAM

 Increases the computer system speed, a system has the faster it will operate.

 Which will be directly processed by the CPU.

 It’s efficient. It’s extremely fast compared to hard drive storage for a CPU to

read data from.

 It can write and read operations.

 RAM is power efficient.

 Cost less than SSD’s and operate faster than them.

 15

Disadvantages of RAM:

 If CPU wants to read data only from the RAM, then the data access from the

cache and the registers is slow in comparison to ROM.

 RAM is volatile, which means it is difficult to store data for a lengthy period

of time. Unplanned circumstances like a power outage can result in data loss.

 It is expensive.
 16

Types of Random Access Memory (RAM)

 17

SRAM and DRAM

 SRAM (static RAM) that retains data bits in its memory as long as power is

being supplied.

 Dynamic RAM is the most common type of memory in use today. Inside a

dynamic RAM chip, each memory cell holds one bit of information and is
made up of two parts: a transistor and a capacitor. These are, of course,
extremely small transistors and capacitors so that millions of them can fit on
a single memory chip. The capacitor holds the bit of information -- a 0 or a
1 and the transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the
memory chip read the capacitor or change its state.
 18

Characteristics of SRAM (Static RAM)

 Doesn’t require regular refreshment

 Have speed of much higher than DRAM,

 Uses 6 or more transistors to hold a single bit.

 Costly than DRAM

 High power consumption than DRAM.

 Used as cache memory

 Long life

 Large size
 19

Characteristics of DRAM (Dynamic RAM)

 Relatively simple and inexpensive to produce.

 Needs only one transistor and capacitor to hold a bit.

 Consumes the least power & least in performance.

 Needs to be refreshed continuously.

 Short data lifetime

 Slower as compared to SRAM

 Used as RAM

 Smaller in size
 20

Read Only Memory (ROM)

 In ROM only read but cannot write on it. It is non-volatile. The

information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture.

A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. i.e.
operation is referred to as bootstrap (start-up or "boot" instructions).

 ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic

devices like washing machine and microwave oven.

 21

Advantages of ROM

 Non-volatile in nature

 Cannot be accidentally changed

 Cheaper than RAMs

 More reliable than RAMs

 Static and do not require refreshing

 Contents are always known and can be verified

 22

Disadvantages of ROM

 ROM is a read only memory unit, so it can’t be modified.

 If any changes are required, it’s not possible.

 23

Types of ROM
 24

Cont..

5. Mask ROM: is a read-only memory whose contents are programmed by

the integrated circuit manufacturer (rather than by the user).
 25
Difference between RAM and ROM

Difference RAM ROM

RAM is a volatile memory which ROM is a non-volatile memory

Data
could store the data as long as the which could retain the data even
retention
power is supplied. when power is turned off.

Working Data stored in RAM can be Data stored in ROM can only be
type retrieved and altered. read.
Used to store the data that has to be
It stores the instructions required
Use currently processed by CPU
during bootstrap of the computer.
temporarily.

Speed It is a high-speed memory. It is much slower than the RAM.

 26

Cont.…
The CPU can not access the
The CPU can access the
CPU Interaction data stored on it unless the data
data stored on it.
is stored in RAM.
Size and Large size with higher
Small size with less capacity.
Capacity capacity.
CPU Cache, Primary
Used as/in Firmware, Micro-controllers
memory.

The data stored is easily The data stored is not as easily

Accessibility
accessible accessible as in RAM

Cost Costly cheaper than RAM.

 27

Secondary Memory

 This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It

is slower than main memory. These are used for storing data/information
permanently.

 CPU does not access directly these memories instead they are accessed via
input-output routines. i.e. contents of secondary memories are first
transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it.

 For example: Hard disk, flash drive, CD-ROM, DVD etc.

28

Cont.…
 29

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories.

 It is known as the backup memory.

 It is a non-volatile memory.

 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.

 Computer may run without the secondary memory.

 Slower than primary memories.

We will see them in detail in chapter six.

 30

Cache Memory:

 It is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU.

 It can be either a reserved section of main memory or an independent high-

speed storage device.

 It acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold

data and program which are most frequently used by CPU. Those data's and
programs are transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system,
from where CPU can access them.

 Buffer: it used to store data temporarily while it is being moved from one

place to another.
31

Cont.…
 32

Types of caching in personal computers:

 Memory caching : also called a cache store or RAM cache, is a portion of

memory made of high-speed static RAM instead of the slower and cheaper
dynamic RAM used for main memory.

 Disk caching: it is effective because most programs access the same data or

instructions over and over. By keeping as much of this information as

possible in SRAM, the computer avoids accessing the slower DRAM.
 33

Cont…

 Disk caching can dramatically improve the performance of applications,

because accessing a byte of data in RAM can be thousands of times faster than
accessing a byte on a hard disk.

 When data is found in the cache, it is called a cache hit, and the effectiveness of

a cache is judged by its hit rate.

 Many cache systems use a technique known as smart caching, in which the

system can recognize certain types of frequently used data.

 34

Advantages

 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

 It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages

 Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive.
 35

To Summing Up
 36

Common memory problems

When you have a problem with memory, the cause is usually one of three things:

 Improper configuration: you have the wrong part for your computer or did

not follow the configuration rules.

 Improper installation: the memory may not be seated correctly, a socket is

bad, or the socket may need cleaning.

 Defective hardware: the memory module itself is defective.

 37

Basic troubleshooting

The following basic steps apply to almost all situations:

 Make sure you have the right memory part for your computer: At the
manufacturer's Web site you can look up the part number. Many memory
manufacturers have configurators, which indicate the compatibilities of
your module. If not, phone the memory manufacturer, consult your
computer manual, or phone the computer manufacturer.
 38

Cont.…

 Confirm that you configured the memory correctly: Many

computers require module installation in banks of equal-capacity
modules. Some computers require the highest capacity module to be in
the lowest labeled bank. Other computers require that all sockets be
filled; still others require single-banked memory. These are only a few
examples of special configuration requirements. Use upgrade manual
to look up configuration rules specific to your computer. You can also
contact technical support for your memory or computer manufacturer.
 39

Cont.…
 Re-install the module: Push the module firmly into the socket. To make

sure you have a module all the way in the socket, compare the height of the
module to the height of other modules in neighboring sockets.

 Swap modules: Remove the new memory and see whether the problem

disappears. Remove the old memory, reinstall the new, and see whether the
problem persists. Try the memory in different sockets. Swapping reveals
whether the problem is a particular memory module or socket, or whether
two types of memory aren't compatible.
 40

Cont.…
 Clean the socket and pins on the memory module: Use a soft cloth to

wipe the pins on the module. Use a PC vacuum or compressed air to blow
dust off the socket. Do NOT use solvent, which may corrode the metal or
prevent the leads from making full contact. Flux Off is a cleaner used
specifically for contacts. You can purchase it at electronics or computer
equipment stores.
 41

Cont..

 Update the BIOS: Computer manufacturers update BIOS information

frequently and post revisions on their Web sites. Make sure you have the
most recent BIOS for your computer. This applies especially when you have
recently installed new software or you are significantly upgrading memory.
 42

When the problem occurs

When the problem occurs is a clue as to the cause.

For example, your response to a memory error message depends on whether:

 You have just bought a new computer.

 You have just installed new memory.

 You have just installed new software or a new operating system.

 You have just installed or removed hardware.

 Your computer has been running fine and you've made no other recent

changes/unexpected problems.
 43

Cont.…

 You've just bought a new computer

If you have just purchased a new computer and it is producing memory

errors, the problem could be related to anything, including a bad

computer board. In this case, you need to troubleshoot the entire
computer, including memory. To resolve such problems when we bought
a new computer the computer dealer will have configured memory and
run system tests before shipping, they can best help.
 44

Cont..
 You've just installed new memory

If you have just installed new memory, the first possibility is that you

installed incorrect parts. Double-check the part numbers. Confirm that

you have configured and installed the memory correctly.
 45

Cont.…

 You've installed new software or operating system

Newer software or operating systems tend to push memory harder than older

operating systems. Sometimes memory that worked fine prior to a software

installation begins producing errors once it runs memory-intensive software.
In these cases, your first step should be to ensure you have the latest BIOS
and service patches for your software. Otherwise contact the memory vendor.
A technical support representative may have experience with other software
incidents and can walk you through more-detailed troubleshooting.
 46

Cont.…
 You've installed or removed hardware

If you have just installed or removed hardware and suddenly receive memory

error messages, the first place to look is in the computer itself. A connection
may have come loose during the installation or the new hardware may be
defective; in either case the errors are manifesting themselves as memory
problems. Make sure you have the latest drivers and firmware. Most hardware
manufacturers will post updates on their Web sites.
 47

Unexpected problems

If your system has been running fine, but suddenly starts to produce memory

errors, and crash or lock up frequently, the chance of a hardware failure is

more likely, since configuration and installation problems show up as soon as
the computer turns on. Sometimes you can get memory problems if your
computer is overheating, if you are having a problem with your power supply,
or if corrosion has developed between the memory module and the socket,
weakening the connection.
 48

Handling specific problems

Here is a list of the most common ways the computer informs you of a memory
problem.

 The computer won't boot, merely beeps.

 The computer boots but the screen is blank.

 49

Cont.…
 The computer reports a memory error.

Memory mismatch

Memory parity interrupt

Memory address error

Memory failure

Memory verify error

 50

Cont.…

 The computer has other problems caused by memory.

The computer intermittently/recurrently reports errors, crashes frequently, or

suddenly reboots.

Registry Errors

General-protection faults, page faults, and exception errors

 The server system manager reports a memory error.

The following translations help you understand what the computer

means when it gives you one of these signals.

 51

 Computer won't boot, merely beeps.

Every time the computer starts, it takes inventory of hardware. Inventory consists

of the computer BIOS recognizing, acknowledging, and in some cases, assigning

addresses to, the components in the computer.

If the computer won't boot, the CPU is unable to communicate with hardware.
The cause can be improper installation or failure of the BIOS to recognize
hardware.

Follow basic troubleshooting, paying special attention to whether the memory

module is completely installed and that you have the latest version of the BIOS.
 52

Cont.…

 Computer boots but doesn't recognize all the installed memory:

When the computer boots, a part of the process is counting memory. On

some machines the count appears on the screen and on others is

masked/covered. If the count is masked, from the computer set-up menu

see how much memory the computer thinks it has.

If the computer counts to or lists a number less than the memory you

installed, the computer hasn't recognized all the memory.

 53

Cont.…

In many computers the maximum amount of memory the computer can

recognize is lower than the maximum amount you can physically install. In

most cases you can avoid this problem by consulting your computer manual or a

memory configuration Web site before purchasing memory.

 54

Cont.…

 The computer boots but the screen is blank: The most common reason for

a blank screen is a dislodged/removed card, memory not fully seated, or

memory the computer doesn't support. Confirm that the memory is installed
properly and that other components in the computer were not accidentally
disconnected or dislodged while you installed memory.
 55

Cont.…

 The computer reports a memory error (Why)

Memory mismatch error: This is not actually an error. Some computers

require you to tell them that it's OK to have a new amount of memory. Use
the set-up menu to tell the computer. Follow the prompts, enter the new
amount, select Save, and exit.
 56

 Computer memory or address errors: All of the following errors, and those similar

to them, indicate that the computer has a problem with memory:

Memory parity interrupt

Memory address error

Memory failure

Memory verification error

 Typically the computer will perform a simple memory test as it boots. The computer

will write information to memory and read it back. If the computer doesn't get what it
was expecting, then it will report an error and sometimes give the address where the
error occurred.
 57

Cont.…
 Such errors normally indicate a problem with a memory module but can

sometimes indicate a defective motherboard or incompatibility between old and

new memory. To verify that the new memory is causing the problem, remove
the new memory and see whether the problem goes away. Then remove the old
memory and install only the new memory.

 If the error persists, phone the memory manufacturer and ask for a replacement.
 58

The computer has other problems caused by memory

 The Computer Intermittently Reports Errors, Crashes Frequently, or

Suddenly Reboots: Because of the large number of causes, these problems

are difficult to diagnose. Possible causes are ESD (Electro-static Discharge),
overheating, corrosion, or a faulty power supply. If you suspect ESD damage,
contact the memory manufacturer and ask for a replacement. If you suspect
corrosion, clean the memory contacts and the sockets. If you suspect the
power supply, you will have to do overall computer troubleshooting with a
focus on the power supply.
 59

 Registry Errors: Windows writes a large portion of the registry to RAM.

Sometimes defective memory will cause registry errors. Windows reports a

registry error and prompts you to restart and restore. If the prompts repeat,
remove your newly installed memory and restart the computer. If the errors
disappear, ask the memory manufacturer for replacement modules.
 60

 General-Protection Faults, Page Faults, and Exception Errors: The most

common cause is software. For example, one application may not have
released the memory after quitting or occupies the same memory addresses
as another. In these cases, rebooting should solve the problem. If the
computer suddenly displays general-protection faults, exception errors, or
page faults after you have installed new memory, remove the new memory
and see whether the errors stop. If they occur only when the new memory is
installed, contact the memory manufacturer for assistance.
 61

 The server system manager reports a memory error: Most servers ship

with system managers that monitor component utilization and test for
abnormalities. Some of these system managers count soft errors in memory.
Soft errors have been corrected by Error Correcting Code (ECC) memory. If
the rate of soft errors is higher than specifications, however, the system
manager issues a pre-failure warning. This warning enables the network
administrator to replace the memory and prevent system downtime.
 62

Cont...

If the system manager on your server issues a pre-failure warning or other

memory error, ask your memory manufacturer for a replacement. If the system
manager continues to issue errors after memory replacement, make sure you
have the latest BIOS, software service patches, and firmware. The chance of
receiving two bad memory modules in a row is low. Contact the memory
manufacturer for compatibility troubleshooting. Sometimes the server does
not work well with certain types of memory chips or certain memory designs.
 63

End of Chapter four

Chapter Five
 Chapter Five
Power Supplies

1
Chapter content:

 Power supplies

 Types of power supply

 Batteries

 Troubleshooting the Power Supply

2
 Power Supply

 A power supply is an electrical device that offers electric power to an

electrical load such as laptop computer, server, or other electronic devices.

 The main function of a power supply is to convert electric current from a

source to the correct voltage, current, and frequency to power the load.

 The power supply converts alternating-current (AC) power coming from a

wall outlet into direct-current (DC) power, which is a lower voltage.

3
 Cont…
 It must provide enough power for the installed components and future

additions.

 DC power is required for all of the components inside the computer.

 It is an internal hardware component used to supply power the components

inside a computer like CPU, expansion cards, RAM, Chipsets, etc.

4
 Cont.…
 Cables, connectors, and components are designed to fit together comfortably
to power supply.

 All PCs are given power supply by switch mode power supply(SMPS). It is

an electronic circuit which converts the power using switching devices that

are turned on and off at high frequencies, and storage components such as

indicators or capacitors to supply power when the switching device is in its

non-conduction state.
5
 Cont.…

 SMPS are digital in nature, the other Linear mode power supply(LMPS) are
based on transformers. It is are designed for low noise and are often
considered quiet since there is no high-frequency switching.

 Never force any connector or component to connect.

6
 Types of Power connector

 Most connectors today are keyed/socketed pair connectors. Keyed

connectors are designed to be inserted in only one direction. Each part of
the connector has a colored wire with a different voltage running through it.

 Different connectors are used to connect specific components and various

locations on the motherboard:

 Molex connector: used to connect to an optical drive or a hard drive. it

provides both+12 and +5 volt power.

 Berg connector: used to connect to a floppy drive and Fan. 7

 Cont…

 A 20-pin or 24-pin slotted connector: is used to connect to the

motherboard. The 20-pin slotted connector has two rows of 10-pins each,
and 24-pin slotted connector has two rows of 12-pins each.

 A 4-pin to 8-pin auxiliary power connector: has two rows of two to four
pins and supplies power to all areas of the motherboard. The 4-pin to 8-
pin auxiliary power connector is the same shape as the main power
connector, but smaller.
8
 Installing Power Supply

Steps to install power supply:

 Insert the power supply and secure it to the board.

 Connect it to the motherboard and other devices requiring power.

 Plug in the power cord and check whether all devices are supplied the exact
voltage.

9
Cont…

10
 Types of power supply

The PC can't do much without power. There are 2 different types of power
supplies that correspond to 2 different types of motherboards, and hence,
case designs.

 AT Power Supplies : designed to support AT-compatible system boards

and

 ATX Power Supplies: designed according to newer ATX design .

11
 AT Power Supply

 This is an older design in which the connector to the system board uses
two 6-pin (P8/P9) system board connections. P8 should be plugged into P1
on the system board and P9 should be connected to P2.

 In the AT-compatible power supply, the cooling fan pulls air through the
case from the front and consumes/uses it out the rear of the power-supply
unit.

 Conversely, the ATX design pulls air in through the rear of the power-
supply unit and blows it directly on the ATX system board. 12
 AT Power Connector

 The P8/P9 connectors are normally keyed and numbered. However, their
construction and appearance are identical. The power connector labeled P8.

 P8/P9 connectors used to connect power supply to the motherboard on AT.

 The circuit board power connector labeled P1, whereas connector P9 should
be plugged into the P2 connector next to it.

Note: Don’t Switch the P8/P9 Connectors! The voltage levels of each plug
differ. Reversing them can cause severe damage.
13
 Cont…

 When connecting P8 and P9 to the motherboard, keep the black ground wires
next to each other. All AT motherboards and power supplies follow this rule.
Be careful!! Incorrectly inserting P8 and P9 can damage both the power
supply and other components in the PC.

14
 ATX Power Supply

 A newer specification that uses a single 20 pin connection to the system

board.

 ATX power supplies add an additional voltage of +3.3V.

15
 ATX Power Connector

 ATX uses a single P1 power connector instead of the P8 and P9

commonly found on AT systems. The P1 connector requires its own
special socket on the motherboard. P1connectors include a 3.3-volt
wire along with the standard 5-volt and 12-volt wires.

16
Cont…

17
 Batteries

 Laptops and portables utilize has an external power supply and

rechargeable battery system. Batteries were typically nickel-cadmium. It
is a type of rechargeable battery using nickel hydroxide and
metallic cadmium as electrodes.), but newer technologies have introduced
nickel metal-hydride and lithium-ion batteries that provide extended life
and shorter recharge times. Lithium batteries are also used to power a
computer's CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) ROM.
18
Cont…

19
 Select batteries

 Guidelines for selecting a replacement battery include:

 Matches the model of the laptop,

 Does it Fit the laptop?

 Is it compatible with battery connection? and

 Does it has correct voltage requirements?

 If you experience problems that you suspect are battery related, exchange
the battery with a known, good battery that is compatible with the laptop.

 If a replacement battery cannot be located, take the battery to an authorized

20

repair center for testing.

NOTE:

 Always follow the instructions provided by the manufacturer when

charging a new battery. The laptop can be used during an initial charge,
but do not unplug the AC adapter. When the battery is completely
discharged, it should then be charged to maximum capacity.

21
CAUTION:

 Care should always be taken when handling batteries. Batteries can

explode/ burst if improperly charged, shorted, or mishandled.

 Be sure that the battery charger is designed for the chemistry, size, and
voltage of your battery.

 Batteries are considered toxic waste, and must be disposed of according to

local laws.

22
 Power Supply Troubleshooting

 Troubleshooting the power supply basically means isolating the supply as

the cause of problems within a system and, if necessary, replacing it.

CAUTION

 Before trying to repair a power supply must be discharged (like a monitor)

before service. Because of the dangerous high voltages present. Even
when unplugged, power supplies can retain dangerous voltage.

23
 Power Supply Unit Related Issues and Causes
 The PSU regulates and provides power to internal system components
thus, using a known good power supply unit is essential when
troubleshooting a system with stability issues.
 The following fairly obvious symptoms point right to the power supply as
a possible cause:
 No fan, broken fan, no cursor)
 Smoke
 Blown circuit breakers/ Small brownouts
24

 Electric shocks
 The following is a list of PC problems that often are related to the power
supply:

 Boot failure

 Random crash, hang, reboot

 Display corruption

 Stops working completely

 Overheats due to excessive dust and poor ventilation caused by a broken fan

 No longer outputs the specified wattage

25
 Does not meet total system power requirements
 Cont.…

 Any power-on or system startup failures or lockups.

 Spontaneous rebooting or intermittent lockups during normal operation.

 Intermittent parity check or other memory-type errors.

 Hard disk and fan simultaneously failing to spin (no +12v).

 Small brownouts cause the system to reset.

 Electric shocks felt on the system case or connectors.

 Slight static discharges disrupt system operation.

26
 Troubleshooting Tips

 Depending on the symptom, the following troubleshooting steps can help

determine if the issue is related to the PSU.

Note! If you do not feel comfortable with or are unable to remove/replace the
PSU on your own, please consult with an expert for assistance.

 System does not power on,

 Plug the PSU power cable into a known working power outlet,

 Swap the PSU power cable with known working cable,

27
 Cont.…

 Verify the PSU power cable and internal power adapters are secure connected.

 Check the PSU for any damage caused by overheating or excessive wear.

 Verify that the PSU exceeds the combined system power requirements:

 Check the PSU’s rated output wattage which can be found on a label
attached to the unit.

 Use a power supply/wattage calculator to determine the total wattage

requirement of all installed system components and compare it to the rated
wattage output of the PSU. 28
 Cont.….

 Test the system with known working PSU of equal or greater wattage.

 System suffers from crashes, hangs, reboots, and/or display corruption:

 Check the PSU fan to ensure that it is operating normally, and there is good air
flow through the unit.

 If the vents are blocked by dust, use a compressed air duster to safely
remove the dust.

 Test the system with a known working PSU equal or greater wattage.
29
Following is a simple flowchart to help you zero in on common power
supply–related problems:

 Check AC power input. Make sure the cord is firmly seated in the wall
socket and in the power supply socket. Try a different cord.

 Check DC power connections. Make sure the motherboard and disk drive
power connectors are firmly seated and making good contact. Check for
loose screws.

30
 Cont.….

 Check DC power output. Use a digital multi-meter to check for proper

voltages. If it's below spec, replace the power supply.

 Check installed peripherals. Remove all boards and drives and retest the
system.

31
End of Chapter Five

Chapter Six 32
Chapter Seven

Bus and Cards

1
Chapter Contents:
Bus

 Types of Bus
 Expansion Buses
Cards

 The Video Card

 The Sound Card
 Network Card

2
What is a computer bus?

 Computer bus is a common pathway through which information flows

from one computer component to another.

 It is a group of lines/wires which is a means of shared transmission by

carry computer signals.

 The purpose of bus is to reduce the number of "pathways" needed for

communication between the components, by carrying out all

communications over a single data channel.

3
 Cont.…

 It encompasses all the components related to hardware (wire, optical fiber,

etc.) and software, including communication protocol.

 A bus, for instance, carries data through the motherboard between a CPU
(Central Processing Unit) and the system memory.

4
Functions of Buses in Computers

 Data sharing - The buses transfer or send data either in the serial or

parallel method of data transfer. This allows for the exchange of 1, 2, 4

or even 8 bytes of data at a time.
 Addressing - A bus has address lines, which match those of the

processor. This allows data to be sent to or from specific memory

locations.

5
 Cont.…
 Power - A bus supplies power to various peripherals connected to it.
 Timing - bus provides a system clock signal to synchronize/coordinate the
peripherals attached to it with the rest of the system.
The expansion bus facilitates the easy connection of additional components
and devices on a computer such as a TV card or sound card.

6
What are the different types of computer buses?

 System bus: used to connects the CPU to the motherboard’s main

memory. It is also known as a front-side bus, a memory bus, a local bus.

7
 Cont.…
 I / O Buses: connecting various peripheral devices to the CPU. These
devices connect to the system bus through a ‘bridge’. I / O bus include
“expansion bus,” “external bus” or a host bus.

8
Characteristics of a bus

 A bus is characterized by the amount of information (bits) that it can

transmit at once.

 Each wire in the bus carries a single bit of information, which means the

more wires a bus has the more information it can transfer. For example, a
32-wire ribbon cable can transmit 32 bits in parallel.

9
 Cont…

 The bus speed is also defined by its frequency, the number of data packets
sent or received per second. Each time that data is sent or received is called
a cycle. So, a computer or device's bus speed is listed as a MHz, e.g.
100MHz.

 To find the maximum transfer speed (Throughput (bps or MB/s)) of the

bus. i.e the amount of data which it can transport per unit of time, by
multiplying its width by its frequency.

10
 Cont.…

 For example, a bus with a width of 16 bits and a frequency of 133 MHz,
therefore, has a transfer speed equal to:

= 16 bits × 133*106Hz

= 2128 × 106 bits/second

= 266 × 106 bytes/second

= 266 × 103 KB/s=>266 MB/s

11
 Types of Buses

There are three types of buses:

Address buses

Data buses

Control Buses

12
Address bus
 It carries memory addresses from the processor to other components

such as primary storage and I/O devices.

 Before data or instruction can be written into or read from memory by

the CPU or I/O sections, and address must be transmitted to memory

over the address bus.
 It used by the CPU or a direct memory access (DMA) enabled device to

locate the physical address to communicate read/write commands.

13
 Cont…
 An address is defined as a label, symbol or other set of characters used to
label a location or where information is stored.
 The address bus contains a set of wires to carry information in and out of
the processor, but the information the address bus sends is addressing
information used to describe memory locations. This location is used for
data being sent or retrieved.
 Each wire in the bus carries a single bit of information, which means the
more wires an address bus has the more information it can address.
14
Data bus

 It carries the data between the processor and other components.

 It allows for the transferring of data from one component to another on a

motherboard or system board, or between two computers.

 The bidirectional data bus, sometimes called the memory bus, handles

the transfer of all data and instructions between functional areas of the
computer. It only transmit one direction at a time.

15
 Cont…
 The data bus is used to transfer instructions:-

o From memory to the CPU for execution.

o Between memory and the I/O section during input/output operation.
o To and from the memory, or from the central processing unit (CPU)
to other components.
 The amount of data a data bus can handle is called bandwidth.

16
Control bus
 It carries control signals from the processor to other components.

 It used by the CPU to direct and monitor the actions of the other

functional areas of the computer.

 It is used to transmit a variety of individual signals (read, write, interrupt,

acknowledge, etc.) necessary to control and coordinate the

operations of the computer.
 The individual signals transmitted over the control bus and their functions

are covered in the appropriate functional area description.

17
The direction of signal flow for the different buses

18
Expansion Bus

 An input/output pathway from the CPU to peripheral devices. It provides

an input/output pathway for transferring information between internal

hardware, such as RAM or the CPU, and expansion devices such as a
graphics card or sound card.

 It holds a series of slots on the motherboard into which cards are

inserted. PCI and PCI Express (PCI-X) are common expansion buses in
computers.

19
These are some of the common expansion bus types that have been used

in computers:

 ISA - Industry Standard Architecture

 EISA - Extended Industry Standard Architecture

 MCA - Micro Channel Architecture

 VESA - Video Electronics Standards Association

 PCI - Peripheral Component Interconnect

20
 Cont.…
 PCI Express (PCI-X)

 AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port

 PCMCIA - Personal Computer Memory Card Industry Association (Also

called PC bus)

 SCSI - Small Computer Systems Interface

21
Industry Standard Architecture (ISA)

 This means that the data transfers take place in 8-bit chunks (i.e., one
byte at a time) across the bus. When it first appeared, the 8-bit ISA bus
ran at a speed of 4.77MHz – the same speed as the processor.
Improvements done over the years eventually made the AT bus ran at a clock
speed of 8MHz.

22
 Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA)

 The bus architecture was designed to use a 32-bit data path and provided

32 address lines, giving access to 4GB of memory.

 EISA cards were relatively expensive and were normally found on high-

speed workstations and network servers.

23
 Micro Channel Architecture (MCA)

 It ran at a faster speed of 10MHz and supported either 16-bit or 32-bit data

 One advantage of MCA was that the plug-in cards were software
configurable; this means that they required minimal intervention by the
user when configuring.

24
Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE)

 IDE is more commonly known as ATA or Parallel ATA (PATA).

 It is a standard interface for IBM compatible hard drives and CD or
DVD drives.
 IDE is different than SCSI and Enhanced Small Device Interface (ESDI)
because its controllers are on each drive, meaning the drive can connect
directly to the motherboard or controller.
 Connect the drive to the connector on the motherboard by using a 40-
wire or 80-wire IDE ribbon cable.
25
Cont…

26
SATA (SerialATA)

 SerialATA is capable of delivering 1.5 Gbps (1500 MBps) of

performance to each drive within a disk array.

 SATA cable helps make easier cable routing and offers better airflow in
the computer when compared to the earlier ribbon cables.

27
Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA)

 It ran at the same clock frequency as the host CPU. But this became a
problem as processor speeds increased because, the faster the peripherals
are required to run, the more expensive they are to manufacture.

 Some features of the VESA local bus cards are 32-bit interface,62/36-pin
connector and 90+20 pin VESA local bus extension.

28
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)

 It is one of the latest developments in bus architecture and is the current

standard for PC expansion cards. It supports both 32-bit and 64-bit data
width. The bus data width is equal to the processor, such as a 32-bit
processor would have a 32 bit PCI bus, and operates at 33MHz.

 PCI was used in developing Plug and Play (PnP) and all PCI cards
support PnP. This means a user can plug a new card into the computer,
power it on and it will “self-identify” and “self-specify” and start
working without manual configuration using jumpers.
29
Cont…

30
Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP)

 It used to operate high quality and very fast performance of video on

computers. This means that video information is sent more quickly to the

card for processing.

 It uses the main PC memory to hold 3D images. In effect, this gives the

AGP video card an unlimited amount of video memory.

 Data transfer rate ranges from 264 Mbps to 528mbps, 800 Mbps up to 1.5

Gbps. AGP connector is identified by its brown colour.

31
Cont…

32
Universal Serial Bus (USB)

 This is an external bus standard that supports data transfer rates of 12

Mbps. A single USB port connects up to 127 peripheral devices, such as
mice, modems, and keyboards etc. The USB also supports hot plugging or
insertion (ability to connect a device without turning the PC off) and plug
and play (You connect a device and start using it without configuration).

33
We have two versions of USB.

USB 1x

 First released in 1996, the original USB 1.0 standard offered data rates of

1.5 Mbps. The USB 1.1 standard followed with two data rates: 12 Mbps
for devices such as disk drives that need high-speed throughput and 1.5
Mbps for devices such as joysticks that need much less bandwidth.

34
USB 2x

 In 2002, a newer specification USB 2.0, also called Hi-Speed USB 2.0,

was introduced. It increased the data transfer rate for PC to a USB device
to 480 Mbps, which is 40 times faster than the USB 1.1 specification.
With the increased bandwidth, high throughput peripherals such as digital
cameras, CD burners, and video equipment could now be connected with
USB.

35
IEEE 1394

 The IEEE 1394 is a very fast external serial bus interface standard that
supports data transfer rates of up to 400Mbps (in 1394a) and 800Mbps (in
1394b). This makes it ideal for devices that need to transfer high levels of data
in real-time, such as video devices. It was developed by Apple with the name
firewire.
o A single 1394 port can connect up 63 external devices.
o It supports plug and play.
o Supports hot plugging.
o Provides power to peripheral devices.
36
Expansion Cards

 It is an electronic board or card added into the expansion slot of a desktop

computer or other non-portable computer to give that computer a new ability,
such as the ability to connect to another computer using a network cable.

 Adapter cards increase the functionality of a computer by adding controllers

for specific devices or by replacing malfunctioning ports.

 Laptops don't use traditional expansion cards because of their small form
factor. However, some models can accept removable PCMCIA cards that add
extra ports or other functionality to the computer. Some of this cards are:
Video, Network and Sound cards we will discus on this session.
37
Video card
 It is the component responsible for producing the visual output from your
computer.
 Virtually all programs produce visual output; the video card is the piece
of hardware that takes that output and tells the monitor which of the dots
on the screen to light up (and in what color) to allow you to see it.
 Alternatively referred to as a display adapter, graphics card, video
adapter, video board, or a video controller.

38
 Cont.…
 The video card in your system plays a significant role in the following important
aspects of your computer system:
o Performance
o Software Support
o Reliability and Stability
o Comfort and Ergonomics

39
Sound Card
 Allows the computer to send audio information to an audio device like
speakers or a pair of headphones.
 It enables the computer to output sound through speakers connected to the
board, to record sound input from a microphone connected to the
computer, and manipulate sound stored on a disk.
 The sound card installs in a PCI or PCIe slot on the motherboard.
 Most sound cards have ports for a joystick, speaker, microphone and an
auxiliary device.
40
Cont…

41
Network Card
 A network card (also called a Network Adapter or Network Interface
Card, or NIC for short) acts as the interface between a computer and a
network cable.
 The purpose of the network card is to prepare, send, and control data on
the network.
 Most network cables have either an RJ45 or BNC connector that
connects to the NIC in a corresponding port.

42
Cont…

43
END

44