Unit-2

Data Link Control

 The two main functions of the data link layer are data link
control and media access control. The first, data link
control, deals with the design of procedures for
communication between two adjacent nodes: node-to-
node communication. The second function of the data link
layer is media access control, or how to share the link.

 Data link control functions include framing, flow and error

control protocols that provide smooth and reliable
transmission of frames between nodes.
 Data Link Layer

Error Detection and Correction

 Error Detection and Correction
Single bit error
In single bit error, only 1 bit in the data unit has changed.
Burst error
A burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data unit have
changed.
Redundancy
To detect or correct errors, we need to send extra bits with
data.
Block Coding
In block coding, we divide our message into blocks, each of k
bits, called datawords. We add r redundant bits to each block
to make the length n = k + r. The resulting n-bit blocks are
called codewords.
 Error Detection and Correction
Hamming Distance
 The Hamming distance between two words (of the same size) is the
number of differences between the corresponding bits.
 The Hamming distance can easily be found if we apply the XOR
operation on the two words and count the number of 1’s in the
result.
Example
Find the Hamming distance between the following words:-
a = 10101110 and b = 01010100
Minimum Hamming Distance
The minimum Hamming distance is the smallest Hamming distance
between all possible pairs. We use dmin to define the minimum
Hamming distance in a coding scheme.
Example
Find the minimum Hamming distance for the following set of words:-
{ 00000, 10101, 01011, 11110 }.
 Error Detection and Correction
Minimum Hamming Distance for Error Detection
To guarantee the detection of up to s errors in all cases, the
minimum Hamming distance in a block code must be
dmin = s + 1.

Minimum Hamming Distance for Error Correction

To guarantee the correction of up to t errors in all cases, the
minimum Hamming distance in a block code must be
dmin = 2t + 1.
 Error Detection and Correction
Simple Parity-Check Code
 In this code, a k-bit dataword is changed to an k+1-bit
codeword.
 The extra bit, called the parity bit.
 It is selected to make the total number of 1’s in the
codeword even.

Note:
A simple parity-check code is a single-bit error-detecting code
in which n = k + 1 with dmin = 2.
 Error Detection and Correction
Hamming Code
Hamming code is a set of error-correction codes that can be
used to detect and correct the errors that can occur when
the data is moved or stored from the sender to the receiver.
It is technique developed by R.W. Hamming for error
correction.
Redundant bits –
The number of redundant bits can be calculated using the
following formula:
2r >= m+r+1
Where, r = number of redundant bits, and
m = number of data bits
 Error Detection and Correction
Algorithm of Hamming code
1. Write the bit positions starting from 1.
2. All the bit positions that are a power of 2 are marked as parity
bits (1, 2, 4, 8, etc).
3. All the other bit positions are marked as data bits.
4. Each data bit is included in a unique set of parity bits, as
determined its bit position in binary form.
 Parity bit 1 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the least significant position (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, etc).
 Parity bit 2 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the second position from the least significant bit (2, 3, 6, 7,
10, 11, etc).
 Parity bit 4 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the third position from the least significant bit (4–7, 12–15,
20–23, etc).
 Parity bit 8 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the fourth position from the least significant bit bits (8–15,
24–31, 40–47, etc).
 Error Detection and Correction
 In general, each parity bit covers all bits where the bitwise AND of
the parity position and the bit position is
non-zero.
5. Set a parity bit to 1 if the total number of ones in the
positions it checks is odd.
6. Set a parity bit to 0 if the total number of ones in the
positions it checks is even.
 Error Detection and Correction
Ex. Construct an even parity Hamming code word for a data word 1011001.
Solution:
Step-1: First we compute the number of redundant bits r.
Here, number of bits in the given data word (1011001), m = 7
Therefore, we compute r as following:-
2r >= m+r+1  2r >= 7+r+1
Minimum value of r which satisfies above inequality = 4.
Therefore, r=4.
Step-2: Now, we compute the position of redundant bits in the codeword.
These redundancy bits are placed at positions that correspond to the
power of 2. Therefore, the position these redundant bits will be 1, 2, 4 and
8.
 Error Detection and Correction
Step-3: Now, we compute the codeword.
Since the data to be transmitted is 1011001, therefore the bits will be
placed as follows:

Determining the Parity bits:

R1 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary
representation includes a 1 in the least significant position i.e. positions
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11.

To find the redundant bit R1, we check for even parity. Since the total
number of 1’s in all the bit positions corresponding to R1 is an even
number the value of R1 (parity bit’s value) = 0
 Error Detection and Correction
R2 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose
binary representation includes a 1 in the second position from the least
significant bit. R2: bits 2,3,6,7,10,11.

To find the redundant bit R2, we check for even parity. Since the total
number of 1’s in all the bit positions corresponding to R2 is odd the
value of R2(parity bit’s value)=1
 Error Detection and Correction
R4 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose
binary representation includes a 1 in the third position from the least
significant bit. R4: bits 4, 5, 6, 7.

To find the redundant bit R4, we check for even parity. Since the total
number of 1’s in all the bit positions corresponding to R4 is odd the
value of R4(parity bit’s value) = 1.
 Error Detection and Correction
R8 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose
binary representation includes a 1 in the fourth position from the least
significant bit. R8: bit 8, 9, 10, 11.

To find the redundant bit R8, we check for even parity. Since the total
number of 1’s in all the bit positions corresponding to R8 is an even
number the value of R8(parity bit’s value)= 0. Thus, the data transferred
is:
 Error Detection and Correction
Error detection and correction: Suppose in the above example the 6th bit is
changed from 0 to 1 during data transmission, then it gives new parity
values in the binary number:

The bits give the binary number 0110 whose decimal representation is 6.
Thus, bit 6 contains an error. To correct the error the 6th bit is changed
from 1 to 0.
 Error Detection and Correction
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
 Suppose size of dataword is k-bits.
 This technique uses a divisor to find a codeword.
 Suppose size of divisor is m-bits.
At sender end:
The codeword corresponding to dataword is found in the
following way:-
1. First we find a word by augmenting m-1 0’s to the right
end of the dataword.
2. Now, we divide this new word by the divisor and find a
remainder.
3. Codeword is obtained by augmenting the remainder to
the right end of dataword.
 Error Detection and Correction
At receiver end:
The dataword at the receiver end is found in the following
way:-
1. First we divide the received codeword by divisor and find
the remainder.
2. Remainder is called syndrome. If remainder is zero, then
dataword will be accepted otherwise dataword will be
rejected or discorded.
3. If remainder is zero, then dataword will be found by
removing m-1 least significant bits of received codeword.
 Error Detection and Correction
Example: If divisor is 1101, then find codeword corresponding
to the dataword 100100.
Solution:

Therefore codeword = 100100001

 Error Detection and Correction
Example:
(1) If Codeword 100100001 is received at receiver end, then
find syndrome.
(2) If Codeword 100100101 is received at receiver end, then
find syndrome.
CRC in polynomial
 The divisor in CRC is normally called generator.
 We define the following terms:-
Dataword = d(x) Codeword = c(x) Generator = g(x)
Syndrome = s(x) Error = e(x)
 Error Detection and Correction
In a cyclic code,
1. If s(x) ≠ 0, one or more bits is corrupted.
2. If s(x) = 0, then either
a. No bit is corrupted. or
b. Some bits are corrupted, but the decoder failed to detect them.
Received codeword = c(x) + e(x)
The receiver divides the received codeword by g(x) to get the
syndrome.
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝑐(𝑥) 𝑒(𝑥)
= +
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑐(𝑥)
𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟. 𝑆𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑔 𝑥
𝑒(𝑥)
𝑟𝑒m𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 .
𝑔(𝑥)
In a cyclic code, those e(x) errors that are divisible by g(x) are not
caught.
 Error Detection and Correction
Example:
Let dataword d(x) = x3+1, generator g(x) = x3+x+1.
Find codeword.
Solution:
Augmented dataword = x6+x3
x3+x+1) x6+x3 (x3+x
x6+ x4 + x3
x4
x4+ x2 + x Remainder
x2 + x
Therefore, c(x) = x6+ x3 + x2 + x
 Error Detection and Correction
Single-Bit Error
If the generator has more than one term and the coefficient of x0 is
1, then all single bit errors can be caught.
Example:
Which of the following g(x) values guarantees that a single-bit
error is caught? For each case, what is the error that cannot be
caught?
(a) x + 1
(b) x3
(c) 1
Solution:
(a) No xi can be divisible by x + 1. In other words, xi/(x + 1)
always has a remainder. So the syndrome is nonzero. Any
single-bit error can be caught.
 Error Detection and Correction
(b) If i is equal to or greater than 3, then xi is divisible by g(x).
The remainder of xi/x3 is zero, and the receiver is fooled into
believing that there is no error, although there might be one.
Note that in this case, the corrupted bit must be in position 4
or above. All single-bit errors in positions 1 to 3 are caught.

(c) For all values of i, xi is divisible by g(x). No single-bit error

can be caught. In addition, this g(x) is useless because it
means the codeword is just the dataword augmented with n-
k zeros.
 Error Detection and Correction
Two Isolated Single-Bit Errors
e(x) = xj + xi
The values of i and j define the positions of the errors, and
the difference j - i defines the distance between the two
errors.

 If a generator cannot divide xt + 1 (t between 0 and n - 1),

then all isolated double errors can be detected.
 Error Detection and Correction
Example:
Find the status of the following generators related to two isolated,
single-bit errors.
(a) x+1
(b) x4 + 1
(c) x7 + x6 + 1
(d) x15 +x14 +1
Solution:
(a) This is a very poor choice for a generator. Any two
errors next to each other cannot be detected.
(b) This generator cannot detect two errors that are four
positions apart. The two errors can be anywhere, but if
their distance is 4, they remain undetected.
 Error Detection and Correction
(c) This is a good choice for this purpose.
(d) This polynomial cannot divide any error of type xt + 1 if t is less
than 32,768. This means that a codeword with two isolated errors
that are next to each other or up to 32,768 bits apart can be
detected by this generator.
Odd Numbers of Errors
A generator that contains a factor of x + 1 can detect all odd-
numbered errors.
Some standard generators
(1) CRC-8 = x8+x2+x + 1
(2) (2) CRC-10 = x10+x9+x5+x4+x2+ 1
(3) CRC-16 = x16 + x12 + x5 + 1
(4) CRC-32 = x32 + x26 +x23 + x22 + x16 + x12 + x11 + x10 + x8 + x7 + x5 +
x4 + x2 + x + 1
 Error Detection and Correction
CHECKSUM
 Checksum is an error detection method.
 The checksum is used in the Internet by several protocols.
 The checksum is based on the concept of redundancy.
Internet Checksum
Internet uses 16-bit checksum. The sender calculates the
checksum by following these steps.
Sender site:
1. The message is divided into 16-bit words.
2. The value of the checksum word is set to 0.
3. All words including the checksum are added using one's
complement addition.
4. The sum is complemented and becomes the checksum.
5. The checksum is sent with the data.
 Error Detection and Correction
The receiver uses the following steps for error detection.
Receiver site:
1. The message (including checksum) is divided into 16-bit
words.
2. All words are added using one's complement addition.
3. The sum is complemented and becomes the new
checksum.
4. If the value of checksum is 0, the message is accepted;
otherwise, it is rejected.
 Error Detection and Correction
Example: Calculate the checksum for a text of 8 characters
("Forouzan").
Solution:
 Error Detection and Correction
Some questions:
1. What is the Hamming distance for each of the following
codewords:
a. d (10000, 00000)
b. d (10101, 10000)
c. d (11111,11111)
d. d (000, 000)
2. Find the minimum Hamming distance for the following
cases:
a. Detection of two errors.
b. Correction of two errors.
c. Detection of 3 errors or correction of 2 errors.
d. Detection of 6 errors or correction of 2 errors.
 Error Detection and Correction
3. Which of the following CRC generators guarantee the detection of a
single bit error?
a. x3 + x + 1
b. x4 + x
c. 1
d. x2 + 1
4. Sender needs to send the four data items 0x3456, 0xABCC, 0x02BC,
and 0xEEEE. Answer the following:
a. Find the checksum at the sender site.
b. Find the checksum at the receiver site if there is no error.
c. Find the checksum at the receiver site if the second data item is
changed to 0xABCE.
d. Find the checksum at the receiver site if the second data item is
changed to 0xABCE and the third data item is changed to 0x02BA.
Data Link Control
 Data Link Control
Framing:
 Framing in the data link layer separates a message from
one source to a destination, or from other messages to
other destinations, by adding a sender address and a
destination address. The destination address defines
where the packet is to go; the sender address helps the
recipient acknowledge the receipt.
 Frames can be of fixed size or of variable size.
Fixed-Size Framing
In fixed-size framing, there is no need for defining the
boundaries of the frames; the size itself can be used as a
delimiter. An example of this type of framing is the ATM wide-
area network, which uses frames of fixed size called cells.
 Data Link Control
Variable-Size Framing
In variable-size framing, we need a way to define the end of the frame and the
beginning of the next. Historically, two approaches were used for this purpose:
a character-oriented approach and a bit-oriented approach.
Character-Oriented Protocols (byte oriented)
In a character-oriented protocol, data to be carried are 8-bit characters from a
coding system such as ASCII. The header, which normally carries the source
and destination addresses and other control information, and the trailer, which
carries error detection or error correction redundant bits, are also multiples of
8 bits. To separate one frame from the next, an 8-bit (1-byte) flag is added at
the beginning and the end of a frame. The flag, composed of protocol-
dependent special characters, signals the start or end of a frame. Following
figure shows the format of a frame in a character-oriented protocol.
 Character-Oriented Protocols (byte oriented)
Any pattern used for the flag could also be part of the
information. If this happens, the receiver, when it encounters
this pattern in the middle of the data, thinks it has reached
the end of the frame. To fix this problem, a byte-stuffing
strategy was added to character-oriented framing. In byte
stuffing (or character stuffing), a special byte is added to the
data section of the frame when there is a character with the
same pattern as the flag. The data section is stuffed with an
extra byte. This byte is usually called the escape character
(ESC), which has a predefined bit pattern. Whenever the
receiver encounters the ESC character, it removes it from the
data section and treats the next character as data, not a
delimiting flag.
 Character-Oriented Protocols (byte oriented)
Byte stuffing by the escape character allows the presence of
the flag in the data section of the frame, but it creates
another problem. What happens if the text contains one or
more escape characters followed by a flag? The receiver
removes the escape character, but keeps the flag, which is
incorrectly interpreted as the end of the frame. To solve this
problem, the escape characters that are part of the text must
also be marked by another escape character. In other words,
if the escape character is part of the text, an extra one is
added to show that the second one is part of the text.
Note: Byte stuffing is the process of adding 1 extra byte
whenever there is a flag or escape character in the text.
Character-Oriented Protocols (byte oriented)
Byte stuffing and unstuffing
 Bit-Oriented Protocols
Bit-Oriented Protocols
In a bit-oriented protocol, the data section of a frame is a
sequence of bits to be interpreted by the upper layer as text,
graphic, audio, video, and so on. However, in addition to
headers (and possible trailers), we still need a delimiter to
separate one frame from the other. Most protocols use a
special 8-bit pattern flag 01111110 as the delimiter to define
the beginning and the end of the frame, as shown in following
figure .
 Bit-Oriented Protocols
This flag can create the same type of problem we saw in the byte-
oriented protocols. That is, if the flag pattern appears in the data,
we need to somehow inform the receiver that this is not the end
of the frame. We do this by stuffing 1 single bit (instead of 1 byte)
to prevent the pattern from looking like a flag. The strategy is
called bit stuffing. In bit stuffing, if a 0 and five consecutive 1 bits
are encountered, an extra 0 is added. This extra stuffed bit is
eventually removed from the data by the receiver. Note that the
extra bit is added after one 0 followed by five 1’s regardless of the
value of the next bit. This guarantees that the flag field sequence
does not inadvertently appear in the frame.
Note: Bit stuffing is the process of adding one extra 0 whenever
five consecutive 1’s follow a 0 in the data, so that the receiver does
not mistake the pattern 0111110 for a flag.
Bit-Oriented Protocols
 Bit-Oriented Protocols
Figure shows bit stuffing at the sender and bit removal at the
receiver. Note that even if we have a 0 after five 1’s, we still
stuff a 0. The 0 will be removed by the receiver. If the flag like
pattern 01111110 appears in the data, it will change to
011111010 (stuffed) and is not mistaken as a flag by the
receiver. The real flag 01111110 is not stuffed by the sender
and is recognized by the receiver.
 Flow and Error Control
The most important responsibilities of the data link layer are flow
control and error control.
Flow control
 Flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent
before receiving an acknowledgment.
 In most protocols, flow control is a set of procedures that tells
the sender how much data it can transmit before it must wait
for an acknowledgment from the receiver.
 The flow of data must not be allowed to overwhelm the
receiver. Any receiving device has a limited speed at which it
can process incoming data and a limited amount of memory in
which to store incoming data. The receiving device must be
able to inform the sending device before those limits are
reached and to request that the transmitting device send fewer
frames or stop temporarily.
 Flow and Error Control
Error control
 Error control is both error detection and error correction.
It allows the receiver to inform the sender of any frames
lost or damaged in transmission and coordinates the
retransmission of those frames by the sender.
 Error control in the data link layer is often implemented
simply: Any time an error is detected in an exchange,
specified frames are retransmitted. This process is called
automatic repeat request (ARQ).
Data link control protocol
 Data link control protocol
Noiseless Channels
 Assume we have an ideal channel in which no frames are
lost, duplicated, or corrupted.
 We have two protocols for this type of channel. The first is
a protocol that does not use flow control; the second is
the one that does.
 Neither has error control because we have assumed that
the channel is a perfect noiseless channel.
 Simplest Protocol
 It is one that has no flow or error control.
 It is a unidirectional protocol in which data frames
are traveling in only one direction-from the sender
to receiver.
 We assume that the receiver can immediately
handle any frame it receives with a processing time
that is small enough to be negligible. The data link
layer of the receiver immediately removes the
header from the frame and hands the data packet
to its network layer, which can also accept the
packet immediately. In other words, the receiver
can never be overwhelmed with incoming frames.
Simplest Protocol
 Stop-and-Wait Protocol
 The sender sends one frame, stops until it receives
confirmation from the receiver (okay to go ahead),
and then sends the next frame.
 We still have unidirectional communication for
data frames, but auxiliary ACK frames (simple
tokens of acknowledgment) travel from the other
direction.
 We add flow control to our previous protocol.
Stop-and-Wait Protocol
 NOISY CHANNELS
Stop-and-Wait Automatic Repeat Request (Stop-and-
Wait ARQ)
 This protocol adds a simple error control mechanism
to the Stop-and-Wait Protocol.
 To detect and correct corrupted frames, we need to
add redundancy bits to our data frame. When the
frame arrives at the receiver site, it is checked and if it
is corrupted, it is silently discarded.
 Lost frames are more difficult to handle than
corrupted ones.
 To handle lost frames, this protocol uses sequence
number.
 Stop-and-Wait ARQ
Stop-and-Wait Automatic Repeat Request (Stop-and-
Wait ARQ)
 When the receiver receives a data frame that is out
of order, this means that frames were either lost or
duplicated.
 The corrupted and lost frames need to be resent in
this protocol.
 When the sender sends a frame, it keeps a copy of
the sent frame. At the same time, it starts a timer.
If the timer expires and there is no ACK for the sent
frame, the frame is resent, the copy is held, and
the timer is restarted.
Stop-and-Wait ARQ
 Stop-and-Wait ARQ
 Since an ACK frame can also be corrupted and lost,
it too needs redundancy bits and a sequence
number.
 The ACK frame for this protocol has a sequence
number field.
 In this protocol, the sender simply discards a
corrupted ACK frame or ignores an out-of-order
one.
 A field is added to the data frame to hold the
sequence number of that frame.
 Stop-and-Wait ARQ
 If the number of bits used for sequence number is
m, then range of sequence numbers is 0 to 2m-1.
 This protocol uses 1 bit for sequence number i.e.
m=1.
 This protocol uses the following sequence numbers
0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1……………
 This protocol uses the sliding window concept.
 The size of both sender and receiver window in this
protocol is 1.
 Stop-and-Wait ARQ
Efficiency
 The Stop-and-Wait ARQ discussed in the previous
section is very inefficient if our channel is thick and
long. By thick, we mean that our channel has a
large bandwidth; by long, we mean the round-trip
delay is long. The product of these two is called the
bandwidth delay Product.
 The channel is always there. If we do not use it, we
are inefficient. The bandwidth-delay product is a
measure of the number of bits we can send out of
our system while waiting for news from the
receiver.
 Stop-and-Wait ARQ
Example:
Assume that, in a Stop-and-Wait ARQ system, the
bandwidth of the line is 1 Mbps, and 1 bit takes 20 ms
to make a round trip. What is the bandwidth-delay
product? If the system data frames are 1000 bits in
length, what is the utilization percentage of the link?
 Stop-and-Wait ARQ
Solution:
The bandwidth-delay product is
= 1*106 * 20*10-3 = 20*103
= 20000 bits
 The system can send 20,000 bits during the time it
takes for the data to go from the sender to the
receiver and then back again. However, the system
sends only 1000 bits. We can say that the link
utilization is only 1000/20,000, or 5 percent.
 For this reason, for a link with a high bandwidth or
long delay, the use of Stop-and-Wait ARQ wastes
the capacity of the link.
 Stop-and-Wait ARQ
Example:
What is the utilization percentage of the link in the
previous example if we have a protocol that can send up
to 15 frames before stopping and worrying about the
acknowledgments?
Solution:
The bandwidth-delay product is still 20,000 bits. The
system can send up to 15 frames or 15,000 bits during a
round trip. This means the utilization is 15,000/20,000, or
75 percent.
Note: Of course, if there are damaged frames, the
utilization percentage is much less because frames have
to be resent.
Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request
 To improve the efficiency of transmission (filling the
pipe), multiple frames must be in transition while
waiting for acknowledgment.
 In this protocol we can send several frames before
receiving acknowledgments; we keep a copy of these
frames until the acknowledgments arrive.
 In the Go-Back-N Protocol, the sequence numbers are
modulo 2m, where m is the size of the sequence
number field in bits.
 In this protocol, the sliding window is an abstract
concept that defines the range of sequence numbers
that is the concern of the sender and receiver.
 Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request
 If m=4 bits are used for sequence number, then the
only sequence numbers are 0 through 15 inclusive.
So the sequence numbers are
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, ...
 The maximum size of the sender window is 2m-1.
 The size of the receiver window is 1.
 The sender window at any time divides the
possible sequence numbers into four regions.
Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request
Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request
Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request
 Below figure is an example(if ack lost)
Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request
 Below figure is an example(if frame lost)
 Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request
Note: In Go-Back-N ARQ, the size of the sender window must
be less than 2m; the size of the receiver window is always 1.
Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request
Note: Stop-and-Wait ARQ is a special case of Go-Back-N
ARQ in which the size of the sender window is 1.
Efficiency:
The efficiency of Go-Back-N ARQ ,
Efficiency = N/(1+2a),
Where N is the size of sender window and a = Tp/Tt.
Where Tp is propagation delay and Tt is the transmission
delay
Also, Tt = D/B;
and here D = data size and B = bandwidth
And Tp = d/v,
here d = distance and v = propagation speed.
Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request
Now to find the effective bandwidth (or throughput),
Effective bandwidth = efficiency * bandwidth,
which means,
Effective bandwidth = (N/(1+2a)) *B
 Selective Repeat Automatic Repeat Request
 Go-Back-N ARQ protocol is inefficient for noisy
links because in a noisy link a frame has a higher
probability of damage, which means the resending
of multiple frames. This resending uses up the
bandwidth and slows down the transmission.
 For noisy links, there is another mechanism that
does not resend N frames when just one frame is
damaged; only the damaged frame is resent. This
mechanism is called Selective Repeat ARQ.
 It is more efficient for noisy links, but the
processing at the receiver is more complex.
 Selective Repeat Automatic Repeat Request
The size of the sender window is 2m-1.
The size of the receiver window is 2m-1.
Selective Repeat Automatic Repeat Request
Selective Repeat Automatic Repeat Request
Selective Repeat Automatic Repeat Request
 Selective Repeat Automatic Repeat Request
Efficiency:
The efficiency of selective repeat protocol is the same
as of Go-Back-N ARQ protocol's efficiency.

Efficiency = N/(1+2a),

Where N is the size of sender window and a = Tp/Tt.

 Piggybacking
A technique called piggybacking is used to improve
the efficiency of the bidirectional protocols. When a
frame is carrying data from A to B, it can also carry
control information about arrived (or lost) frames
from B; when a frame is carrying data from B to A, it
can also carry control information about the arrived
(or lost) frames from A.
 Data Link Layer
Exercise
1. A sender sends a series of packets to the same
destination using 5-bit sequence numbers. If the
sequence number starts with 0, what is the sequence
number after sending 100 packets?
2. Using 5-bit sequence numbers, what is the
maximum size of the sender and receiver windows for
each of the following protocols?
a. Stop-and-Wait ARQ
b. Go-Back-N ARQ
c. Selective-Repeat ARQ
 Data Link Layer
3. A system uses the Stop-and-Wait ARQ Protocol. If each
packet carries 1000 bits of data, how long does it take to
send 1 million bits of data if the distance between the
sender and receiver is 5000 Km and the propagation
speed is 2 x 108 m? Ignore transmission, waiting, and
processing delays. We assume no data or control frame is
lost or damaged.
4. Repeat Exercise 3 using the Go-back-N ARQ Protocol
with a window size of 7. Ignore the overhead due to the
header and trailer.
5. Repeat Exercise 3 using the Selective-Repeat ARQ
Protocol with a window size of 4. Ignore the overhead
due to the header and the trailer.
6. Consider a selective repeat sliding window protocol
uses a frame size of 1KB to send data on a 15Mbps
link with a one-way latency of 50 ms. To achieve a link
utilization of 60%, find the minimum number of bits
required to represent the sequence number field.
7. Consider the sliding window flow-control protocol operating between
a sender and a receiver over a full-duplex free link. Assume the
following:
(i) The time take for processing the data frame by the receiver is
negligible.
(ii) The time taken for processing the acknowledgement frame by the
sender is negligible.
(iii) The sender has infinite number of frames available for transmission
(iv) The size of the data frame is 2,000 bits and the size of the
acknowledgement frame is 10 bits.
(v) The link data rate in each direction is 1 Mbps (106 bits per second)
(vi) One way propagation delay of the link is 100 milliseconds

The minimum value of the sender’s window size in terms of the number
of frames, (rounded to the nearest integer) needed to achieve a link
utilization of 50% is _________.
Media Access Control
 Media Access Control
 Data link layer is considered as two sub-layers.
 The upper sub-layer is responsible for data link
control. The upper sub-layer that is responsible for
flow and error control is called the logical link
control (LLC) layer.
 The lower sub-layer is responsible for resolving
access to the shared media. The lower sub-layer
that is mostly responsible for multiple access
resolution is called the media access control (MAC)
layer.
 Media Access Control
When nodes or stations are connected and use a common
link, called a multipoint or broadcast link, we need a multiple-
access protocol to coordinate access to the link.
 Random Access Protocol
 In random access or contention methods, no station is
superior to another station and none is assigned the
control over another.
 No station permits, or does not permit, another station to
send.
 At each instance, a station that has data to send uses a
procedure defined by the protocol to make a decision on
whether or not to send. This decision depends on the state
of the medium (idle or busy).
 If more than one station tries to send, there is an access
conflict (collision) and the frames will be either destroyed
or modified.
 Random Access Protocol
To avoid access conflict or to resolve it when it happens, each
station follows a procedure that answers the following
questions:
 When can the station access the medium?
 What can the station do if the medium is busy?
 How can the station determine the success or failure of
the transmission?
 What can the station do if there is an access conflict?
 Random Access Protocol
ALOHA Protocol
ALOHA was the earliest random access method. There are
two types of ALOHA.
1. Pure ALOHA
2. Slotted ALOHA
Pure ALOHA
 The original ALOHA protocol is called pure ALOHA. This is a
simple protocol.
 Full form of ALOHA is Additive Links On-line Hawaii Area.
 In this protocol each station sends a frame whenever it has
a frame to send. Since there is only one channel to share,
there is the possibility of collision between frames from
different stations.
 Pure ALOHA
Following figure shows an example of frame collisions in pure
ALOHA.
 Pure ALOHA
 There are four stations that contend with one another for
access to the shared channel.
 The figure shows that each station sends two frames;
there are a total of eight frames on the shared medium.
Some of these frames collide because multiple frames are
in contention for the shared channel.
 Figure shows only two frames survive: frame 1.1 from
station 1 and frame 3.2 from station 3.
 Pure ALOHA
 The pure ALOHA protocol relies on acknowledgments from the
receiver. When a station sends a frame, it expects the receiver
to send an acknowledgment. If the acknowledgment does not
arrive after a time-out period, the station assumes that the
frame (or the acknowledgment) has been destroyed and
resends the frame.
 A collision involves two or more stations. If all these stations
try to resend their frames after the time-out, the frames will
collide again. Pure ALOHA dictates that when the time-out
period passes, each station waits a random amount of time
before resending its frame. The randomness will help avoid
more collisions. We call this time the back-off time TB.
 After a maximum number of retransmission attempts Kmax' a
station must give up and try later.
Pure ALOHA
 Pure ALOHA
 The time-out period is equal to the maximum possible round-
trip propagation delay i.e.
tout = 2Tp
Where Tp is the propagation time between two most widely
separated stations.
 The back-off time TB is random value that normally depends on
K, where K is the number of attempted unsuccessful
transmissions.
 TB is calculated by binary exponential back-off algorithm.
According to this algorithm, for each retransmission, a multiplier in
the range 0 to 2K - 1 is randomly chosen and multiplied by Tp
(maximum propagation time) or Tfr (the average time required to
send out a frame) to find TB.
 In this procedure, the range of the random numbers increases
after each collision.
 The value of Kmax is usually chosen as 15.
 Pure ALOHA
Example: The stations on a wireless ALOHA network are a
maximum of 600 km apart. Signals propagate with speed at 3 x 108
m/s. Find the value of TB for different value of K.
Solution:
Tp = (600 x 103) / (3 x 108) = 2 ms.
Now we can find the value of TB for different values of K.
(a) For K = 1, the range is {0, 1}. The station needs to generate a
random number with a value of 0 or 1. This means that TB is either
0x2 = 0ms or 1x2 = 2ms, based on the outcome of the random
variable.
(b) For K =2, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3}. This means that TB can be 0, 2,
4, or 6 ms, based on the outcome of the random variable.
(c) For K =3, the range is to {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7}. This means that TB can
be 0, 2, 4, ... , 14 ms, based on the outcome of the random
variable.
 Pure ALOHA
Vulnerable time
Vulnerable time is the length of time, in which there is a possibility of collision.
We assume that the stations send fixed-length frames with each frame taking Tfr
second to send.
This figure shows the vulnerable time for station A.
Pure ALOHA vulnerable time = 2 x Tfr
 Pure ALOHA
Throughput
Let G is the average number of frames generated by the
system during one frame transmission time.
Average number of successful transmissions for pure ALOHA
i.e. throughput, S = G x e-2G.
The maximum throughput
Smax = 0.184, for G = 1/2.
 Pure ALOHA
Example:
A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared
channel of 200 kbps. What is the requirement to make this
frame collision-free?
Example:
A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared
channel of 200 kbps. What is the throughput if the system (all
stations together) produces
a. 1000 frames per second
b. 500 frames per second
c. 250 frames per second
 Pure ALOHA
Solution:
Average frame transmission time Tfr = 200 bits/200 kbps
= 1 ms.
Therefore, the vulnerable time = 2 x Tfr = 2 ms
This means no station should send later than 1 ms before this
station starts transmission and no station should start sending
during the 1ms period that this station is sending.
 Pure ALOHA
Solution:
Here, Tfr = 200/(200*10-3)= 1 ms
(a) Throughput S = G * e-2G
Here, G is the average number of frames generated in frame
transmission time.
G = 1000/1000 = 1 frame
S = 1*e-2*1 = e-2 = 0.135 (13.5 percent)
This means that the throughput is 1000 X 0.135 =135 frames.
Only 135 frames out of 1000 will probably survive.
 Slotted ALOHA
 Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure
ALOHA.
 In slotted ALOHA we divide the time into slots of Tfr and force the
station to send only at the beginning of the time slot.
 Figure shows an example of frame collisions in slotted ALOHA.
 Slotted ALOHA
 Since a station is allowed to send only at the beginning of
the synchronized time slot, if a station misses this
moment, it must wait until the beginning of the next time
slot.
 There is still the possibility of collision if two stations try to
send at the beginning of the same time slot.
 The vulnerable time is now reduced to one-half, equal to
Tfr.
 Throughput, S = G*e-G
 Maximum throughput Smax = 0.368, when G = 1.
 Slotted ALOHA
Example:
A slotted ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a
shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the throughput if the
system (all stations together) produces
a. 1000 frames per second
b. 500 frames per second
c. 250 frames per second
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
 To minimize the chance of collision and, therefore, increase the
performance, the CSMA method was developed.
 Carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) requires that each station
first listen to the medium (or check the state of the medium)
before sending. In other words, CSMA is based on the principle
"sense before transmit" or "listen before talk.“
 CSMA can reduce the possibility of collision, but it cannot
eliminate it.
 The possibility of collision still exists because of propagation
delay; when a station sends a frame, it still takes time for the
first bit to reach every station and for every station to sense it.
 In other words, a station may sense the medium and find it
idle, only because the first bit sent by another station has not
yet been received.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
At time t1 station B senses the medium and finds it idle, so it
sends a frame. At time t2 (t2> t1) station C senses the medium
and finds it idle because, at this time, the first bits from
station B have not reached station C. Station C also sends a
frame. The two signals collide and both frames are destroyed.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
Vulnerable Time
 The vulnerable time for CSMA is the propagation time Tp .
 This is the time needed for a signal to propagate from one
end of the medium to the other.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
Persistence Methods
 What should a station do if the channel is busy?
 What should a station do if the channel is idle?

There are three methods to answer these questions:

1. 1-persistent method
2. Non-persistent method
3. p-persistent method
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
1-Persistent

 In this method, after the station finds the line idle, it sends
its frame immediately (with probability 1).
 This method has the highest chance of collision because
two or more stations may find the line idle and send their
frames immediately.
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
Non-persistent

 In the non-persistent method, a station that has a frame to send senses the
line. If the line is idle, it sends immediately. If the line is not idle, it waits a
random amount of time and then senses the line again.
 The non-persistent approach reduces the chance of collision because it is
unlikely that two or more stations will wait the same amount of time and
retry to send simultaneously. However, this method reduces the efficiency
of the network because the medium remains idle when there may be
stations with frames to send.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
p-Persistent

 The p-persistent method is used if the channel has time slots

with a slot duration equal to or greater than the maximum
propagation time.
 The p-persistent approach combines the advantages of the
other two strategies.
 It reduces the chance of collision and improves efficiency.
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
In this method, after the station finds the line idle it follows
these steps:
1. With probability p, the station sends its frame.
2. With probability q = 1 - p, the station waits for the
beginning of the next time slot and checks the line again.
a. If the line is idle, it goes to step 1.
b. If the line is busy, it acts as though a collision has occurred and
uses the backoff procedure.
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD)
 The CSMA method does not specify the procedure
following a collision.
 CSMA/CD augments the algorithm to handle the collision.
 In this method, a station monitors the medium after it
sends a frame to see if the transmission was successful. If
so, the station is finished. If, however, there is a collision,
the frame is sent again.
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD)

 In this figure, stations A and C are involved in the collision.

 At time t1, station A has executed its persistence procedure and starts
sending the bits of its frame. At time t2, station C has not yet sensed the
first bit sent by A. Station C executes its persistence procedure and starts
sending the bits in its frame, which propagate both to the left and to the
right. The collision occurs sometime after time t2. Station C detects a
collision at time t3 when it receives the first bit of A's frame. Station C
immediately aborts transmission. Station A detects collision at time t4
when it receives the first bit of C's frame; it also immediately aborts
transmission.
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD)
Minimum Frame Size
 For CSMA/CD to work, we need a restriction on the frame
size.
 Before sending the last bit of the frame, the sending
station must detect a collision, if any, and abort the
transmission.
 This is so because the station, once the entire frame is
sent, does not keep a copy of the frame and does not
monitor the line for collision detection.
 Therefore, the frame transmission time Tfr must be at least
two times the maximum propagation time Tp i.e.
Tfr ≥ 2Tp
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD)
Minimum Frame Size
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD)
Example:
A network using CSMA/CD has a bandwidth of 10 Mbps. If the
maximum propagation time is 25.6 μs, what is the minimum
size of the frame?
Solution:
Let the frame size is x.
In CSMA/CD, we know that Tfr ≥ 2Tp,
Therefore, x/(10*106) ≥ 2*25.6*10-6
x ≥ 2*10*25.6*106 * 10-6 = 512
Therefore, minimum size of the frame = 512 bits
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD)
Throughput
 The throughput of CSMA/CD is greater than that of pure or
slotted ALOHA.
 The maximum throughput occurs at a different value of G
and is based on the persistence method and the value of p
in the p-persistent approach.
 For 1-persistent method the maximum throughput is
around 50 percent when G=1.
 For non-persistent method, the maximum throughput can
go up to 90 percent when G is between 3 and 8.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD)
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
 CSMA/CA was invented for wireless network.
 Collisions are avoided through the use of CSMA/CA's three
strategies: the interframe space, the contention window,
and acknowledgments.
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
Interframe Space (IFS)
When an idle channel is found, the station does not send
immediately. It waits for a period of time called the
interframe space or IFS.
If after the IFS time the channel is still idle, the station can
send, but it still needs to wait a time equal to the contention
time.
In CSMA/CA, the IFS variable can also be used to define the
priority of stations or frames.
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
Contention Window
 The contention window is an amount of time divided into
slots. A station that is ready to send chooses a random
number of slots as its wait time. The number of slots in the
window changes according to the binary exponential back-
off strategy.

 The station senses the channel after each time slot.

However, if the station finds the channel busy, it does not
restart the process; it just stops the timer and restarts it
when the channel is sensed as idle.
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
Acknowledgment
With all these precautions, there still may be a collision
resulting in destroyed data.
In addition, the data may be corrupted during the
transmission. The positive acknowledgment and the time-out
timer can help guarantee that the receiver has received the
frame.
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
Procedure
 The channel needs to be sensed before and after the IFS.
 The channel also needs to be sensed during the
contention time.
 For each time slot of the contention window, the channel
is sensed. If it is found idle, the timer continues; if the
channel is found busy, the timer is stopped and continues
after the timer becomes idle again.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
 Exercise
1. In a CSMA/CD network with a data rate of 10 Mbps, the
minimum frame size is found to be 512 bits for the correct
operation of the collision detection process. What should
be the minimum frame size if we increase the data rate to
100 Mbps? To 1 Gbps? To 10 Gbps?
2. One hundred stations on a pure ALOHA network share a
1-Mbps channel. If frames are 1000 bits long, find the
throughput if each station is sending 10 frames per
second.
 Exercise
3.

The data rate is 10 Mbps, the distance between station A and C is 2000 m, and
the propagation speed is 2 x 108 m/s. Station A starts sending a long frame at
time t1 = 0; station C starts sending a long frame at time t2 =3μs. The size of the
frame is long enough to guarantee the detection of collision by both stations.
Find:
a. The time when station C hears the collision (t3).
b. The time when station A hears the collision (t4).
c. The number of bits station A has sent before detecting the collision.
d. The number of bits station C has sent before detecting the collision.
 IEEE 802 STANDARDS
 IEEE 802 is a collection of networking standards that cover
the physical and data-link layer specifications for
technologies such as Ethernet and wireless. These
specifications apply to local area networks (LAN) and
metropolitan area networks (MAN).
 IEEE stands for Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers.
Ethernet(802.3 standard)
It uses CSMA/CD protocol to access the medium.
Frame Format
The Ethernet frame contains seven fields: preamble, SFD, DA,
SA, length or type of protocol data unit (PDU), upper-layer
data, and the CRC.
 IEEE 802 STANDARDS

Preamble
This is the first field. It contains 7-bytes of alternating 0’s and
1’s that alerts the receiving system to the coming frame and
enables it to synchronize its input timing. The preamble is
actually added at the physical layer and is not part of the
frame.
 IEEE 802 STANDARDS
Start frame delimiter (SFD)
The second field (1 byte: 10101011) signals the beginning of
the frame. The SFD warns the station or stations that this is
the last chance for synchronization. The last 2 bits is 11 and
alerts the receiver that the next field is the destination
address.
Destination address (DA)
The DA field is 6 bytes and contains the physical address of
the destination station or stations to receive the packet.
Source address (SA)
The SA field is also 6 bytes and contains the physical address
of the sender of the packet.
 IEEE 802 STANDARDS
Length or type
This field is defined as a type field or length field. The original
Ethernet used this field as the type field to define the upper-
layer protocol using the MAC frame. The IEEE standard used it
as the length field to define the number of bytes in the data
field.
Data
This field carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer
protocols. It is a minimum of 46 and a maximum of 1500
bytes.
CRC
The last field contains error detection information. It is of 4
bytes.
 IEEE 802 STANDARDS
Frame Length
Ethernet has imposed restrictions on both the minimum and
maximum lengths of a frame, as shown in below Figure:-
 IEEE 802 STANDARDS
Addressing
Each station on an Ethernet network has its own network interface
card (NIC). The NIC fits inside the station and provides the station
with a 6-byte physical address. It is written in hexadecimal
notation, with a colon between the bytes.
06:01:02:01:2C:4B
Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Addresses
A source address is always a unicast address.
The destination address can be unicast, multicast, or broadcast.
If the least significant bit of the first byte in a destination address is
0, then the address is unicast; otherwise, it is multicast.
The broadcast address is a special case of the multicast address. In
this case, the recipients are all the stations on the LAN. A
broadcast destination address is forty eight 1’s.
 IEEE 802 STANDARDS
Example
Define the type of the following destination addresses:
a) 4A:30:10:21:10:1A
b) 47:20:1B:2E:08:EE
c) FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF
 IEEE 802 STANDARDS
IEEE 802.4 (Token Bus)
 IEEE specifications include physical layer and media access
control sublayer for network that uses a bus topology and
use token passing as the media access method.
 In this, all nodes are connected in a logical ring. It supports
electrical(coaxial) and fiber optic cable.
 IEEE 802 STANDARDS
IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring)
 A token ring network consists of a set of nodes connected
in a ring. Data always flows in a particular direction around
the ring.
 It uses token passing as the media access method.
 IEEE 802 STANDARDS
Fiber Distributed Data Interface(FDDI)
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a set of ANSI and ISO
standards for transmission of data in local area network (LAN) over
fiber optic cables. It is applicable in large LANs that can extend up
to 200 kilometers in diameter.
Features
 FDDI uses optical fiber as its physical medium.
 It operates in the physical and medium access control (MAC
layer) of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) network
model.
 It provides high data rate of 100 Mbps and can support
thousands of users.
 It is used in LANs up to 200 kilometers for long distance voice
and multimedia communication.
 IEEE 802 STANDARDS
 It uses ring based token passing mechanism.
 It contains two token rings, a primary ring for data and token
transmission and a secondary ring that provides backup if the
primary ring fails.
 FDDI technology can also be used as a backbone for a wide area
network (WAN).
 IEEE 802 STANDARDS
Frame Format
The frame format of FDDI is similar to that of token bus as
shown in the following diagram −
IEEE 802 STANDARDS
 AKTU Examination Questions
1. A bit string 0001111111001111101000 needs to be
transmitted at the data link layer. What is the string
actually transmitted after bit stuffing?
2. Explain the working of pure ALOHA and slotted ALOHA
protocols. How slotted ALOHA improve the
performance of pure ALOHA?
3. List different carrier sense protocols. How CSMA/CD
protocol is different from other CSMA/CA protocol?
4. What is piggybacking?
5. Measurement of slotted ALOHA channel with infinite
number of users such that the 10 percent of slots are
idle.
(i) What is the channel load?
(ii) What is the throughput?
 AKTU Examination Questions
6. If a binary signal is sent over a 3KHZ channel.
Whose signal to noise ratio is 20db. What is the
maximum achievable data rate?
7. Discuss the issues in the data link layer and about
its protocol on the basis of layering principle.
8. Discuss different carrier sense protocols. How are
they different than collisions protocols?
9. Write short notes on following:
i. Stop and Wait ARQ
ii. Sliding Window Protocol
iii. Go Back N ARQ
 AKTU Examination Questions
10. An ALOHA network uses 9.2 kbps channel for sending
message packets of 100 bits long size. Calculate the
maximum throughput for pure ALOHA network.
11.What is the total delay (latency) for a frame size of 10
million bits that is being set up on link with 15 routers,
each having queuing time of 2μs and a processing
time of 1μs? The length of link is 3000km The speed of
light inside the link is 2x108 m/sec. The link has
bandwidth of 6 Mbps.
12.What is hamming code? Explain its working with
suitable example.
13.What are header and trailers and how do they get
added and removed?
 AKTU Examination Questions
14. A large FDDI ring has 100 stations & a token rotation time of
40 msec. The token holding time is 10 msec. What is the
maximum achievable efficiency of the ring?
15. A channel has a bit rate of 20 kbps. The stop and wait
protocol with frame size 4500 bits is used. The delay for
error detection and sending ACK by the receiver is 0.25
seconds because of a fault. Find the maximum efficiency of
the channel if the destination is 30000 km away and the
speed of the propagation of the signal is 2.8X108 m/s. Find
the decrease in efficiency due to the fault.
16. A slotted ALOHA network transmits 400-bit frames on a
shared channel of 400 kbps. What is the throughput if the
system (all stations together) produces –
(i) 1000 frames per second
(ii) 500 frames per second
(iii) 250 frames per second
 AKTU Examination Questions
17. Explain ARQ Error Control technique, in brief.
18. Compare ALOHA with slotted ALOHA.
19. State the requirements of CRC.
20.Discuss the issues in the data link layer and about its
protocol on the basis of layering principle.
21. Consider the use of 10 K-bit size frames on a 10 Mbps
satellite channel with 270 ms delay. What is the link
utilization for stop-and-wait ARQ technique assuming
P=10-3?
22.Brief about how line coding implemented in FDDI and
describe its format.
23.Illustrate the performance issues for GO-BACK-N data
link protocol.