MODULE - 1

Introduction to Database Management System

Data: Data is a collection of raw facts or information.
Database: A database is a structured collection of data that is stored, managed, and accessed
systematically.

Database Management Systems (DBMS): The database approach is a structured way of

storing, organizing, managing, and retrieving data efficiently using a Database Management
System (DBMS). It eliminates the limitations of traditional file-based systems by ensuring data
integrity, consistency, security, and ease of access.

Implication and Scope of Database Concepts

IMPLICATIONS
• Efficient Data Management – Organizes and stores vast amounts of data securely.

• Data Security & Privacy – Ensures restricted access through authentication and
encryption.

• Data Integrity & Accuracy – Maintains consistency and prevents duplication or corruption.

• Scalability & Performance – Supports large datasets and high-speed processing.

• Decision-Making & Analytics – Helps businesses analyze data for strategic decisions.

SCOPE
• IT & Software Development – Used in applications, websites, and cloud storage.

• Banking & Finance – Manages transactions, accounts, and fraud detection.

• Healthcare – Stores patient records and medical history securely.

• E-Commerce & Retail – Tracks inventory, orders, and customer data.

• Education & Research – Manages student records, results, and online learning platforms.

Importance of Database Concepts in Economic Growth

1. Improves Business Efficiency
Helps companies manage inventory, sales, and customer data efficiently.
Reduces operational costs and improves decision-making.

2. Strengthens Financial Systems

Supports digital payments, online banking, and fraud detection.
Ensures fast and secure transactions in the economy.

3. Supports E-Governance & Public Services

Used in tax collection, Aadhaar, and digital identity systems.
Helps in better policy-making and resource allocation.
4. Drives Research & Innovation
Enables big data analytics, AI, and market research.
Helps in business growth and technological advancements.

5. Creates Jobs & Entrepreneurship Opportunities

Supports e-commerce, fintech, and startups.
Encourages new businesses and boosts employment1.

Impact of Database Concepts on Societal Problems

1. Enhancing Healthcare Services
Stores patient records, medical history, and drug databases.
Improves disease tracking, telemedicine, and emergency response.

2. Reducing Financial Fraud & Cybercrime

Detects fraudulent transactions and cybersecurity threats.
Ensures secure online banking and digital payments.

3. Strengthening Disaster Management

Helps in tracking weather patterns and predicting disasters.
Manages emergency response and relief distribution.

4. Supporting Education & E-Learning

Stores student data, online courses, and research materials.
Enables personalized learning and remote education.

5. Improving Public Services & Governance

Used in crime databases, traffic control, and smart cities.
Helps in policy-making and efficient resource management.

Sustainable Solutions for the National Economy

1. Smart Agriculture & Food Supply Chain
• Use databases to track crop production, soil health, and food distribution.
• Minimize waste and optimize logistics for better sustainability.
2. Smart Transportation & Traffic Management
• Develop a DBMS to reduce traffic congestion and fuel consumption.
• Implement AI-powered route optimization for public transport.
3. Smart Water Resource Management
• Use DBMS to monitor water levels, predict shortages, and optimize distribution.
• Implement leak detection systems to prevent water wastage.
4. Digital Finance & E-Governance for Economic Growth
• Secure and efficient DBMS for financial transactions to reduce fraud.
• Use blockchain-based databases for transparency in government spending.

How Database Concepts Contribute to Career Prospects

In demand Career opportunities

• Database Administrator (DBA): Managing and securing the database.

• Data Analyst: Extracting insights from data for business decisions.
 • Data Engineers: Designing and optimizing database structures.
• Software Developers: Implementing the database driven applications.
• Cloud database engineers: Managing cloud-based databases (AWS, Azure, GCP).

Emerging Technologies and Future Scope

• Cloud databases and distributed and systems

▪ AWS RDS, Google Cloud Spanner, and Azure SQL are becoming industry
standards.
▪ Knowledge of these can lead to roles in cloud engineering and DevOps.
• Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Database
▪ AI- Powered databases (eg: Vector Database for AI search) are in demand
▪ Useful for careers in AI, Machine Learning and Data Science.
• Cyber Security and Database Security
▪ Protecting sensitive data from breaches is critical.
▪ Leads to roles in cyber security and ethical hacking.

Certifications and Skill Developments

• Oracle Certified Professional (OCP) - For DBA Roles

• Microsoft Certified: Azure Database Administrators - For cloud-based DBMS
• Google Data Engineer Certification – For data driven Career.
• MongoDB Developer Certification – For NOSQL expertise.

Overview of the course in current innovations and research trends

• Cloud Databases: Cloud-based database solutions are gaining popularity. They offer
scalability and cost-effectiveness.
• NoSQL Databases: NoSQL databases are suited for unstructured data. They address the
challenges of big data.
• AI Integration: AI is being integrated into database management. This enhances
automation and decision-making.

Defining the Database Approach

• Centralized Data Management: Data is stored in a structured manner within a centralized
system, avoiding redundancy.

• Reduced Data Redundancy & Inconsistency: Unlike file-based systems, databases

follow normalization to avoid duplicate data storage.
• Data Independence: The structure of the database is separate from applications, meaning
changes to the database schema do not affect programs using the data.
• Multi-User Access & Concurrent Control: Multiple users can access the database
simultaneously without data corruption.
• Data Sharing & Standardization: Organizations can share structured data across
departments efficiently.
Actors on the Scene: Users and Roles
• Database Administrators (DBAs): Responsible for authorizing access and for
coordinating and monitoring use.
• Database Designers: Identify data to be stored. Choose appropriate structures to
represent and store data.
• End Users: Use the database for querying and updating. Interact through applications or
direct queries.
• Applications & Interfaces: Programs that communicate with the DBMS (web apps,
enterprise software).

Workers behind the Scene

• System Analyst: Analyze business requirements and database needs.
• System Designers: Choose structures for the DBMS modules. Design interfaces.
• Tool Developers: Provide the tools needed. Software packages to make using the
database easier.
• Maintenance Personnel: Responsible for fixing problems. Ensuring the system continues
to function.

Advantages of Using the DBMS Approach

• Controlling Redundancy: Data redundancy is reduced. Controlled data access minimizes
duplication.
• Restricting Unauthorized Access: Security features enforce access controls. Users only
see authorized data.
• Providing Persistent Storage: Databases offer long-term storage. Data persists even after
applications close.
• Providing Backup and Recovery: DBMS systems include backup and recovery. This
protects against data loss.
• Data Sharing: DBMS provides a platform for sharing data across multiple applications and
users, which can increase productivity and collaboration.

Data Models in DBMS

A Data Model in a Database Management System (DBMS) is a structured approach
that defines how data is organized, stored, and managed within a database. It provides a
formal way to represent entities, attributes, relationships, and constraints, ensuring
consistency and efficiency in data handling.

Types of Relational Models

• Conceptual Data Model

• Representational Data Model

• Physical Data Model

Conceptual Data Model: A Conceptual Data Model is a high-level representation of a database
that helps understand its requirements. It is used during the requirement-gathering phase and
focuses on entities, relationships, and attributes. The ER model is a common example, allowing
even non-technical users to discuss and define data needs.

Representational Data Model: A Representational Data Model defines the logical structure of a
database. It primarily helps in designing the database. A common example is the Relational Model,
which represents data using tables and defines relationships between them using Relational
Algebra and Relational Calculus.

Physical Data Model: A Physical Data Model describes how data is stored and organized on
storage devices like disks and tapes. It focuses on files, records, and data structures to ensure
efficient data storage and retrieval.

Advantages of Data Models

• Data Models help us in representing data accurately.

• It helps us in finding the missing data and also in minimizing Data Redundancy.

• Data Model provides data security in a better way.

• The data model should be detailed enough to be used for building the physical database.

• The information in the data model can be used for defining the relationship between tables,
primary and foreign keys, and stored procedures.

Disadvantages of Data Models

• In the case of a vast database, sometimes it becomes difficult to understand the data
model.
• You must have the proper knowledge of SQL to use physical models.

• Even smaller change made in structure require modification in the entire application.

• There is no set data manipulation language in DBMS.

• To develop Data model, one should know physical data stored characteristics.

Schema
• Schema is the overall description of the database.
• The basic structure of how the data will be stored in the database is called schema.

• In DBMS, the term schema refers to the architecture of the database which describes how it
will appear or will be constructed.

• It describes the organization of data such as tables, relationships as well as constraints.

• A schema is a template that dictates how data items in a database will be stored, arranged,
and accessed.
Schema is of three types
• Logical Schema
• Physical Schema

• View Schema

Logical Schema – A logical database schema defines the logical structure of the data, including
tables, views, relationships, and integrity constraints.

Physical Schema – A physical schema defines how data is stored in the storage system,
including the arrangement of files, indices and other storage structures.

View Schema – A view schema is the highest level of abstraction in a database, focusing on how
users interact with the database.

Instance
In Database Management Systems (DBMS), an instance refers to the actual data stored in the
database at a specific moment in time. It represents the current state of the database, including all
the records and data entries in the tables.

Types of Instances
• Initial Instance – When the database is first loaded with data.

• Consistent Instance – When the database follows all integrity constraints.

• Updated Instance – When data is modified due to transactions (INSERT, UPDATE,

DELETE).

Advantages of Instance
• Real-Time Representation: It a return of the data in the database at a certain point in time
as may be required for analysis or for performing operations.
 • Flexibility: While a schema remains fixed in time, instances can be quite volatile, as data is
written, updated, or deleted.

Disadvantages of Instance
• Volatility: Those are occurrences may be dynamic in a way they are different over time and
this may make it a challenge to keep track without the necessary intervention.

• Data Integrity Issues: If not well regulated, it is evident that the data in an instance could
become very inconsistent and at times even incorrect.

Three Schema Architecture

• This framework is used to describe the structure of a specific database system.

• The three schema architecture is also used to separate the user applications and physical
database.

• The three schema architecture contains three-levels. It breaks the database down into three
different categories.

Objectives of Three schema Architecture

• Different users need different views of the same data.

• The approach in which a particular user needs to see the data may change over time.

• The users of the database should not worry about the physical implementation and internal
workings of the database such as data compression and encryption techniques, hashing,
optimization of the internal structures etc.

• All users should be able to access the same data according to their requirements.
• DBA should be able to change the conceptual structure of the database without affecting
the user's
 • Internal structure of the database should be unaffected by changes to physical aspects of
the storage.

Internal Level
• The internal level has an internal schema which describes the physical storage structure of
the database.

• The internal schema is also known as a physical schema.

• It uses the physical data model. It is used to define that how the data will be stored in a
block.

• The physical level is used to describe complex low-level data structures in detail.

Conceptual Level
• The conceptual schema describes the design of a database at the conceptual level.
Conceptual level is also known as logical level.

• The conceptual schema describes the structure of the whole database.

• The conceptual level describes what data are to be stored in the database and also
describes what relationship exists among those data.

• In the conceptual level, internal details such as an implementation of the data structure are
hidden.

• Programmers and database administrators work at this level.

External Level
• At the external level, a database contains several schemas that sometimes called as
subschema. The subschema is used to describe the different view of the
database.
• An external schema is also known as view schema.

• Each view schema describes the database part that a particular user group is interested
and hides the remaining database from that user group.

• The view schema describes the end user interaction with database systems

Data Independence
Data Independence in Database Management Systems (DBMS) refers to the ability to change
the schema (structure) at one level without affecting the schema at a higher level. This ensures
flexibility, scalability, and easier maintenance of the database.

There are two types of data independence

• Logical Data Independence

• Physical Data Independence

Types of Data Independence:

1. Logical Data Independence
• The ability to change the conceptual schema (structure of tables, relationships)
without affecting the external schema (user views, application programs).
• Example: Adding a new column "Email" to a table should not require changes in
user queries that do not use this column.
2. Physical Data Independence

• The ability to change the internal schema (storage structures, indexing, data file
organization) without affecting the conceptual schema (tables and relationships).

• Example: Moving the database from HDD Hard Disk Drive to SSD Solid State Drive
or changing indexing techniques should not affect how applications access data.

ER (Entity Relationship) Diagram in DBMS

• ER model stands for an Entity-Relationship model. It is a high-level data model. This model
is used to define the data elements and relationship for a specified system.
• It develops a conceptual design for the database. It also develops a very simple and easy
to design view of data.
 • In ER modeling, the database structure is portrayed as a diagram called an entity-
relationship diagram.

Components of ER Diagram
Entity
An entity may be any object, class, person or place. In the ER diagram, an entity can be
represented as rectangles.

Consider an organization as an example - manager, product, employee, department etc. can

be taken as an entity.

Types of Entities
❑ Strong Entity

❑ Weak Entity

❑ Strong Entity

A strong entity has a primary key and can exist independently in a database. It does not rely on
any other entity for its identification. The strong entity is represented by a rectangle.

❑ Weak Entity

An entity that depends on another entity called a weak entity. The weak entity doesn't contain any
key attribute of its own. The weak entity is represented by a double rectangle.

Attribute
The attribute is used to describe the property of an entity. Eclipse is used to represent an attribute.

Types of Attributes
❑ Simple Attribute

❑ Key Attribute

❑ Composite Attribute

❑ Multivalued Attribute

❑ Derived Attribute

❑ Simple Attribute
➢ A simple attribute is an attribute that has a single, indivisible value for an entity. It cannot be
broken down into smaller components.
➢ For example, Name(if stored as a single value)
➢ In ER diagram, the simple attribute is represented by an oval.
❑ Key Attribute

➢ The attribute which uniquely identifies each entity in the entity set is called the key
attribute.
➢ For example, Roll_No will be unique for each student.

➢ In ER diagram, the key attribute is represented by an oval with underlying lines.

❑ Composite Attribute

➢ An attribute that composed of many other attributes is known as a composite attribute.

➢ For example, the Address attribute of the student Entity type consists of Street, City, State,
and Country.

➢ In ER diagram, the composite attribute is represented by an oval comprising of ovals.

❑ Multivalued Attribute

➢ An attribute consisting of more than one value for a given entity.

➢ For example, Phone_No (can be more than one for a given student).

➢ In ER diagram, a multivalued attribute is represented by a double oval.

❑ Derived Attribute

➢ An attribute that can be derived from other attributes of the entity type is known as a
derived attribute.
 ➢ For example, Age (can be derived from DOB).

➢ In ER diagram, the derived attribute is represented by a dashed oval.

Relationship in DBMS
It is association between two or more entities. Entities are the real-world objects which hold data,
participate in these relationships. Connection between different entities are represented by a
diamond shapes in ER (entity relationship) diagrams. Relationships enables the separation and
organization of data across multiple tables which facilitate the data management and data
retrieval.

Types of Relationships
❑ One-to-One relationship

❑ One-to-Many or Many-to-One relationship

❑ Many-to-Many relationship

❑ One-to-One Relationship

➢ In one-to-one relationship a single record in one table is related with a single record in other
table and vice versa. This type of relationships are relatively rare and commonly used for
security or organizational reasons.

➢ Example: Consider two entities "Person" and "Aadhar card". Each person can have only
one Aadhar card and each Aadhar card is assigned to only one person.

❑ One-to-Many or Many-to-One Relationship

➢ In one-to-many or many-to-one relationship, a single record in one table can be associated

with multiple records in another table and this is the most common type of relationship in
DBMS.
➢ Example: Consider two entities "customer" and "order". Each customer can place multiple
orders but each order is placed by only one customer.

❑ Many-to-Many Relationship

➢ A many-to-many relationship is relationship in which one multiple records in one table are
associated with multiple records in another table. This relationship is mainly implemented
using junction table.

➢ Example: Consider two entities "Student" and "Course" where each student can enroll in
multiple courses and each course can have multiple students enrolled in it.