database fundamentals
Last Edited Time @May 25, 2025 6:51 PM
Created By makar samer
Last Edited By makar samer
Database Fundamentals Interview Guide
CH01: Introduction
Database Concepts
Summary:
A database is an organized collection of structured data stored electronically.
Databases allow data to be easily accessed, managed, modified, and updated.
Examples include MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle, and MongoDB.
Interview Question:
What is a database?
Answer: A database is a structured collection of data that can be easily
accessed, managed, and updated using a Database Management System
(DBMS).
Database Systems Main Components
Summary:
The main components include hardware, software, data, users, and
procedures. Software includes the DBMS, application programs, and the
operating system.
Interview Question:
What are the components of a database system?
Answer: Hardware, Software, Data, Procedures, and Database Access
Language (e.g., SQL).
Database Users
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Summary:
Database users include administrators, developers, and end users. They
interact with the DBMS through queries, applications, or interfaces.
Interview Question:
Name different types of database users.
Answer: DBA (Database Administrator), End Users, Application
Programmers, and System Analysts.
DBMS Architecture and Data Models
Summary:
Architectures include single-tier and multi-tier. Data models describe how data
is organized: hierarchical, network, relational, and object-oriented models.
Interview Question:
What are different types of data models in DBMS?
Answer: Hierarchical, Network, Relational, and Object-oriented.
Mappings
Summary:
Mappings in DBMS relate different levels of abstraction—external, conceptual,
and internal schema.
Interview Question:
What is schema mapping?
Answer: It's the process of mapping between external, conceptual, and
internal schemas.
DBMS Other Functions
Summary:
DBMS functions include data storage, retrieval, update, transaction
management, concurrency control, and backup.
Interview Question:
Name key functions of a DBMS.
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Answer: Storage management, Query processing, Security, Backup, and
Recovery.
Centralized and Distributed Database Environments
Summary:
Centralized DB: Single location.
Distributed DB: Data spread over multiple sites.
Interview Question:
Difference between centralized and distributed DB?
Answer: Centralized stores data in one location, while distributed spreads
data across multiple locations.
CH02: Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD)
Entity Relationship Modeling
Summary:
ER modeling uses entities, attributes, and relationships to represent data
logically.
Interview Question:
What is ER modeling?
Answer: A diagrammatic method to design a database using entities and
relationships.
Entities & Attributes
Summary:
Entities represent real-world objects. Attributes describe the properties of
entities.
Interview Question:
What is the difference between entity and attribute?
Answer: An entity is an object (e.g., Student), and an attribute is its
property (e.g., name).
Relationship - Degree and Cardinality Ratio
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Summary:
Degree indicates the number of entities in a relationship (binary, ternary).
Cardinality defines numerical mapping (one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-
many).
Interview Question:
What is cardinality in ER diagrams?
Answer: It defines the number of instances of one entity related to another.
Participation
Summary:
Describes if all entities participate in a relationship (total or partial).
Interview Question:
What is total participation?
Answer: All entity instances must participate in the relationship.
CH03: ERD Mapping to Tables
Mapping Strong and Weak Entities
Summary:
Strong entities have primary keys. Weak entities depend on strong ones and
use foreign keys.
Interview Question:
How are weak entities mapped to tables?
Answer: By creating a table with a foreign key referencing the strong entity.
Mapping Relationship Types
Summary:
1:1 → Merge or use FK.
1:N → FK in many side.
M:N → Create a new relation.
Interview Question:
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How do you map many-to-many relationships?
Answer: Create a junction table with foreign keys referencing both tables.
CH04: Structured Query Language (SQL)
Database Schema & Constraints
Summary:
Schema defines structure. Constraints ensure data integrity (e.g., primary key,
foreign key, unique).
Interview Question:
What is a schema in SQL?
Answer: It defines the structure of the database including tables and their
relationships.
SQL DDL & DCL
Summary:
DDL: CREATE, ALTER, DROP
DCL: GRANT, REVOKE
Interview Question:
What is the purpose of DCL commands?
Answer: To control access permissions.
CH05: Data Manipulation Language (DML)
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, TRUNCATE
Summary:
Used to add, modify, and remove data.
Interview Question:
Difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE?
Answer: DELETE is row-based and can be rolled back; TRUNCATE is faster
but not roll-backable.
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SELECT and Related Clauses
Summary:
SELECT retrieves data. Additional clauses like WHERE, ORDER BY, DISTINCT,
GROUP BY filter and structure results.
Example:
SELECT DISTINCT name FROM employees WHERE salary > 50000 ORDER
BY name ASC;
Interview Questions:
What does DISTINCT do?
Answer: Removes duplicate rows from the result.
How does GROUP BY work?
Answer: Groups records with the same values for aggregation functions.
JOINs and Subqueries
Summary:
INNER JOIN: Matching rows from both tables
LEFT/RIGHT JOIN: All from one table, matched from another
FULL JOIN: All rows
SELF JOIN: Join table to itself
Subquery: Query inside another
Interview Question:
What is a self join?
Answer: A join where a table is joined to itself using aliases.
Aggregate Functions
Summary:
MAX, MIN, COUNT, AVG, SUM
Interview Question:
What does COUNT(*) return?
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Answer: The number of rows in the table.
CH06: SQL Other DB Objects
Views
Summary:
Virtual tables from SELECT queries. Can simplify complex queries.
Interview Question:
What is a view?
Answer: A saved query that acts like a table.
Indexes
Summary:
Improve query speed by indexing columns. Can be unique or composite.
Interview Question:
What is the purpose of an index?
Answer: To speed up data retrieval.
CH07: Normalization
What is Normalization?
Summary:
A process to reduce redundancy and improve integrity.
Interview Question:
Why normalize a database?
Answer: To eliminate data redundancy and improve consistency.
Functional Dependency
Summary:
A relationship that expresses that one attribute uniquely determines another.
Interview Question:
What is a functional dependency?
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Answer: Attribute A functionally determines B if each value of A maps to
exactly one value of B.
1NF, 2NF, 3NF
Summary:
1NF: Atomic columns.
2NF: Remove partial dependency.
3NF: Remove transitive dependency.
Interview Question:
What is the requirement for 3NF?
Answer: Must be in 2NF and have no transitive dependencies.
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