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CHAPTER 27

MINE AIR CONDITIONING AND VENTILATION

Definitions ............................................................................... 27.1 Selecting a Mine Cooling Method ........................................... 27.9
Sources of Heat Entering Mine Air ......................................... 27.2 Mechanical Refrigeration Plants ............................................ 27.9
Heat Exchangers ..................................................................... 27.4 Mine Air Heating .................................................................. 27.10
Mine Cooling Techniques ........................................................ 27.7 Mine Ventilation .................................................................... 27.11

I N underground mines, excess humidity, high temperatures,

inadequate oxygen, and excessive concentrations of dangerous
gases can lower worker productivity and can cause illness and death.
Critical ventilation depth is the depth at which the air temper-
ature in the intake shaft rises to the reject temperature through auto-
compression and shaft heat loads. Work areas below the critical
Air cooling and ventilation are needed in deep underground mines ventilation depth rely totally on air conditioning to remove heat. The
to minimize heat stress and remove contaminants. As mines become critical ventilation depth is reached at about 2500 to 3000 m,
deeper, heat removal and ventilation problems become more diffi- depending on surface climate in the summer, geothermal gradient,
cult and costly to solve. and shaft heat loads such as pump systems.
Caution: This chapter presents only a very brief overview of the Base heat load is calculated at an infinite airflow at the reject
principles of mine ventilation planning. The person responsible for temperature passing through the work area. The temperature of an
such planning should either be an experienced engineer, or work infinite airflow will not increase as air picks up heat. Actual heat
under the direct supervision of such an engineer. Seven English- load is measured or calculated at the average stope temperature. It is
language texts have been written on mine ventilation since 1980 always greater than the base heat load because the average stope
(Bossard 1982; Hall 1981; Hartman et al. 1997; Hemp 1982; temperature is lower than the reject temperature. More heat is drawn
Kennedy 1996; McPherson 1993; Tien 1999). The ventilation engi- from the wall rock. Marginal heat load is the difference between
neer is strongly encouraged to study these references. base and actual heat loads. It is the penalty paid for using less than
an infinite airflow (i.e., the lower the airflow, the lower the inlet tem-
DEFINITIONS perature required to maintain the reject and the higher the heat load).
Temperature-dependent heat sources (TDHs) depend on the
Definitions specific to mine air conditioning and ventilation are temperature difference between the source and air. Examples
as follows. include wall rock, broken rock, and fissure water (in a ditch or pipe).
Heat stress is a qualitative assessment of the work environment Temperature-independent heat sources (TIHs) depend only on
based on temperature, humidity, air velocity, and radiant energy. the energy input to a machine or device after the energy required to
Many heat stress indices have been proposed (see Chapter 8 of the raise the potential energy of a substance, if any, is deducted. Exam-
2005 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals for a thorough discus- ples include electric motors, lights, substation losses, and the calo-
sion); the most common in the mining industry are effective temper- rific value of diesel fuel.
ature (Hartman et al. 1997), air cooling power (Howes and Nixon Passive thermal environmental control separates heat sources
1997), and wet-bulb temperature. The following wet-bulb tempera- from ventilating airflows. Examples include insulating pipes and
ture ranges were derived from experience at several deep western wall rock, and blocking off inactive areas. Active thermal environ-
U.S. metal mines: mental control removes heat via airflow and air conditioning
twb ≤ 27°C Worker efficiency 100% quickly enough so that air temperature does not rise above the reject.
27 < twb ≤ 29°C Economic range for acclimatized workers Positional efficiency, an important design parameter for mine
cooling systems, is the cooling effect reaching the work area divided
29 < twb ≤ 33°C Safety factor range; corrective action by the machine evaporator duty. The greater the distance between
required the machine and work area, the more heat that the cooling medium
33°C < twb Only short-duration work with adequate (air or water) picks up en route.
breaks Percent utilization is the ratio of the evaporator duty of the refrig-
eration plant over a year in energy units to the duty if the plant had
Heat strain is the physiological response to heat stress. Effects
worked the entire year at 100% load. This consideration becomes
include sweating, increased heart rate, fatigue, cramps, and progres-
important when evaluating surface versus underground plants.
sively worsening illness up to heat stroke. Individuals have different
Coefficient of performance (COP) usually is defined as the
tolerance levels for heat.
evaporator duty divided by the work of compression in similar units.
Reject temperature, based on the heat stress/strain relationship
In mines, the overall COP is used: the evaporator duty divided by all
is the wet-bulb temperature at which air should be rejected to
power-consuming devices needed to deliver cooling to the work
exhaust or recooled. Reject temperature ranges between 25.5 and
sites. This includes pumps and fans as well as refrigeration machine
29°C wet bulb, depending on governmental regulation, air velocity,
compressors.
and expected metabolic heat generation rate of workers. Specifying
A shaft is a vertical opening or steep incline equipped with skips
the reject temperature is one of the first steps in planning air-condi-
to hoist the ore, and cages (elevators) to move personnel and sup-
tioning systems. The ventilation engineer must be able to justify the
plies. Electric cables and pipes for fresh water, compressed air, cool-
reject temperature to management because of the economics
ing water, and pump water are installed in shafts. Drifts and tunnels
involved. If too high, work productivity, health, safety, and morale
are both horizontal openings; a tunnel opens to daylight on both
suffer; if too low, capital and operating costs become excessive.
ends, whereas a drift, deep underground, does not. In metal mining,
a stope is a production site where ore is actually mined. In coal
The preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 9.2, Industrial Air mining, coal is usually produced by either longwall (one continuous
Conditioning. production face many metres long) or room-and-pillar (multiple

27.1
Copyright © 2007, ASHRAE
27.2 2007 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications (SI)

production faces in a grid of rooms with supporting pillars in increase the potential energy of a material does not appear as heat,
between) methods. after losses are deducted.
Vehicles with electric drives, such as scoop-trams, trucks, and
SOURCES OF HEAT ENTERING MINE AIR electric-hydraulic drill jumbos, release heat into the mine at a rate
equivalent to the nameplate and a utilization factor. For example, a
Adiabatic Compression 100 kW electric loader operated at 80% of nameplate for 12 h a
Air descending a shaft increases in pressure (because of the mass day liberates (100 kJ/s)(12 h)(3600 s/h)(0.80) = 3 456 000 kJ/day.
of air above it) and temperature. As air flows down a shaft, it Dividing by 24 h/day gives an average heat load over the day of
increases in temperature as if compressed in a compressor because 144 000 kJ/h. During the 12 h the loader is operating, the heat load
of conversion of potential energy to internal energy, even if there is is doubled to 288 000 kJ/h. The dilemma for the ventilation engi-
no heat interchange with the shaft and no evaporation of moisture. neer is that, if heat loads are projected at the 144 000 rate, the stope
For dry air at standard conditions (15°C at 101.325 kPa), the spe- temperature will exceed the reject temperature for half the day, and
cific heat at constant pressure cp is 1.004 kJ/(kg·K). For most work, the stope will be overventilated for the other half; if projected at
cp can be assumed constant, but extreme conditions might warrant a 288 000 kJ/h, the stope will be greatly overventilated when the
more precise calculation: 1 kJ is added (for descending airflow) or loader is not present. Current practice is to accept the additional
subtracted (for exhaust) to each kilogram for every 102 m. The dry- heat load while the loader is present. Operators get some relief
bulb temperature change is 1/(1.004 × 102 × 1) = 0.00977 K per when they leave the heading to dump rock, at which time the venti-
metre or 1 K per 102 m of elevation. The specific heat for water lation system can partially purge the heading.
vapor is 1.884 kJ/(kg·K). So, for constant air-vapor mixtures, the Diesel equipment dissipates about 90% of the heat value of the
change in dry-bulb temperature is (1 + W)/(1.004 + 1.884W) per fuel consumed, or 35 000 kJ/L, to the air as heat (Bossard 1982).
102 m of elevation, where W is the humidity ratio in kilograms of The heat flow rate is about three times higher for a diesel engine
water per kilogram of dry air. than for an equivalent electric motor. If the same 100 kW loader dis-
The theoretical heat load imposed on intake air by adiabatic com- cussed previously were diesel-powered, the heat would average
pression is given in Equation (1), which is a simplified form of the about 475 000 kJ/h over the day, and 950 000 kJ/h during actual
general energy equation: loader operation. Both sensible and latent heat components of the
air are increased because combustion produces water vapor. If a wet
q = QρE∆d (1) scrubber is used, exhaust gases are cooled by adiabatic saturation
and the latent heat component increases even further.
where Fans raise the air temperature about 0.25 K per kPa static pres-
q = theoretical heat of autocompression, W sure. Pressures up to 2.5 kPa are common in mine ventilation. This
Q = airflow in shaft, m3/s is detrimental only when fans are located on the intake side of work
ρ = air density, kg/m3 areas or circuits.
E = energy added per unit distance of elevation change, 1 kJ/(102m·kg)
∆d = elevation change, m Groundwater
Example 1. What is the equivalent heat load from adiabatic compression of Transport of heat by groundwater has the largest variance in mine
140 m3/s at 1.12 kg/m3 density flowing down a 1500 m shaft? heat loads, ranging from essentially zero to overwhelming values.
Groundwater usually has the same temperature as the virgin rock.
Solution:
Ventilating airflows can pick up more heat from hot drain water in
q = ( 140 ) ( 1.12 ) ( 1 ⁄ 102 ) ( 1500 ) = 2306 kW an uncovered ditch than from wall rock. Thus, hot drain water
should be stopped at its source or contained in pipelines or in cov-
The adiabatic compression process is seldom truly adiabatic: ered ditches. Pipelines can be insulated, but the main goal is isolat-
autocompression is a more appropriate term. Other heating or cool- ing the hot water so that evaporation cannot occur.
ing sources, such as shaft wall rock, introduction of groundwater or Heat release from open ditches increases in significance as air-
water sprayed in the shaft to wet the guides, compressed-air and ways age and heat flow from surrounding rock decreases. In one
water pipes, or electrical facilities, often mask the effects of adia- Montana mine, water in an open ditch was 22 K cooler than when it
batic compression. The actual temperature increase for air descend- flowed out of the wall rock; the heat was transferred to the air. Evap-
ing a shaft usually does not match the theoretical adiabatic oration of water from wall rock surfaces lowers the surface temper-
temperature increase, for the following reasons: ature of the rock, which increases the temperature gradient of the
rock, depresses the dry-bulb temperature of the air, and allows more
• The effect of seasonal and daily surface temperature fluctuations,
heat to flow from the rock. Most of this extra heat is expended in
such as cool night air on the rock or shaft lining (rock exhibits
evaporation.
thermal inertia, which absorbs and releases heat at different times
of the day) Example 2. Water leaks from a rock fissure at 1.26 L/s and 52°C. If the
• The temperature gradient of ground rock related to depth water enters the shaft sump at 29°C, what is the rate of heat transfer to
• Evaporation of moisture within the shaft, which suppresses the the air?
dry-bulb temperature rise while increasing the moisture content Solution:
of the air Heat rate = ( 1.26 L/s ) ( 1 kg/L ) [ 4.1868 kJ/(kg·K) ] ( 52 – 29°C )
The wet-bulb temperature lapse rate varies, depending on the = 121.33 kW
entering temperature and humidity ratio, and the pressure drop in
the shaft. It averages about 1.4 K wet bulb per 300 m, and is much Wall Rock Heat Flow
less sensitive to evaporation or condensation than the dry bulb. Wall rock is the main heat source in most deep mines. Tempera-
ture at the earth’s core has been estimated to be about 5700°C. Heat
Electromechanical Equipment flows from the core to the surface at an average of 0.07 W/m2. The
Electric motors and diesel engines transfer heat to the air. Loss implication for mine engineers is that a geothermal gradient exists:
components of substations, electric input to devices such as lights, rock gets warmer as the mine deepens. The actual gradient varies
and all energy used on a horizontal plane appear as heat added to the from approximately 1 to over 7 K per 100 m of depth, depending on
mine air. Energy expended in pumps, conveyors, and hoists to the thermal conductivity of local rock. Table 1 gives depths and max-
Mine Air Conditioning and Ventilation 27.3

Table 1 Maximum Virgin Rock Temperatures

2 k ( t vr – t a ) ( ε )
Mining District Depth, m Temperature, ºC
Heat Flux ( W/m ) = -------------------------------- (4)
r
Kolar Gold Field, India 3350 67
South Africa 3660 52 to 57 Total Heat Flow(W) = (Heat Flux)(L)(P) (5)
Morro Velho, Brazil 2440 54
North Broken Hill, Australia 1080 44
where
Great Britain 1220 46 Fo = Fourier number, dimensionless
k = thermal conductivity of rock, W/(m·K)
Braloroe, BC, Canada 1250 45
L = length of section, m
Kirkland Lake, Ontario 1830 27 P = perimeter of section, m
Falconbridge Mine, Ontario 1830 29 r = radius of circular section, m, or equivalent radius of rectangular
Lockerby Mine, Ontario 1220 36 section; r = (A/π)1/2, where
Levac Borehold (Inco), Ontario 3050 53 A = cross-sectional area of section, m2
Garson Mine, Ontario 1520 26 ta = air dry-bulb temperature, °C
Lake Shore Mine, Ontario 1830 23 tvr = virgin rock temperature, °C
Hollinger Mine, Ontario 1220 14 α= thermal diffusivity of rock (equals k/ρc), m2/h, where
Creighton Mine, Ontario 3050 59 ρ = rock density, kg/m3
Superior, AZ 1220 60 c = heat capacity, kJ/(kg·K)
San Manuel, AZ 1370 48 ε= function of Fourier number for instantaneous rate, dimensionless
(Whillier and Thorpe 1982)
Butte, MT 1590 66
θ= average age of section, h
Homestake Mine, SD 2440 57
Ambrosia Lake, NM 1220 60 Example 3. A 150 m long section of drift, 3.7 m high by 4.5 m wide, was
Brunswick #12, New Brunswick, Canada 1130 23 driven in quartzite with a VRT of 43°C. The drift was started 20 days
Belle Island Salt Mine, LA 430 31 before the face was reached, and the face is 1 day old. One design crite-
Source: Fenton (1972). rion is keeping the average dry-bulb temperature of the air in the drift at
27°C. How much heat will flow into the section?
Table 2 Thermal Properties of Rock Types Solution: From Table 2, the thermal conductivity of quartzite is
5.50 W/(m·K) and the diffusivity is 0.008 m2/h. The average age of the
Thermal Conductivity, Diffusivity,
section is (20 + 1 days)/2 = 10.5 days, or 252 h. The cross-sectional
Rock Type W/(m·K) m2/h
area of the drift is 3.7 × 4.5 = 16.65 m2 and the perimeter is (3.7 +
Coal 2.20 0.005 4.5) × 2 = 16.4 m. The equivalent radius of the drift is (16.65/π)1/2 =
Gabro 2.37 0.009 2.30 m. The following equations are then applied:
Granite 1.92 0.012 αθ ( 0.008 ) ( 252 )
Using Equation (2), Fo = ------- = -------------------------------- = 0.381
Pyritic shale 3.65 0.007 2 2
r 2.30
Quartzite 5.50 0.008 Using Equation (3), ε = 1.336
Sandstone 1.97 0.006
Shale 2.39 0.003 Using Equation (4),
Rhyolite 3.46 0.004
Sudbury ore 2.60 0.005 k ( t vr – t a ) ( ε ) ( 5.50 ) ( 43 – 27 ) ( 1.336 )
Heat Flux = -------------------------------- = ---------------------------------------------------------
North Idaho metamorphic 5.11 0.010 r 2.30
Source: Mine Ventilation Services Inc., Fresno, CA. Reprinted with permission. 2
= 51.12 W/m

imum virgin rock temperatures (VRTs) for various mining dis- Using Equation (5),
tricts. Table 2 gives thermal conductivities and diffusivities for rock
types commonly found in mining. These two variables are required Total Heat Flow = ( Heat Flux ) ( L ) ( P )
for wall rock heat flow analysis. = ( 51.12 ) ( 150 ) ( 16.4 ) = 125 755 W
Wall rock heat flow is unsteady-state: it decays with time because
Thus, to keep the average temperature of the drift section at 27°C db,
of the insulating effect of cooled rock near the rock/air boundary. 126 kW of refrigeration are needed.
Equations exist for both cylindrical and planar openings, but this sec-
tion discusses cylindrical equations (Goch and Patterson 1940). The The Goch and Patterson method lacks a convective heat transfer
method can solve for either instantaneous or average heat flux rate. coefficient at the rock/air boundary, and overestimates heat transfer
The instantaneous rate is recommended because it is better used for in a dry drift by 8 to 15%. It also does not have a wetness factor.
older tunnels or drifts. For newer drifts, a series of instantaneous Because a drift with water on the perimeter draws more heat from
rates over short time periods is equivalent to the average rate. The wall rock, the method underestimates heat flow. Almost all drifts
Goch and Patterson calculations are easily performed on a computer have some wetness on the floor, back, and side walls, though it may
using the following variables and equations: not be visible. Comparisons of the Goch and Patterson method with
field measurements and results from commercial software under
Fo = αθ
------- (2) typical conditions (a drift with 20 to 60% of the perimeter wetted)
2 indicate that the overestimate is nearly equal to the underestimate.
r
When using Goch and Patterson for drift heat loads, keep drift
2 section lengths under 60 m and do not apply any contingency factor
ε = { 1.017 + 0.7288 log 10( Fo ) + 0.1459 [ log 10( Fo ) ]
to the calculated heat load.
3 4 Heat load calculations for stoping require a large number of vari-
– 0.01572 [ log 10( Fo ) ] – 0.004525 [ log 10( Fo ) ] (3)
ables. Irregular shapes, sporadic advance rates, intermittent TIH
+ 0.001073 [ log 10( Fo ) ] }
5 –1 sources, fissure water, and nonhomogeneous or anisotropic (with
directionally differing heat conducting properties) rock are difficult
to model (Duckworth and Mousset-Jones 1993; Marks and Shaffner
1993). For cut-and-fill stoping with a sand floor, measured heat
27.4 2007 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications (SI)

loads are about 70% of the heat loads predicted by Goch and Patter- reject temperature, a lower stope entering temperature is assumed
son. Other stoping methods such as room-and-pillar or tabular reef and a new exit temperature is calculated. The process is repeated
mining are more amenable to planar heat load equations. Patterson with new stope entering temperatures until the calculated stope exit
(1992) gives empirical graphs relating heat load to productivity and temperature equals the design reject temperature.
depth. If the entering stope temperature calculated from the surface is
Ventilation engineers needing to project heat loads for new mines greater than the entering stope temperature calculated from the
or extensive tunnel projects can write their own computer program reject temperature, higher airflow or air conditioning will be
using the Goch and Patterson equations, or use a commercial soft- needed. Psychrometrics can determine the size of the airflow
ware package. These programs account for convective heat transfer, increase or cooling required.
wetness, elevation changes, and TIH sources that can make hand
calculations tedious. However, program input must be carefully HEAT EXCHANGERS
derived or the output will be misleading.
Underground heat exchangers can be water-to-refrigerant, air-to-
Heat from Broken Rock refrigerant, water-to-water, air-to-water, or air-to-air. Brine can be
Freshly blasted broken rock can liberate significant amounts of used instead of water where freezing might occur. Heat exchangers
heat in a confined area. The broken rock’s initial and final temper- can be direct (e.g., spray chambers) or indirect (e.g., conductive heat
atures, and where the rock is cooled en route from the face to the transfer through tubes or plates).
hoisting facility, must be estimated. See Chapters 16 to 25 and 34 to 44 of the 2004 ASHRAE Hand-
book—HVAC Systems and Equipment for general guidelines when
Heat, kJ = (mass)(specific heat)(VRT – final temperature) (6) designing large cooling plants for mine duty.

Heat Shell-and-Tube and Plate Heat Exchangers

Heat load, W = -------------------- (7)
( time, s ) Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are the mainstay of refrigeration
machines used in mines. Machines in the 700 to 1400 kW range may
Example 4. A 3.7 m high by 4.5 m wide by 3 m long drift round is blasted use either direct expansion (DX) or flooded evaporators. In both
in quartzite where the VRT is 49°C. Quartzite has a 2700 kg/m3 density cases, the working fluid (refrigerant or water) is circulated through
and a 0.8 kJ/(kg·K) specific heat. By the time the rock is hoisted to the the tubes.
surface 4 h later, it has cooled to 32°C. What is the heat load imposed South African mines often use plate-and-frame evaporators in
on the drift and shaft?
large surface chilled-water plants (van der Walt and van Rensburg
Solution: 1988). These machines can cool water to within a degree of freezing
3
Heat = ( 3.7 m × 4.5 m × 3 m × 2700 kg/m ) [ 0.8 kJ/(kg·K) ] without danger of rupture. In contrast, shell-and-tube evaporators
6 should not be expected to chill water below 3°C. Manufacturers
× ( 49 – 32°C ) = 1.8342 × 10 kJ
must be consulted.
Shell-and-tube water-to-water heat exchangers have been used in
6
1.8342 × 10 kJ mine cooling systems to avoid pumping return water against high
Heat load = -------------------------------------- = 127 kW
14 400 s heads (the U-tube effect). Chilled water from the surface is sent
down to the high-pressure (tube) side of the exchanger. Water on the
Heat from Other Sources low-pressure side operates district chiller systems or spot coolers.
Heat produced by oxidation of timber and sulfide minerals can The shell-and-tube water-to-water heat method is not very popular,
be locally significant and even cause mine fires. Fortunately, timber perhaps because it requires high-pressure supply and return piping.
is seldom used for ground support in modern mines. Heat from The Second Law of Thermodynamics limits the approach tempera-
blasting can also be appreciable. The typical heat potential in vari- ture of the outlet high-pressure water to the inlet low-pressure water
ous explosives is similar to that of 60% dynamite, about 4200 kJ/kg. temperature. This tends to limit heat removal in deep mines that
This heat is usually swept out of the mine between shifts and thus is would require at least three heat exchanger stations, in series, in the
not tallied in heat load projections. Body metabolism is only a con- shaft.
cern in refuge chambers and is rarely if ever included in heat load
Cooling Coils
projections. Although these heat sources are usually neglected, the
ventilation engineer must remain vigilant for cases where local Cooling coils can be DX or chilled-water coils. DX coils are used
effects might be significant. with spot coolers and typically range from 50 to 200 kW. Some
modern spot coolers use dual coils in parallel for compactness.
Summation of Mine Heat Loads Chilled-water coils, used in district chiller systems, are also used in
Mine cooling requirements should be estimated after mining a wide range of sizes.
methods, work sites, production rates, and equipment are specified, Air-side fouling is the main operational problem with cooling
and heat sources identified. The time frame, during which the ven- coils in mines. Coils with fin spacing tighter than 4.2 mm are not
tilation and cooling systems must provide an acceptable work envi- recommended. Water-side fouling is minimal if the water is of fair
ronment, is normally 10 years, but can vary. quality, the circuit is closed, and a corrosion inhibitor is added to the
Total heat for a mine or mine section is the summation of all circuit.
TIH and TDH sources. It helps to plot heat sources on a schematic.
The heat load from the surface to the entrance of the stope is Small Spray Chambers
assessed first, starting with TIH sources because they influence Small spray chambers can be used as an alternative to cooling
TDH sources. Shaft heat loads, autocompression, and drift heat coils. Heat transfer is direct, air-to-water. Spray chamber mainte-
loads are added to the air en route to stopes. The process should nance is minimal, and the amount of water sprayed is typically one-
take only one iteration to find a stope entering temperature. Stope half to one-third that required for a cooling coil at the same duty.
heat load is calculated by assuming that the wet bulb leaving the Some washing effect also occurs in the chamber.
stope equals the design reject temperature. The air temperature Spray chambers are open systems that dump water into a ditch or
entering the stope is estimated, and heat load equations are used to collection pond after spraying. This water drains to the dewatering
calculate the exit temperature. If this exit temperature exceeds the system or is pumped back to the chiller plant. Small spray chambers
Mine Air Conditioning and Ventilation 27.5

are still popular for small duties in mines that chill service water, but program is needed to calculate enthalpy, density, humidity ratio, and
the pumping system must be able to handle the increased service specific volume from the wet bulb, dry bulb, and barometric pres-
water requirement. sure. Tower airflow is taken from measurements or from the mine
plan. The temperature, if not measurable (e.g., in a new mine), can
Cooling Towers be assumed to approach the reject temperature. Experience shows
When heat loads are large, the full capacity of a mine’s heat that air usually enters exhaust at about 27 to 28°C wb. Then,
removal system will probably be needed. A key component of the
1. Calculate heat rejection rate in the tower (evaporator duty ×
heat removal system is exhaust air. The ventilation engineer for a
condenser heat rejection factor, typically between 1.2 and 1.4).
deep, hot mine must be proficient at designing underground cooling
Discuss with the manufacturer.
towers for condenser heat rejection, and spray chambers for cooling
airflows. 2. Select condenser water flow and use Equation (9) to calculate
Rather than using the standard HVAC&R method of assessing ∆tw in the tower and machine condensers.
cooling tower performance, as described in Chapter 36 of the 2004 3. Specify cooling tower diameter and tower air velocity.
ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment, mining engi- 4. Calculate Mw /Ma .
neers use the South African factor-of-merit method, developed in 5. Calculate heat rejection rate per m3/s in tower.
the 1970s for designing direct-contact heat exchangers (Bluhm 6. Calculate air enthalpy h and use Equation (8) to calculate Σai .
1981; Burrows 1982; Whillier 1977). This method requires a psy- 7. Select a factor of merit for tower using Table 3.
chrometric program and the following equations: 8. Estimate tower capacity factor R (e.g., R = 0.5). Using R = 1 in
Equation (14) will result in division by zero. Skip to Step 10 if
Σ = h – ( cpw ) ( W ) ( t ) (8) R = 1, and use the value of F for nw.
9. Use Equation (13) to calculate N.
Note that t is either the wet-bulb temperature for air, or the water 10. Use Equation (14) to calculate water efficiency nw.
temperature, depending on whether Σai or Σwi is calculated. 11. Use Equation (11) to calculate inlet water temperature twi .
12. Use Equation (8) to calculate Σwi , the energy of air at inlet water
q = ( M w ) ( c pw ) ( t wi – t wo ) (9) temperature twi .
13. Use Equation (12) to calculate a new tower capacity factor R.
q = ( M a ) ( Σ ao – Σ ai ) (10) 14. Compare the R calculated in Step 13 with the R estimated in
Step 8. If different by more than 1%, return to Step 8 and re-
t wi – t wo estimate R. Repeat Steps 9 to 14 until the calculated R is within
n w = -------------------- (11) 1% of the estimated R.
t wi – t ai 15. Calculate air and water temperatures leaving the tower and the
evaporation rate.
( M w ) ( c pw ) ( t wi – t ai )
R = -------------------------------------------------- (12) Keep the following empirical design criteria in mind during
( M a ) ( Σ wi – Σ ai ) Steps 1 to 5:
F • Realistic ∆tw in tower is 6.6 to 8.8 K
N = -------------------------------
- (13) • Realistic water loading in tower is 4 to 12 L/s per square metre
0.4
(1 – F)(R ) • Optimum water velocity in machine condenser tubes (0.015 to
–N ( 1 – R ) 0.066 m/s, per manufacturer’s recommendations) is based on tub-
(1 – e ) ing material and water quality
n w = ---------------------------------------- (for counterflow towers) (14)
–N ( 1 – R ) • Realistic maximum air velocity in tower is 8 m/s
( 1 – Re )
• Realistic ratios of the mass flows of water to air Mw /Ma range
where from 0.5 to 2.5
a = air • A realistic heat rejection rate in tower is 20 to 40 kW per L/s
cpw = specific heat of water at constant pressure, 4.1868 kJ/(kg·K)
F = factor of merit, roughly equivalent to UA factor in conductive Values outside these design parameters are sometimes used
heat transfer, dimensionless; ranges from 0 (no heat transfer) to 1 (especially when plant duty is increased at a future date), but the
(as much as heat transfer as allowed by Second Law takes place) penalty paid is a higher condensing temperature and lower COP.
h = enthalpy of moist air, kJ/kg Once q, F, Ma , tai , and Mw are specified, only one twi , two , and tao
i = inlet will balance all equations.
M = mass flow rate, water or air, kg/s
N = number of transfer units, an intermediate factor for calculating Example 5. Design a cooling tower for a 3500 kW refrigeration plant
water efficiency planned for a deep, hot mine. Exhaust airflow for heat rejection is
nw = water efficiency, dimensionless
o = outlet
q = heat rate to be transferred in chamber, W Table 3 Factors of Merit
R = tower capacity factor, dimensionless; ratio of heat capacity of
Factor of
water to heat capacity of air under limits of Second Law
Merit Range Source
t = temperature, °C
W = humidity ratio of moist air, kg water per kg air Vertical counterflow, open, unpacked 0.50 to 0.70 Hemp 1982
w = water Horizontal cross-flow
Σ = energy of air, kJ/kg; total enthalpy minus enthalpy of liquid Single-stage 0.40 to 0.55 Hemp 1982
water evaporated into air [approximated by (cpw)(W)(t), where t Two-stage 0.57 to 0.72 Marks 1988
is wet bulb]; dependent only on wet bulb and barometric Three-stage 0.69 to 0.81 Marks 1988
pressure
Four-stage 0.76 to 0.87 Marks 1988
Designing an underground cooling tower requires the exhaust air Commercial packed cooling
mass flowrate Ma , the wet- and dry-bulb temperatures available at Counterflow tower 0.68 to 0.78 Patterson 1992
the tower, and the ambient barometric pressure. A psychrometric Cross-flow tower 0.55 to 0.65 Patterson 1992
27.6 2007 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications (SI)

118 m3/s at 28°C saturated. Barometric pressure is 104.983 kPa (300 m Step 10. Calculate nw from Equation (14):
below sea level). What size cooling tower is needed, how much con-
denser cooling water is required, what are the inlet and outlet air and – 1.613 ( 1 – 0.5 )
1–e
water temperatures, and how much makeup water is needed? n w = ------------------------------------------------ = 0.713
– 1.613 ( 1 – 0.5 )
1 – 0.5e
Solution:
Step 11. Calculate twi from Equation (11) (after manipulation, and
Step 1. For a refrigeration plant to produce 3500 kW of cooling, it
assuming that twi – two = ∆tw):
must reject about 3500 kW × 1.25 condenser heat rejection factor =
4375 kW.
∆t 8.3 - + 28 = 39.64°C
Step 2. Select a condenser water flow. For this example, start with t wi = -------w- + t ai = ------------
nw 0.713
0.018 L/s per kilowatt rejected. The condenser flow is thus 78.75 L/s,
or 78.75 kg/s at 1 kg/L. The change in water temperature is calculated Step 12. Σwi at 39.64°C and 104.983 kPa = 180.75 – (4.1868)(0.047)
from Equation (9): (39.64) = 172.95 kJ/kg.
4375 kW Step 13. Calculate the new R using Equation (12):
∆t w = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
- = 13.3 K
( 78.75 kg/s ) [ 4.1868 kJ/(kg·K) ]
( 125 ) ( 4.1868 ) ( 39.64 – 28 )
R = ------------------------------------------------------------------ = 0.651
That exceeds the realistic 6.6 to 8.8 K ∆tw, so arbitrarily increase the ( 137 ) ( 172.95 – 104.66 )
water flow to 125 L/s and recalculate ∆tw. In practice, selecting the
condenser water flow is anything but arbitrary. Generally, the higher the Step 14. The new R is higher than the 0.5 R estimated in Step 8.
flow, the better, but higher flows require larger condensers to keep tube Return to Step 8 and iterate until the R calculated in Step 13 equals the
velocity within design limits, larger cooling towers with more nozzles, R projected in Step 8. This occurs at R = 0.662.
and significantly larger pumps. Actual condenser water flow is a com- Step 15. All other values can now be calculated.
promise between machine and tower performance, capital cost, and
overall plant COP (operating cost). At 125 L/s for this example, ∆tw = Per Step 11, twi = 39.64°C
8.4 K, which is acceptable.
two = 39.64 – 8.3 = 31.34°C
Step 3. Specify cooling tower diameter by using a midrange value to
8 L/s per m2.
4375 kW = 104.66 + 31.93
Σ ao = Σ ai + -------------------------
( 137 kg/s )
2 125 L/s -
( π/4 )d = ------------------------- ∴ d = 4.46 m ≈ 4.5 m
2 = 136.59 kJ/kg
8 L/(s·m )
tao = 34.7°C (via psychrometric iteration)
3
118 m /s
Air velocity = ---------------------------- = 7.42 m/s ( < 8 m/s; acceptable ) The water evaporated in the tower is the difference in humidity
2
( π/4 ) ( 4.5 ) ratios ∆W × the mass flow of dry air. From psychrometric equations,
W28°C = 0.0237 kgw /kga and W34.7°C = 0.0347 kgw /kga .
Step 4. Calculate Mw /Ma.
Evaporation rate = ( 137 kga /s ) ( 0.0347 – 0.0237 kg w /kg a )
M w = ( 125 L/s ) ( 1 kg/L ) = 125 kg w /s
= 1.5 L/s
The specific volume for 28°C saturated inlet air at 104.983 kPa is
0.86 m3/kga. Ma is therefore Total makeup water depends on evaporation rate, water carry-
over (if any), and blowdown used to control dissolved solids in the
3
118 m /s - = 137 kg /s condenser circuit. Leakages and carryover can be deducted from the
M a = ----------------------------- a blowdown. Makeup water is usually planned at 1 to 3% of the con-
3
0.86 m /kg a denser water flow, depending on the quality of the makeup water,
allowable cycles of concentration of dissolved solids, and water
M w § M a = 125
--------- = 0.912 ( 0.5 < M w ⁄ M a < 2.5 ; acceptable ) treatment plan.
137
Vertical unpacked cooling towers in mines often use clog-
Step 5. The heat rejection rate in the tower is resistant full-cone nozzles circling the top of the tower, at least 12 m
above the pond. South African mines tend to use ham-type sprayers.
4375 kW- = 37 kW per m 3 /s Nozzle pressure of 200 kPa (gage) is typically specified: lower
---------------------- water pressures do not generate the fine water droplets preferred for
3
118 m /s
heat transfer, and higher pressures increase pumping costs. Higher
This rate is approaching the upper acceptable limit. Consideration pressures can also impinge water drops into side walls, where the
should be given to routing more air through the tower if possible. All water runs in sheets down the sides. This drastically reduces the sur-
design criteria have now been met. face area of the water flow, which reduces heat transfer. Rings cir-
Step 6. The enthalpy of air hai at 28°C saturated and 104.983 kPa is cling the tower are recommended to kick water running down the
109 kJ/kg. Σai = 109 – (4.1868)(0.037) (28) = 104.66 kJ/kg. sides back into the airstream. Unpacked towers do not have as high
a factor of merit as towers with film packing or splash bars, but they
Step 7. Select a factor of merit for the tower. From Table 3, an open,
are virtually maintenance-free and have low resistance to airflow.
unpacked, vertical counterflow cooling tower can conservatively be
expected to have a 0.55 factor of merit. If the tower is well designed Figure 1 shows a typical underground vertical counterflow cooling
and actually has a higher factor, the tower will return cooler water to tower.
the plant and COP will increase. After a cooling tower begins operation, the actual factor of merit
Step 8. Estimate R = 0.5 (first pass). should be determined. This is accomplished by measuring air and
water flow rates and temperatures at the tower inlet and outlet, and
Step 9. Calculate N from Equation (13): then working the cooling tower equations in reverse. The actual
factor of merit can be used to determine performance at other inlet
0.55 conditions. This applies to mine, industrial, and commercial cooling
N = ------------------------------------------- = 1.613
0.4
( 1 – 0.55 ) ( 0.5 ) towers.
Mine Air Conditioning and Ventilation 27.7

Large Spray Chambers (Bulk Air Coolers) Increasing Airflows

The procedure for designing spray coolers is the same as for This alternative should be considered first: it is usually less
cooling towers, with the following minor changes: expensive to moderately increase airflows than to install refrigera-
tion if the mine is above the critical ventilation depth. Increasing
q = M w c pw ( t wo – t wi ) (15) airflows also helps remove diesel fumes, which is increasingly
important for modern mining. However, in deep, usually older mines
q = M a ( Σ ai – Σ ao ) (16) with small cross-sectional airways, airflow increases may not be
practical because of the cube relationship between fan power and air-
flow increase through a given resistance. Circuit resistance reduction
–R ( 1 – X ) via new airways or stripping existing airways is very expensive.
–e
n w = 1-------------------------------
- (17)
R
Chilling Service Water
where X = e N for horizontal cross-flow chambers. When a mine requires additional heat removal, and airflow
A perfect counterflow tower has a factor of merit of 1.0, but the increases are not practical, chilling service water should be consid-
factor of merit for a single cross-flow chamber cannot exceed 0.63 ered. Most mining methods require that water be sprayed on rock
(Bluhm 1981). Two-stage cross-flow chambers are most often spec- immediately after blasting to control dust; chilled water can inter-
ified. Counterflow performance is approximated, and the counter- cept rock heat before the heat escapes into the air. This is a very flex-
flow equation for water efficiency can be used. Three-stage ible method of heat removal because it is applied when and where it
chambers can be designed when water flow must be limited to is needed the most. After blasted rock is removed, the water is
control pumping costs. Four-stage chambers are rarely cost- turned off and routed elsewhere. Main water lines should be insu-
effective in mining applications. lated when service water is chilled.
Spray chambers often use vee-jet nozzles at 200 kPa (gage), Water is usually chilled in surface plants. A single-pass system is
placed uniformly along the chamber length and designed to cover used if regional water supplies are plentiful. If scarce, water is
the cross section evenly. Sprays should just reach the back of the pumped to the surface, recooled, and returned underground. Recy-
chamber. Mist eliminators are usually installed at the chamber exit. cling can ease discharge permit requirements and thus save on treat-
Whereas cooling towers need makeup water to replace evaporated ment costs. Some mines have zero discharge permits. Regions with
water, bulk air coolers gain water through condensation. This water low winter temperatures and low relative humidities during summer
can be sent to the condenser side as makeup. Figure 2 shows a typ- have a natural cooling capacity that is adaptable to water chilling on
ical two-stage horizontal cross-flow spray chamber. the surface. Warm mine water is precooled in an evaporative cooling
tower before being sent to the refrigeration plant.
MINE COOLING TECHNIQUES
Reducing Water Pressure and Energy Recovery Systems
A mine cooling system typically sends air, water, or ice into the
mine at a low enthalpy state and removes it at a higher one. In hot All mines send water underground for drilling, cleaning, sup-
mines, heat is typically rejected to water being pumped to the sur- pressing dust, and wetting broken rock. Hot mines using extensive
face, and to exhaust air being drawn from the mine. There are cooling systems often send large volumes of water underground
many combinations and variations on how this is accomplished. solely for air conditioning. The pressure of descending water must
Economics and site-specific conditions determine the optimum be broken periodically. The most common methods are the open
methods. cascade system and pressure-reducing valves. Turbines can also
break the pressure and recover a significant portion of the potential
energy that would otherwise be lost. Two types of turbines are suit-
Fig. 1 Underground Open Counterflow Cooling Tower able for mine use: the Pelton wheel, which is most often used, and
a centrifugal pump specially designed to run in reverse. The Pelton

Fig. 2 Two-Stage Horizontal Spray Chamber

Fig. 1 Underground Open Counterflow Cooling Tower Fig. 2 Two-Stage Horizontal Spray Chamber
27.8 2007 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications (SI)

wheel rotor is shaped like the spokes of a wheel, with cups attached times the heat as the same mass flow of chilled water in going from
to the ends of the spokes. One or two nozzles shoot high-pressure 7 to 32°C:
water onto the cups, spinning the wheel. It is at least 80% efficient
over a range of flows, simply constructed, and readily controlled. A Heat removal (kJ/kg) = Sensible + Latent
wide operating range is important because water demand fluctuates.
A turbine can turn either a generator or pump. Turning a generator Heat removal of chilled water = [4.1868 kJ/(kg·K)](32 – 7) = 105
is preferred because it separates service and cooling water from the kJ/kg
mine dewatering system so that downtime in one system is less Heat removal of ice = [4.1868 kJ/(kg·K)](32 – 0) + 335 kJ/kg = 469
likely to disrupt the other. kJ/kg
Besides providing power to help return service water to the surface,
turbines have another advantage: unrecovered potential energy is con- Heat removal factor increase of ice over water = 469/105 = 4.5
verted to heat at a rate of 1 kJ/kg per 102 m of depth. If, for example,
a 1830 m deep mine uses 63 L/s for air conditioning without energy South African mines have been at the forefront in this application
recovery, the water will heat by 4.28 K. If 80% efficient turbines are (Sheer et al. 2001). Both chunk and slurry delivery methods send ice
used, the water temperature rise is about 0.2 × 4.28 = 0.856 K. The to underground chambers, where it mixes with warm water return-
refrigerating effect lost is only 225 instead of 1129 kW. ing from the mining area. The cold mixed water is then sent back to
Other energy-recovery devices include hydrotransformers (large the mining area.
pistons transfer force from the high-pressure side to the lower- Several successful systems have been installed. Cost has dropped
pressure side), and three-pipe feeder systems that deliver chilled as technology improves; the overall COP of ice systems for ultradeep
water on one side while pumping out crushed ore on the other. These mines is now competitive with traditional cooling methods.
concepts have been tested in Europe and South Africa.
Thermal Storage
Bulk Cooling Versus Spot Cooling This Canadian innovation uses near-surface ice stopes or rock
Engineers must balance bulk cooling and spot cooling. Bulk rubble to effectively and inexpensively heat intake air in the winter
cooling using a centrally located plant cools the entire mine, or a and cool it in the summer (Stachulak 1989).
large section of it. Benefits are lower cost per kilowatt installed,
generally better maintenance, and lower temperatures in non-stop- Controlled Recirculation
ing areas such as haul drifts. Bulk cooling intake air is often done This technique, used in conjunction with bulk air cooling, can
at warm-climate mines to provide winter-like or better conditions reduce ventilation and air-conditioning requirements in older, deep
year round. Air is cooled in large direct-contact spray chambers mines, especially heavily mechanized ones (Tien 1999). Besides
adjacent to the shaft and then injected into the shaft below the main increasing air velocities in work areas without drawing more surface
landing. air through a high-resistance circuit, controlled recirculation re-
Cooling the entire mine draws more heat from surrounding wall duces the heat load caused by autocompression. Using Equation (1),
rock, so a larger system must be designed to ensure proper stope for every 47 m3/s at standard density brought from the surface, the
cooling (i.e., positional efficiency suffers). When a multilevel mine lost cooling capacity per 300 m of descent is
is bulk cooled, cooling may be wasted on upper levels where heat
3 ⎛1 kJ/kg⎞
load is low. 3
Spot cooling provides adequate temperature control in explora- Heat Load = ( 47 m /s ) ( 1.2 kg/m ) ⎜-----------------⎟ ( 300 m )
tion and development headings, and in stopes on the fringes of min- ⎝ 102 m ⎠
ing activity. Total heat load is lower, but cost per kilowatt is higher 3
= 166 kW lost per 47 m /s, per 300 m
and temperatures in some areas might exceed design limits.
Controlled recirculation systems must be designed very care-
Combination (Integrated) Surface Systems fully, with stringent monitoring and control safeguards.
Combination (or integrated) systems can cool both air and water.
Surface plants devote a higher fraction of cooling capacity to bulk Fig. 3 Integrated Cooling System
cool intake air in the summer. In winter, a higher fraction is used to
chill service or air-conditioning water. Water is delivered under-
ground via open or closed systems, with or without energy recovery.
Figure 3 shows components of an integrated mine cooling system.
Underground Refrigeration
Larger refrigeration machines also can be located underground.
They usually produce chilled water for cooling air in spray cham-
bers, and heat is rejected to exhaust air via cooling towers. Another
method is to operate district cooling systems, using a chiller to pro-
duce water for a closed network of cooling coils installed in parallel.
These coils can be used in auxiliary systems at individual work
areas, or installed in a bank. As with spot coolers, coils should be
installed upwind of blasting to limit air-side fouling. Condenser heat
from district chiller systems is rejected either to service water or to
the mine dewatering system.
Ice Plants
For ultradeep mines (>3660 m), or those at the performance lim-
its of existing water and airflow heat rejection systems, ice cooling
should be considered. In going from 0 to 32°C before being pumped
out of the mine, cooling water starting as ice can remove about 4.5 Fig. 3 Integrated Cooling System
Mine Air Conditioning and Ventilation 27.9

Cabs and Vests • Cost of power, water, labor, and supplies. Knowing these
Mechanization can add significant heat, especially in confined costs is critical for assessing optimum capital expenditure to
auxiliary-ventilated spaces. Most noncoal mines have converted to control operating costs. For example, if power cost is high,
diesel equipment in the last 20 years, although some use electric spending extra for a higher-COP system may be warranted.
loaders and trucks. Coal mines are also mechanizing, but more • Governmental regulations. Heat stress standards can influence
slowly. The biggest problem with diesel engine heat is related to the the size of the system. Other safety issues may constrain design,
greatest advantage of these vehicles: mobility. Heat and emissions such as not using combustible pipe insulation or ammonia
from a diesel vehicle in a confined area can tax almost any ventila- machines underground.
tion system. Increasingly, cabs are being specified for large diesel Basic cooling alternatives for specific cases are summarized in
vehicles. Cabs come equipped with window-type air conditioners Table 4. Airflows are described as limited, medium, or large. One
and HEPA filters to capture diesel particulate and dust. After the way to express airflow for a given mine is the ratio of tonnes of air-
diesel vehicle has left the heading, the mine ventilation and cooling flow per tonne of ore. Limited airflow is defined as less than 8
system can provide an acceptable environment for other personnel. tonnes of air per tonne of ore, medium airflow is 8 to 16 tonnes per
Cabs are expensive; however, because a loader often visits multiple tonne, and large airflow is over 16 tonnes per tonne.
headings in a week, the cost of a cab is much less than maintaining These ranges are based on an unpublished study of approxi-
the design reject wet-bulb temperature in all headings at all times. mately 100 mines of all types, worldwide. The ranges discussed are
Cooling vests are not popular in mining. They are bulky, reduce for heat removal only. Additional airflow for methane or radon
mobility, and are time-consuming to prepare and use. Vests have removal must be addressed separately.
limited application for mechanics, electricians, pipe-fitters, and oth-
ers who must enter hot areas to set up ventilation and cooling. Vests MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION PLANTS
using blue-ice packs or dry-ice last two to three hours; those using
compressed-air venturi-type coolers require an umbilical cord. Surface Plants
Centrifugal or helical rotary screw machines are typically used in
Other Methods
surface plants to chill water or bulk-cool air. Banks of machines are
Other methods being developed include the air cycle (air, com- usually installed in parallel: plant design must accommodate one
pressed on the surface and sent underground to a turbine, turns a machine being down at any given time for maintenance while others
generator and exits at –40°C), and the ammonia cycle (sending operate. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are standard, although
down liquid ammonia, evaporating it, and sending the vapor back plate-and-frame are used if water close to the freezing point is spec-
to surface condensers). These methods may be best suited to ified. The most common refrigerant for positive-displacement com-
ultradeep mines where other cooling methods are already fully pression is HCFC-22. Ammonia is also commonly used in surface
developed. plants. Absorption machines can be considered if external waste
Transferring heat from current stopes to wall rock or rock rubble heat is available.
in previously worked-out stopes (the only method that does not
remove heat from the mine) has also been considered. Refrigeration
equipment would have to operate at a high condensing temperature Underground Plants
to produce water hot enough to transfer heat to worked-out stopes. Large underground plants do the same work as surface plants, but
are closer to work areas. Better positional efficiency and percent uti-
SELECTING A MINE COOLING METHOD
After mine cooling and ventilation requirements have been pro- Table 4 Basic Cooling Alternatives
jected, the designer must analyze and select the best method(s) for Warm Climate Cool/Cold Climate
meeting those requirements. Cost-benefit analysis is the most Massive ore- Large or medium airflow Medium airflow
widely used, but hardware reliability, dependency on outside fac- body (deep) Chill service water Chill service water
tors, flexibility, safety, and technological level are just as important. Bulk-cool air on surface Bulk-cool air underground
Some factors to consider include the following: Bulk-cool air underground Thermal storage
• Seasonal ambient conditions. Warm-climate mines tend to bulk- Massive ore- Large airflow Large or medium airflow
cool air on the surface in industrial direct-contact spray chambers body Bulk-cool air on surface Chill service water on
located close to the intake shaft. (shallow) Chill service water surface
• Orebody and mining methods. The more massive the orebody, Shell and tube Shell and tube
the more ideal bulk cooling becomes. When stopes are scattered
and continuously advanced into new areas, district or spot cooling Scattered Large airflow if not too deep Large or medium airflow
might be better. orebody Chill service water Chill service water
(multilevel) Bulk-cool air on surface District chiller systems
• Mining rate. This is critical: heat removal is energy related, not
necessarily power related. A fast mining rate prompts a high District chiller systems Thermal storage
instantaneous heat load (kilowatts), but less heat energy (kilo- Spot coolers/spray chambers
joules) per tonne of production. This is because wall rock is cov- Ultradeep ore- Limited airflow Limited airflow
ered by fill or isolated before its total heat energy has escaped into body (massive Chill service water Chill service water
the airstream. The kilojoules per tonne of production incurs the and/or District chiller systems District chiller systems
air-conditioning costs. Leave as much heat in the wall rock as pos- multilevel) Ice cooling Ice cooling
sible. Controlled recirculation Controlled recirculation
• Size and condition of major airways. In older mines, small air-
Small orebody Bulk-cool air on surface District chiller systems
ways often limit airflow increases. This may prompt the need for air
Chill service water Chill service water
conditioning sooner than it normally would have been necessary.
District chiller systems Spot coolers
• Heat sources. The contribution of TIH and TDH sources to the
Spot coolers
total can help determine the balance of passive to active thermal
environmental controls, the ratio of airflow to air conditioning, Porous rock District chiller systems District chiller systems
and whether cabs should be specified. Spot coolers Spot coolers
27.10 2007 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications (SI)

lization are the advantages. Whereas surface plants use atmospheric heated to just above the freezing point. Autocompression and shaft
air for heat rejection, underground plants use mine exhaust air, heat loads further temper the air as it downcasts into the mine.
which raises natural ventilation pressure and aids circuit fans. Com- Steam coils operated by boilers burning wood, coal, fuel oil, or
ponents for underground machines must be disassembled for trans- natural gas often served as shaft heaters in the past. Electric resis-
port down the shaft. tance heaters have also been used, but they are expensive to operate.
The main disadvantage of underground refrigeration is that heat Waste heat from compressor stations has also been used.
rejection is limited by the amount of available exhaust air. Exca- When exhaust and intake shafts are located close together, a cir-
vating underground refrigeration rooms and spray chambers is culating glycol or heat pump system can be used to transfer heat
more costly than erecting prefabricated surface buildings. Mainte- from exhaust air to intake. For every kelvin of total heat (sensible
nance is also more difficult because of shaft logistics. Power is plus latent) given up by warm saturated exhaust air, the same mass
more difficult to supply to an underground facility, and subject to flow of cold intake air can be heated sensibly by 4 K. Either coils or
more disruptions. a cooling tower extracts heat from exhaust air, then coils transfer
this heat to the intake air.
Spot Coolers Controlled recirculation (up to 25% of total airflow) can also be
Spot coolers with 50 to 350 kW capacity allow driving long applied to heat intake air (Hall 1989). The system is temporarily
development headings, or cooling exploration sites before installing shut down during blasting.
primary ventilation and cooling equipment. Development headings Some cold-climate mines isolate the primary production shaft
can be advanced more rapidly and under more comfortable condi- from the ventilation circuit. A slight upcast flow of uncontaminated
tions. Condenser heat is most often removed by service water, air maintains good conditions in the shaft for hoisting ore and mov-
although some air-to-air condensers are used. ing personnel and supplies. The disadvantage of this method is that
Spot coolers use reciprocating, scroll, or small screw compressors. ventilation duties of the production shaft must be transferred to one
Hermetic scroll compressors are becoming more popular because or more expensive stand-alone intake airways.
they handle liquid slugging better than reciprocating compressors and Natural gas and/or propane heaters are typically used at modern
are less expensive. Spot coolers use direct exchange (DX) air cooling mines. Natural gas is preferred because it is less expensive and it
coils. The packaged unit includes a fan, which draws air through the burns more cleanly. Where natural gas is not available, propane
coil (or coils, in a dual-coil unit) and then blows it through duct to the must be trucked to the mine site. The same heater can burn either
heading. Spot coolers must be compact and portable because they are natural gas or propane; thus, propane can be used for back-up in
moved often. The service water required is typically 0.02 L/s per kilo- case natural gas is cut off. Direct-fired heaters are usually preferred
watt, but can be less if the water temperature is under 13°C, or more because the entire heat value of the fuel enters the intake airstream.
if it is over 21°C. A return drain pipe is recommended to prevent con- If indirect heaters are used, roughly 15 to 25% of the heat is lost up
tact between hot discharge water (often over 38°C) and ambient air. the flue pipe.
Coils sometimes receive dusty air immediately after blasting; if so, Two types of natural gas or propane heaters have been used to
coils must be washed at least every other day. heat intake air: (1) a grid of burner bars installed in a housing at the
Spot coolers are expensive, but often are the only choice for cool- intake shaft, sometimes with louvers to adjust the flow of intake air
ing exploration, development, and small-scale stoping on the and to mix air from the heaters with outside air; and (2) a crop dryer
fringes of mining activity. type of burner. Temperature sensors installed downstream can mod-
ulate both heater types to ensure that no more heat is applied than
necessary to bring the temperature of the mixed intake air to 1°C.
Maintenance
Carbon monoxide sensors should also be installed downstream
Mines with extensive systems (e.g., a large chiller plant, or over of the heaters. Experience at two mines in the western United States
10 spot coolers) should employ a mechanic specializing in refriger- shows that the CO content of intake air heated by direct-fired burn-
ation. Mines with over 7000 kW probably need a second mechanic. ers can reach 10 to 20 mg/kg.
These persons should be factory-trained and must be certified to
handle refrigerants. Refrigeration specialists can be assisted period- Equation (18) is used to calculate the total heat required, assum-
ically or full-time by apprentice mechanics. Another viable ing that the air has a low humidity ratio (which is the case for very
approach is a maintenance contract with the equipment manufac- cold air), and that no water is evaporated in the heater. Heating val-
turer or supplier, or an independent HVAC&R shop. Some mines ues for different fuels are given in Table 5.
have a full-time person cleaning coils.
3 3
A fouling factor (m2 ·K/W) should be calculated from lab analy- Heat, kW = ( Airflow, m /s ) ( density, kg/m ) (18)
sis of the condenser water, especially for district chillers using sump [ 1 kJ/(kg·K) ] ( ∆t, K )
water. Planning a tube-cleaning regimen, either manual, acid circu-
lation, or automatic with brushes and a flow reversal valve, is criti-
where ∆t = 1°C minus the intake air temperature.
cal. Underground condensers can become plugged within a couple
of weeks without cleaning, depending on the fouling factor. Water
Example 6. A mine is located where the atmospheric air temperature can
treatment is needed to control scale, corrosion, and organisms in sur- drop to –30°C for two or more weeks per year. Occasionally the tem-
face or underground plants with cooling towers. perature drops to –35°C. An intake shaft handles 190 m3/s, and the den-

MINE AIR HEATING

Table 5 Heating Values for Fuels
Cold-climate mines typically heat intake air in the winter. In
Fuel Value Source
Canada, heating intake air can cost more than all other ventilation
costs combined (Hall 1989). However, without heat, water in the Natural gas 37 250 kJ/m3 Kennedy 1996
shaft will freeze, disrupting hoisting operations and damaging shaft Propane 25 000 kJ/L Kennedy 1996
support members, cables, and pipes. Very cold air and icy floors are Bituminous coal 28 600 to 33 500 kJ/kg Abbeon Cal 2001
safety and health hazards; heavy gloves and other protective cloth- Fuel oil 40 000 kJ/L Abbeon Cal 2001
ing required can make routine tasks difficult. Intake air is typically Wood 4 350 000 to 9 000 000 kJ/m3 Abbeon Cal 2001
Mine Air Conditioning and Ventilation 27.11

sity of air entering the shaft in winter is 1.12 kg/m3. What heating ( 1 088 400 tonnes ore per year )
should be installed at the shaft intake to keep the shaft free of ice?
× ( 12.5 tonnes air per tonne ore ) = 13 605 000 tonnes air per year
Solution: Sizing heaters is usually based on average cold periods, not
extreme cold snaps. Here, a direct-fired heater is sized to raise –30°C 3 ( 13 605 000 tonnes/yr ) ( 1000 tonnes/kg ) 3
air to 1°C. When the temperature drops to –35°C for short periods, Airflow, m /s = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 385 m /s
3
intake airflow should be temporarily reduced. Using Equation (18), ( 1.12 kg/m ) ( 31 536 000 s/yr )

Heat = (190)(1.12)(1)[1 – (–30)] = 6600 kW Ratios provide a good first guess. However, the ventilation engi-
neer should derive the total airflow by listing all operations, estimat-
If natural gas is used, the volume required is ing leakages, and adding the specific airflows required to ventilate
each operation (zero-based planning). As with reject temperature,
6600 kW 3 3 the total airflow selected should be economically justifiable to man-
--------------------------------- = 0.18 m /s = 638 m /h
3
37 250 kJ/m agement.
Airflow specification may change with time because of produc-
If propane is used, the litres required are tion, equipment, or mining method changes.
6600 kW - = 0.264 L/s = 950 L/h
---------------------------- Planning the Circuit
25 000 kJ/L
With airflow specified and work sites plotted, the ventilation
engineer must lay out the primary circuit. The three basic types of
MINE VENTILATION airways are intake, work area, and exhaust. Sizing airways is nor-
Mine ventilation supplies oxygen to underground facilities, and mally based on keeping velocity within acceptable limits: If veloc-
removes dangerous or harmful contaminants such as methane, ity is too low, the airway is oversized and thus costs more than
radon, strata gases, dust, blasting fumes, and diesel emissions. Ven- necessary; if it is too high, pressure drop is too large and raises
tilation also removes heat and helps control humidity in hot mines. operating costs. Air velocity should not exceed 6 m/s in production
Planning a ventilation system consists of five basic steps: shafts and haul drifts. Higher velocities can create dust problems
(1) determining airflows, (2) planning the primary circuit, (3) spec- and lead to employee discomfort. However, velocities in bare circu-
ifying circuit fans and their installation, (4) determining auxiliary lar concrete exhaust shafts can approach 25 m/s if necessary. Air
system requirements, and (5) assessing health and safety aspects. velocity in vertical upcast exhaust shafts should avoid the 7 to
12 m/s range because water sheets can form, causing surging at the
Determining Airflows main fan.
Resistance to airflow is calculated using Atkinson’s (1854) and
Mining operations generate differing types and amounts of
McPherson’s (1993) equations:
contaminants, and airflows dilute and remove these contaminants.
The ventilation engineer must work closely with mine planning 2
staff to understand where and how much production will take ∆H = R t ρQ (19)
place, and what contaminants will be generated. The federal Mine
Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) regulates contaminant where
concentrations to limits specified in the Federal Register, CFR 30. ∆H = pressure drop, Pa
Controlling the most problematic contaminant normally keeps all R = turbulent resistance, m–
others within their legal limits. For coal mines, contaminants of ρ = air density, kg/m3
concern are typically methane and coal dust; for uranium mines, Q = airflow, m3/s
radon gas; for non-dieselized hard rock mines, usually silica dust
and blasting fumes; for dieselized mines, typically diesel emis- (20)
sions. Design airflows for dieselized nonuranium metal mines
range from 0.05 to 0.09 m3/s per diesel kilowatt, depending on the where
reference cited. With the current emphasis on controlling diesel ƒ = coefficient of friction, dimensionless
emissions, start planning at 0.06 m3/s per kilowatt. L = length, m
Total airflow is a summation of airflows for individual work P = perimeter of opening, m
areas, plus a leakage factor. Leakage is defined as airflow that A = area of opening, m2
does not ventilate any active work area or permanent site such as For rectangular drifts, the ƒ factor ranges from 0.0067 for a
a pump room. A “tight” system minimizes leakage through well- smooth, concrete-lined straight drift to 0.027 for an unlined, irreg-
constructed doors and seals, by minimizing the number of possi- ular curved drift. For shafts, theƒ factor ranges from 0.004 for a
ble leakage paths, and by careful fan placement. Leakage can smooth-sided borehole to over 0.15 for a heavily timbered rectan-
range from 10% of total airflow at a tight metal mine to 80% at gular shaft. See Hartman (1997), McPherson (1993), and Tien
some coal mines. (1999) for more precise airway resistance specification.
The ratio of tonnes of air per tonnes of ore production is about 2
to 4 for block cave mines, 6 to 8 for nondieselized cut-and-fill metal Example 8. Mine plans call for 30 m3/s to be sent through 610 m of 3 m
mines, and 9 to 16 for dieselized metal mines. Gassy coal and ura- wide by 3 m high drift. The f factor from measurements of similar
nium mines can have significantly higher ratios, depending on the drifts is 0.020. The average temperature is 24°C wb and 27°C db. The
methane or radon generation rate. barometric pressure is 95 kPa. What is the resistance of this drift, and
what is the air pressure drop?
Example 7. A new mechanized cut-and-fill gold mine is planned. Ore pro- Solution: Using psychrometric equations in Chapter 6 of the 2005
duction is expected to be 1 088 400 tonnes per year. Intake air density is ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals, the density is 1.09 kg/m3.
1.12 kg/m3. What is the rough airflow required for ventilation?
( 0.020 ) ( 610 ) ( 12 )
R t = fLP
–4
Solution: The airflow range is 9 to 16 tonnes of air per tonne of ore for --------- = -------------------------------------------- = 0.1004 m
3 3
2A 2(9)
dieselized metal mines. For a first-pass guess, assume an average
12.5 tonnes per tonne. The total mass of the air through the mine in a 2 2
year is ∆H = R t ρQ = ( 0.1004 ) ( 1.09 ) ( 30 ) = 98.5 Pa, or 0.0985 kPa
27.12 2007 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications (SI)

A mine ventilation circuit contains airways in series and in par- and fan specifications. A fan should be selected that will operate on
allel. The overall resistance (Hartman 1997) is an efficient part of its curve. Fan speed, quantity, pressure, and
power are related in the fan laws equations, described in Chapter 18
For series: RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + … + Rn (21) of the 2004 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment.
Care must also be taken to anticipate future circuit changes as min-
1 1 - + -----------
1 - + -----------
1 - + … + -----------
1 -
For parallel: ------------ = ----------- (22) ing operations advance.
RT R1 R2 R3 Rn
The fan installation must be designed after primary fans are
selected. Consequences of fan downtime must be carefully consid-
Example 9. If Airway #1 has a resistance of 0.1 m–4, Airway #2 has a
ered, especially for coal mines, because methane concentrations
resistance of 0.2, and Airway #3 has a resistance of 0.3, what is the
resistance of these three branches in series and in parallel? can increase when circuit airflows decrease. Fans exhausting a
mine are typically mounted horizontally near a vertical shaft or
Solution: borehole. A 90° transition turns the air into the fan inlet. An isola-
Series: tion door is installed between the transition and fan. Coal mines
–4 require a blast door to dampen a shock wave caused by a possible
R = 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.3 = 0.6 m
methane or coal dust explosion. An evasé, or diffuser, is attached to
Parallel:
the fan outlet to recover part of the velocity pressure exiting the
1 1 1 1 mine. A silencer can be added if surface noise reduction is desired.
------- = ---------------- + ---------------- + ----------------
R ( 0.1 ) ( 0.2 ) ( 0.3 ) Increasingly, variable-speed drives are used with electric motors to
R = 0.0192 m
–4 turn the fans. These drives provide soft start, and speeds from 50 to
100% of synchronous speed, and even to 110% for temporary
Modern ventilation network computer analysis uses Kirchhoff’s emergency duty. The installation must be designed for accessibility
laws to balance airflows: (1) the summation of airflows into a junc- and ease of maintenance.
tion equals the summation out, and (2) the summation of pressure
drops around any enclosed mesh equals zero.
Computer simulation allows quick analysis of a wide range of Determining Auxiliary System Requirements
scenarios. Most programs use a balancing algorithm based on the Auxiliary fan and duct systems deliver air into dead-end head-
work of Hardy Cross in the 1960s and 1970s. The program iterates ings. These systems are generally not permitted in coal mines but
as it converges on final balanced airflows. Fan curves or regulators are common in metal mines. A blowing system is most often used.
can be inserted in almost any branch.
A fan is set in a fresh air base at the start of a drift, and duct is
Regulators or section booster fans control airflow in branches. installed as the drift advances. For drifts under 300 m, flexible
Without regulation, too little or too much airflow may occur; never-
brattice-cloth duct can be used. Longer drifts that require booster
theless, circuits should be designed with a many free-split branches
fans need rigid duct because duct gage pressure can drop below
(branches without a fan or regulator) as possible to minimize over-
atmospheric. Rigid duct also offers less resistance than brattice-
all resistance. Free-split branches are often located in circuit
extremities. cloth duct, but it is about eight times as expensive.
A mine should have more intakes than exhausts. This enhances The air quantity needed at the face is determined by the equip-
safety, because miners have more escape paths, and because more ment used and the rate at which blasting and diesel fumes must be
paths bring in fresh air, in case a fire occurs in one of the intakes. removed. Ducts are sized for the air quantity needed and for space
Also, exhaust shafts can generally handle greater air velocities and limitations in the drift. Fans are selected to provide the specified air-
hence larger quantities, so fewer exhaust shafts are needed. flow. In general, a single-stage axial fan can generate up to 2.5 kPa
Metal mines often contain circuit booster fans. Underground static pressure, which should deliver required airflow up to 760 m
boosters can create neutral points in the system where air short- through properly sized duct. A larger duct or a two-stage axial fan is
circuits from intake to exhaust above the point, and recirculates needed if distance is much longer. For very long drifts, booster fans
from exhaust to intake below the point. Uncontrolled recirculation are needed about every 760 m.
should be minimized. An exhausting system is often used for drifts requiring quick
Exhausting primary circuits are commonly used in both metal ingress after blasting. Air flows to the face through the drift, cap-
and coal mines (intakes do not have airlocks). Under normal opera- tures fumes, and is blown back to the circuit through duct. This
tion, this produces a negative mine pressure gradient. If fans fail keeps the drift clear of fumes. Disadvantages include: (1) the air
or are deactivated, barometric pressure in the mine rises, which picks up heat and humidity en route to the face, (2) rigid duct is
temporarily helps keeps methane in coal mines from flowing away required, and (3) the face is not swept by air as with a blowing sys-
from gob (mining waste) areas (Kennedy 1996). tem. A face overlap fan and duct can be installed.
Chapter 35 of the 2005 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals
Specifying Circuit Fans provides a friction chart for round duct. However, it is better to
Primary fans are either centrifugal or axial. South African mines acquire the friction chart of the specific duct being considered from
typically use large centrifugals, whereas most U.S. and Canadian the supplier. Shock losses through couplings and bends must be tal-
mines use axials. Both types have advantages. Efficiency (up to 90%) lied. One important consideration is leakage through couplings.
is about the same with either type. Centrifugals are heavier duty, This can be minimized by careful installation, keeping duct pres-
quieter, do not have a pronounced stall region, and can generate sure under 2.5 kPa static pressure, and installing longer pieces of
higher static pressures (over 7.5 kPa). Axials are more compact, and duct (up to 30 m for brattice cloth, or 6 m for rigid).
airflows can be easily adjusted by blade angle changes. Primary fans
range from 75 to over 2600 kW each. Surface installations with mul- Cassettes loaded with brattice-cloth duct are now used for drifts
tiple fans are common for large airflows, and for back-up operation driven by rapidly advancing tunnel boring machines.
when one fan is turned off for maintenance. Circuit fans can also be Duct damage is common in mines. Mobile equipment and fly
installed underground, especially in metal mines. rock from blasting can punch holes in the duct. These factors can
Primary fans are specified while the circuit is designed. Engi- drastically reduce airflow. Care must be taken to minimize damage,
neers must often balance airway considerations (sizes and numbers) and to quickly repair or replace damaged pieces.
Mine Air Conditioning and Ventilation 27.13

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