DATA COMMUNICATION IN COMPUTERS

i. Communication is the process of sharing a message. A

conversation between two people is an example of communication.

ii. Data communication is the transmission of electronic data over

some media. iii. Communications between computers can be as

simple as cabling two computers to the same printer.

Elements of Data Communication

i. Sender. The computer or device that is used for sending data is called
sender, source or transmitter. In modern digital communication system, the
source is usually a computer.
ii. Medium. The means through which data is sent from one location to
another is called transmission medium. If the receiver and transmitter are within
a building, a wire connects them. If they are located at different locations, they
may be connected by telephone lines, fiber optics or microwaves.
iii. Receiver. The device or computer that receives the data is called receiver.
The receiver can be a computer, printer or a fax machine.
iv. Message: this is the subject of communication. It the reason
communication is initiated in the first place.
v. Protocols. There are rules under which data transmission takes place
between sender and receiver. The data communication s/w are used to transfer
data from one computer to another. The s/w follows same communication
protocols can communicate and exchange data.
The principal functions of protocol in a network include:

 identifying each device in the communication path;

 securing the attention of the other device;
 verifying correct receipt of the transmitted message;
 determining that a message requires retransmission if it is incomplete or has errors; 
performing recovery when errors occur.
Common protocols

1. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) - an internet protocol for transferring of emails.

2. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): It allows files containing text, programs, graphics,
numerical data, and so on to be downloaded off or uploaded onto a network.
3. Internet Protocol (IP) - does the packet forwarding and routing.

4. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is a network standard that

defines how messages (data) are routed from one end of a network to the other,
ensuring the data arrives correctly.

5. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) - responsible for delivery of data over the
network.

6. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): It allows Web browsers and servers to send and
receive Web pages.

7. Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP): It allows the management of

networked nodes to be managed from a single point.

8. Telnet Protocol: It provides terminal emulation that allows a personal computer or

workstation to act as a terminal, or access device, for a server.

9. Sequential Packet Exchange (IPX/SPX) - works with the Novell's internet work' packet /
sequential exchange; responsible for delivery of sequential data over the network

Data communication tools

- Computers
- Mobile phones
- internet
Definition of terminologies

Data Encryption
 • This is Process of converting data into coded form (cypher text) to prevent it
from being read or understood by unauthorized people.
• Encrypted data is difficult to decode without a secret key

Communications Software

• This refers to a set of instructions (software) needed by a computer before it

starts sending and receiving data from other computers.

Encoding

• This is the process through which Information (e.g. data, text, voice or video)
from the sending device is converted into signals which the communication medium
can carry.

Decoding

• This is the process through which the signals are converted back into the
information in its original form in the receiving device.

Downloading: To download is to transfer a file to your computer from another.

Uploading means to transfer a file from your computer to another.

Throughput

• Throughput refers to the rate of how much data is moved during a certain amount
of time.

• The amount of signals that can travel over a communications channel sometimes
is called the Bandwidth. The higher the bandwidth, the more data and information
the channel can transmit.

Data Encryption

• This is Process of converting data into coded form (cypher text) to prevent it
from being read or understood by unauthorized people.

• Encrypted data is difficult to decode without a secret key

DATA TRANSMISSION

Telecommunications involves the transmission of data, information, and instructions

among computers.

Any transmissions sent during these communications can be categorized by a number of

characteristics including the signal type, transmission mode, transmission direction, and
transmission rate.

SIGNAL TYPE

Analog Signals

An analog signal uses variations which are represented by a continuous waveform to

convey information.

It is particularly useful for wave data like sound waves.

Analog signals are what normal phone line and sound speakers use.

Digital Signals

A digital signal is a series of discrete (discontinuous) bits which are simply the presence
or absence of an electric pulse. The state of being on or off represents the binary digit of
1 or 0, respectively.

Advantages of digital signals include:

 Digital signals can be copied exactly without any loss of quality

 Digital signals can be further processed by computer.

Transmission Modes

When two devices exchange data, the data flows between the devices as a continuous
stream of bits.
There are two basic transmission techniques for separating the groups of bits:
asynchronous transmission and synchronous transmission

Asynchronous transmission

Asynchronous transmission transmits one byte at a time over a line at random intervals.

Each byte is framed by controls—a start bit for marking the beginning of the byte, a stop
bit for marking the end of the byte, and a parity bit for error checking.

Asynchronous transmission is relatively slow and used for low-speed transmission.

Synchronous transmission

Synchronous transmission transmits groups of bytes simultaneously at regular intervals.

The beginning and ending of a block of bytes is determined by the timing of the sending
device and receiving devices.

Although synchronous transmission requires more complicated and expensive

communications devices, it provides much higher speeds and greater accuracy than
asynchronous transmission.

Transmission Direction

The direction in which data flows along transmission media is characterized as

1. simplex,
2. half-duplex,
3. full-duplex or
4. multiplex

Simplex transmission
 Simplex transmission sends data in one direction only. It is also called unidirectional
because the signal travels in only one direction.

Simplex transmission is used only when the sending device does not require a response
from the receiving device. One example of simplex transmission is television
broadcasting.

Half-duplex transmission

Half-duplex transmission allows data transmission in either direction, but only one way
at a time.

Many fax machines, police radio calls, credit card verification systems and automatic
teller machines use half-duplex transmission.

Full-duplex transmission

In full-duplex transmission, data can flow in both directions at the same time. A regular
telephone line, for example, supports full-duplex transmission, allowing both parties to
talk at same time.

NOTE: Full-duplex transmission operates like a two-way, two-lane street. Traffic can
travel in both directions at the same time.

Multiplex transmission

In multiplex transmission, several different types of signals can be carried at once

through the same line. E.g. During Video calls where Images

DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA

The means through which data is transformed from one place to another is called
transmission or communication media

OR
 A transmission medium (plural transmission media) is a material substance
(solid, liquid, gas, or plasma) which can propagate energy waves. For example, the
transmission medium for sound received by the ears is usually air, but solids and liquids
may also act as transmission media for sound.

Transmission media are the physical pathways that connect computers, other devices, and
people on a network. Each transmission medium requires specialized network hardware that is
compatible with that medium, and most networks need to use combination of transmission
media types selected based on the network's needs and prevailing conditions.

The term transmission medium can also refer to the technical device which employs the
material substance to transmit or guide the waves. Thus an optical fiber or a copper cable can be
referred to as a transmission medium

The absence of a material medium (the vacuum or empty space) can also be thought of
as a transmission medium for electromagnetic waves such as light and radio waves.
While material substance is not required for electromagnetic waves to propagate, such
waves are usually affected by the transmission media through which they pass, for
instance by absorption or by reflection or refraction at the interfaces between media.

Types of Transmission media:

The means through which data is transferred from one place to another is called
transmission media or communication media. There are two categories of transmission
media used in computer communications.

 BOUNDED/GUIDED/WIRED MEDIA

 UNBOUNDED/UNGUIDED/WIRELESS MEDIA

1. BOUNDED MEDIA:

Bounded media are the physical links through which signals are confined to narrow path.
These are also called guided media. Bounded media are made up of an external
conductor (Usually copper) bounded by jacket material. Bounded media are great for
 LABS because they offer high speed, good security and low cost. However, some time
they cannot be used due long distance communication. Three common types of bounded
media are used of the data transmission. These are

• Coaxial Cable.

• Twisted pair cable.

• Fiber optics

COAXIAL CABLE:

Coaxial cable is very common & widely used commutation media. For example TV wire
is usually coaxial.

Coaxial cable gets its name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each
other. The center conductor in the cable is usually copper. The copper can be either a
solid wire or stranded material.

Outside this central Conductor is a non-conductive material. It is usually white, plastic

material used to separate the inner Conductor form the outer Conductor. The other
Conductor is a fine mesh made from Copper. It is used to help shield the cable from
EMI.

Outside the copper mesh is the final protective cover. (As shown in Fig)
The actual data travels through the center conductor in the cable. EMI interference is
caught by outer copper mesh. There are different types of coaxial cable vary by gauge &
impedance.

Gauge is the measure of the cable thickness. It is measured by the Radio grade
measurement, or RG number. The high the RG number, the thinner the central conductor
core, the lower the number the thicker the core.

o Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal

interference. o It can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted

pair cable.

o Note: Most of today’s networks, however, do not use coaxial cable because other
transmission media such as fiber-optic cable transmit signals at faster rates.

Below, you will see how the coaxial cable connector looks:

CHARACTERISTICS OF COAXIAL CABLE

• Low cost

• Easy to install

• Up to 10Mbps capacity

• Medium immunity form EMI

• Medium of attenuation

ADVANTAGES COAXIAL CABLE

• Inexpensive

• Easy to wire
• Easy to expand

• Moderate level of EMI immunity

DISADVANTAGE COAXIAL CABLE

• Single cable failure can take down an entire network

TWISTED PAIR CABLE:

The most popular network cabling is twisted pair. It is light weight, easy to install,
inexpensive and support many different types of network. It also supports the speed of
100 MPs. Twisted pair cabling is made of pairs of solid or stranded copper twisted along
each other. The number of pairs in the cable depends on the type. The copper core is
usually 22AWG or 24-AWG, as measured on the American wire gauge standard.

Fig.: Twisted pair wire

There are two types of twisted pairs cabling

1. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

2. Shielded twisted pair (STP)

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

UTP is more common. It can be either voice grade or data grade depending on the
condition. UTP cable normally has an impedance of 100 ohm. UTP cost less than STP
and easily available. There are five levels of data cabling

Category 1: These are used in telephone lines and are low speed data cable.
Category 2: These cables can support up to 4 MPs implementation.

Category 3: These cable supports up to 16 MPs and are mostly used in 10 MPs.

Category 4: These are used for large distance and high speed. It can support 20mps.

Category 5: This is the highest rating for UTP cable and can support up to 100mps.
UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11
connector and 4 pair cable use RJ-45 connector.

UTP

Characteristics of UTP

• low cost

• easy to install

• High speed capacity

• High attenuation

• Effective to EMI  100 meter limit

Advantages of UTP

• Easy installation

• Capable of high speed for LAN

• Low cost

Disadvantages of UTP

• Short distance due to attenuation

Shielded twisted pair (STP)

It is similar to UTP but has a mesh shielding that’s protects it from EMI which allows
for higher transmission rate. IBM has defined category for STP cable.

Type 1: STP features two pairs of 22-AWG

Type 2: This type include type 1 with 4 telephone pairs

Type 3: This type feature two pairs of standard shielded 26-AWG

Type 4: This type of STP consists of 1 pair of standard shielded 26-AWG

Type 5: This type consist of shielded 26-AWG wire

Characteristics of STP
• Medium cost

• Easy to install

• Higher capacity than UTP

• Higher attenuation, but same as UTP

• Medium immunity from EMI

• 100 meter limit

Advantages of STP:

• Shielded

• Faster than UTP and coaxial

Disadvantages of STP:

• More expensive than UTP and coaxial

• More difficult installation

• High attenuation rate

NOTE: The wires are twisted together to reduce noise. Noise is an electrical disturbance that
can degrade communications.

o The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable.
The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number
of twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices.
The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per
foot.
o The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector.
This is a plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-style connector. A slot allows
the RJ-45 to be inserted only one way. RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that the
connector follows a standard borrowed from the telephone industry. This standard
designates which wire goes with each pin inside the connector.

o Although UTP cable is the least expensive cable, it may be susceptible to radio and
electrical frequency interference (it should not be too close to electric motors, fluorescent lights,
etc.). If you must place cable in environments with lots of potential interference, or if you must
place cable in extremely sensitive environments that may be susceptible to the electrical current
in the UTP, shielded twisted pair may be the solution.

o Shielded cables can also help to extend the maximum distance of the cables.

o Shielded twisted pair cable is available in three different configurations:

1. Each pair of wires is individually shielded with foil.

2. There is a foil or braid shield inside the jacket covering all wires (as a group).
3. There is a shield around each individual pair, as well as around the entire group
of wires (referred to as double shield twisted pair).

FIBER OPTICS

o This is a cable that consists of dozens or hundreds of thin strands of glass or plastic that
use lights to transmit signals. It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the
problem of electrical interference.
 o Each strand is called an optical fiber, is as thin as a human hair inside the fiber optic
cable, insulating glass cladding and a protective coating surround each optical fiber.

Advantages:

• Carry significantly more signals than other cables.

• Faster data transmission.

• Less vulnerable to electrical noise from other devices

• Better security for signals during transmission.

• Smaller size, and much thinner and lighter than other cables.

Disadvantages:

• Cost more than wire cables

 Difficult to install and modify. NOTE; Fiber optic cable has bandwidth more than
2 gbps (Gigabytes per Second).

1. UN BOUNDED / UN GUIDED/ WIRELESS TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Unguided transmission media are methods that allow the transmission of data without
the use of physical means to define the path it takes. Examples of this include
microwave, radio or infrared. Unguided media provide a means for transmitting
electromagnetic waves but do not guide them; examples are propagation through air

 Wireless Transmission media send communication signals through air or space using
radio, microwave, and infrared signals.

 Any medium by which data transfer without any physical device like cable can
be called as wireless transmission medium. Example can be wireless phone and wireless
connection in laptops.

 Un Guided transmission media is more convenient than installing cables. It is

appropriate and convenient for locations where installing cables are impossible.

 The two wireless/ unguided transmission media you are asked to focus on are satellite
and microwaves.
  Wireless transmission media used in communications include

• Broadcast radio,
• Cellular radio
• Microwaves
• Communications satellites,  Infrared & Bluetooth.

Microwave

Microwave

• Microwaves are high-frequency radio waves that are sent through the
atmosphere and space to deliver telecommunications services, including TV
distribution.

• It is dependent on line of sight.

A microwave station is an earth-based reflective dish that contains an antenna, transceiver, and other
equipment necessary for microwave communication.

Microwaves use line-of-sight transmission. To avoid possible obstructions, such as buildings or

mountains, microwave stations often sit on top of buildings, towers or mountains.

Microwave transmission typically is used in environments where installing physical transmission

media is difficult or impossible, and where line-of-sight transmission is available.

Current users of microwave transmission include universities, hospitals, city governments, cable
television providers and telephone companies.

ADVANTAGES:
  Speed of light
 No cables needed
 Microwave signals can carry thousands of channels at the same time  Wide
bandwidth

DISADVANTAGES:

• Line-of-sight will be disrupted if any obstacle, such as new buildings, are in the way
• Signal absorption by the atmosphere. Microwaves suffer from attenuation due to
atmospheric conditions.
• Towers are expensive to build
Radio

Radio is the transmission of signals by modulation of electromagnetic waves with

frequencies below those of visible light. Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of
oscillating electromagnetic fields that pass through the air and the vacuum of space.
Information is carried by systematically changing (modulating) some property of the
radiated waves, such as amplitude, frequency, phase, or pulse width. When radio waves
in pass an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the
conductor. This can be detected and transformed into sound or other signals that carry
information.

CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Directed Waves
2. Noise Concurrency
3. Radio Wave's Directness
4. Unlimited Range
5. Interference
ADVANTAGES:
• Can carry a message instantaneously over a wide area.
• Aerials to receive them are simpler than for microwaves.
• Wires are not needed as they travel through air, thus, a cheaper form of
communication.

DISADVANTAGES:
• The range of frequencies that can be accessed by existing technology is limited,
so there is a lot of competition amongst companies for the use of the frequencies.
• Travel in a straight line, so repeater stations may be needed.

Infrared
Infrared

• Infrared (IR) is a wireless transmission media that sends signals using infrared
light waves.

• IR transmission also requires a line-of-sight transmission as that required by

microwaves.

IR wavelengths are longer than that of visible light, but shorter than that of terahertz
radiation microwaves. Bright sunlight provides an irradiance of just over 1 kilowatt per
square meter at sea level. Of this energy, 527 watts is infrared radiation, 445 watts is
visible light, and 32 watts is ultraviolet radiation.

ADVANTAGES

Many things are controlled by infrared.

Sensors are invisible to the naked eye.

They are very reliable.

DISADVANTAGE

Most infrared sensors must be lined up or else they will not work
 Satellite Transmission Media

A communication satellite is a space station that receives microwave signals from an earth-based
station, amplifies (strengthens) the signals, and broadcasts the signals back over a wide area to any
number of earth-based stations.

The earth-based stations are often microwave stations. Other devices, such as smart phones and GPS
receivers, can also function as earth-based stations.

Communication satellite’s transfer data rate is 1Gbps.

Uplink is the transmission from an earth-based station to a satellite.

Downlink is the transmission from a satellite to an earth-based station.

Communication satellites are used by air navigation, television and radio broadcasts, weather
forecasting, video conferencing, GPS and Internet connections.

With the proper satellite dish and a satellite modem card, consumers can access the Internet
using Satellite technology.

With satellite internet connections, uplink transmissions are usually slower than downlink
transmissions.
This is acceptable to most Internet satellite users, because they download much more than they
upload.

`When used for communications, a satellite acts as a repeater. Its height above the Earth means that
signals can be transmitted over distances that are very much greater than the line of sight. An earth station
transmits the signal up to the satellite. This is called the up-link and is transmitted on one frequency. The
satellite receives the signal and retransmits it on what is termed the down link which is on another
frequency
 Using a satellite for long distance communications

Advantages of satellite communication:

Availability
The biggest advantage of satellite Internet access is its availability compared to
other Internet connection types. Satellite Internet access is a way for those who do not
have access to terrestrial broadband connections such as cable or DSL to have access to
high-speed Internet access. Satellite also is one of the only ways to receive Internet
service in areas where telephone lines are not available.

Speed
Satellite Internet access is much faster than dial-up, with entry-level service
tiers typically providing approximately 1 mbps download speeds--nearly 18 times faster
than a dial-up modem. Faster speeds are generally available at higher service tiers. In
general, the highest speeds available to home satellite Internet customers are slightly
slower than the highest speeds offered by cable and DSL providers. Additionally, many
satellite providers limit the amount of data that can be downloaded during short time
periods to curb frequent large file transfers.

Latency
Satellite Internet connections are high-latency, meaning that a great deal of time
is required for packets of information to travel to the satellite and back. The total delay
can amount to about one second from the time that you send a request to the Internet to
the time that a reply is received. Satellite Internet providers use various technologies to
make this delay less noticeable to the end user and create an acceptable experience for
browsing the Web. However, the latency makes a satellite Internet connection unsuitable
for high-speed gaming.

Reliability
Home-based satellite Internet connections are generally no less reliable than terrestrial
broadband. However, all satellite communication is subject to interruption during periods of
heavy snow or rainfall. Talk to other customers about their experiences if you live in an area
where either of these are common. The likelihood of weather-related interruptions is lessened
with a larger satellite dish, which some providers offer.

Cost
The cost of entry for a satellite Internet connection is quite high. The equipment costs several
hundred dollars to purchase, and some types of installations incur additional fees. Additionally,
the monthly cost for satellite Internet tends to be slightly higher than the cost of cable or DSL.
There are ways of reducing the up-front cost. The equipment can be leased rather than
purchased, and discounts or rebates may be available. Sometimes, installation fees are included
in the lease price.

Disadvantages of Satellite communication

• Communication through satellite is highly costly.
• Security measures are required to prevent the unauthorized tapping of information

Bluetooth is a kind of short-range (about 10 meters) broadcast radio communications,

which can transmit data at a rate of 1 Mbps among Bluetooth-enabled devices.

Many computers, peripherals, smart phones, PDAs, cars, and other consumer electronics
are Bluetooth-enabled, which means they contain a small chip that allow them to
communicate with other Bluetooth-enabled computers and devices.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING A TRANSMISSION MEDIUM

(TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS)

There are many transmission media available and each media type has certain
characteristics, so it’s necessary to aware about all the benefits and shortcomings of each
one.

• Cost & Ease of installation

• Attenuation

• Delay Distortion

• Capacity (Bandwidth and throughput)

• Transmission delay

• Propagation delay

• Interference

• Noise

• Thermal/White Noise

• Intermodulation Noise

• Crosstalk

• Impulse Noise

• Cost & Ease of installation: Costing is an important factor, when selecting a

media. Because absolute cost and ease of installation data are difficult to provide
without referring to specific implementations, one can make relative judgments by
comparing each medium to the others.
• Attenuation: Attenuation refers to the tendency of electromagnetic waves to
weaken or become distorted during transmission. It is loss of energy as the signals
propagates outwards. Attenuation increases with distance, as a wave passes through a
medium, some of its energy is absorbed or scattered by the medium’s physical
properties. The loss is measured is decibels per kilometer (db./km). attenuation is
higher at higher frequencies.

• Delay Distortion: one property of signal propagation is that the speed of travel of
frequency is highest at the center of bandwidth and lowest at both the ends. Delay
Distortion is caused by the fact that the signals of varying frequencies travel at
different speeds along the medium.
 • Capacity: the capacity of a transmission medium is often stated as bandwidth.
Bandwidth is the range of cycle frequencies, measured in hertz (Hz) or cycle per
second, which a transmission medium can physically accommodate.
Throughput is a measurement of the amount of data transmitted within a specified time
period, usually measured in bits per second (bps).

• Transmission delay: it is the delay, which is present due to link capacity

• Propagation delay: Propagation delay is the time between the last bits transmitted
at the head node of the link and the last bit received at the tail node.

• Interference: interference occurs when undesirable electromagnetic waves affect

the signal. Interference can be caused by many factors, including

- Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)

- Radio wave interference (RFI)

Noise: Noise is unwanted energy from sources other than transmitter.

Thermal noise is caused by random motion of the electrons in a wire and is unavoidable.

Intermodulation Interference Occurs whenever signals of different frequencies share the

same medium. Cross Talk is caused by inductive coupling between two wires. Impulse noise
caused by spikes on the power line or other causes

COMPUTER NETWORKS
It is the connection of computers and other hardware devices together using transmission
media for purpose of communication and resource sharing

OR

A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other
to share information and resources.

These resources include;

- Data
- Printers
- Scanners etc.
 -

Purposes for networking.

o Enables cost effectiveness and reliability o

Enables remote communication via e-mails
telephones, chat rooms etc.
o Enables distributed processing. o Enable
sharing of data.

Requirements for setting a computer network

A computer network is made up of three major components:

 Transmission media
 Network hardware
 Network software

NETWORK HARDWARE
Networking hardware are Communications devices that enable two or more computers
to exchange items such as data, instructions, and information with each other.

Examples include:

• Hub/ switch
• Modem
• Network interface card (NIC)
• Computers

• Network Cables
• Distributors
• Routers
• External Network Cards
• Repeaters
Network Cables

Network cables are used to connect computers. The most commonly used cable is
Category 5 cable RJ-45.

Distributors

A computer can be connected to another one via a serial port but if we need to connect
many computers to produce a network, this serial connection will not work.
The solution is to use a central body to which other computers, printers, scanners, etc.
can be connected and then this body will manage or distribute network traffic.

Router
A router is a type of device which acts as the central point among computers and other
devices that are a part of the network. It is equipped with holes called ports. Computers
and other devices are connected to a router using network cables. Now-a-days router
comes in wireless modes using which computers can be connected without any physical
cable.

Network Card

Network card is a necessary component of a computer without which a computer cannot

be connected over a network. It is also known as the network adapter or Network
Interface Card (NIC). Most branded computers have network card pre-installed.
Network cards are of two types: Internal and External Network Cards.

Internal Network Cards

Motherboard has a slot for internal network card where it is to be inserted. Internal
network cards are of two types in which the first type uses Peripheral Component
Interconnect (PCI) connection, while the second type uses Industry Standard
Architecture (ISA). Network cables are required to provide network access.

External Network Cards

External network cards are of two types: Wireless and USB based. Wireless network
card needs to be inserted into the motherboard, however no network cable is required to
connect to the network.

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

USB card is easy to use and connects via USB port. Computers automatically detect
USB card and can install the drivers required to support the USB network card
automatically.

MODEMS (signal converters)

It is a device which converts computer data to a signal than can be transmitted over a
telephone line.

The modem, is a device which Modulates a digital signal from computers into an analog
one to send data out over the phone line. Then for an incoming signal it Demodulates,
the analog signal into a digital one.

This is a hardware device which transforms digital signals into analog signals
(Modulation) to facilitates their transmission into air space, and vice versa
(demodulation)

HUBS and SWITCHES

These are devices that provide a central connection point for cables from workstations,
servers, and peripherals.

A hub, (also called a multi-station access unit (MAU)) is a device that provides a central
point for cables in a network.
Unlike the hubs, a switch does not broadcast the data to all the computers, it sends the

data packets only to the destined computer.

REPEATER

This is a device which accepts transmitted signals, amplifies them, and rebroadcasts
them back on the network media.

A repeater is a device that accepts a signal from a transmission medium, amplifies it,
and retransmits it over the medium.

As a signal travels over a long distance, it undergoes a reduction in strength, an

occurrence called attenuation.

A ROUTER
This is a device used to link more than two different network configurations to
communication to one another.

A Router connects multiple networks and routs communications traffic to the

appropriate network using the fastest available path.

A router allows multiple computers to share a single high-speed Internet connection

such as through a cable modem

A router translates information from one network to another.

NETWORK BRIDGE

A bridge connects two pieces of land together offering a path from one to another.

A network bridge is device that connects two networks making each accessible to the
other.

A bridge knows all of the addresses on each side of the bridge and can send information
accordingly.

MULTIPLEXER

This is a hardware device which merges several low speed transmissions into one high-
speed transmission.

A multiplexer is a device that combines two or more input signals from various devices
into a single stream of data and then transmits it over a single transmission medium.

By combining the separate data streams into one, a multiplexer increases the efficiency
of communications and reduces the need for using multiple separate transmission
media.

Transmission/Communication Media e.g. cables

This consists of materials or techniques capable of carrying one or more signals. This is
the medium through which information moves from one network device to another.

Concentrator

This is a network device which enables several client computers to share a single line.

Gateway

This is a device (interface) used to link two different networks to communicate with one
another.

Bridge:

This is a device used to link two similar networks to communicate to one another.

This is a device that connects two networks making each accessible to the other.
NOTE: To Connect to or create a home or small office (SOHO) network, you need
the following components:
 Computers
 Network Adapter/Network Interface Card
 Hub/Switch
 Cables
 Modem
 Internet Service Provider (ISP)

Positive implication of networking

 Cost reduction. This is the using a central repository which allows access through
approved user names hence paper file storage reduced.
 Eases communication. Through support of access to digital information by the use of
many applications including World Wide Web.
 Improved security through enabling centralized server which is run by an administrator
and governs company’s data.
 Increased opportunities e.g. wide area network enables advertising electronic banking
career through e-learning etc.
  It has contributed to globalization production ad capital markets by reducing the cost of
communication and information.

Negative implication of networks

 Harmful content is displayed that same users may consider inappropriate.

 Cost and complications in installations. Networks are expensive in setting them up
through purchasing equipment such as hubs, modems etc.
 Virus issues and issue threats. Computer networks are more vulnerable to viruses
spreading quickly once one computer is infected.
 Over dependency. Once the network server, switch, router or any device breaks down,
the entire network will be impacted down.

Types of networks
Computer network types differ depending on the hardware and software requirements as well as
the intended degree of coverage. These include;

1. Local Area network (LAN). This is the type of network which covers a small geographical area
such as building, office, computer laboratory. The computers/ nodes are interconnected using
cables.
Wireless LAN is one which doesn’t use the physical however uses wireless media such as radio
waves. There are two kinds of LAN which include,
- Peer to peer network. This is a type of network where each computer can share the hardware,
data and information located on other computer on the network. Each computer acts as storage
for its own files. Each computer on this network has its own network operating system and
application software. It can either be a point to point or multi point connection i.e. one in which
many specific devices share a single link.

Advantages of peer to peer network

 It is very simple to set up.

 It doesn’t require a dedicated server to control the network.  It is less expensive
compared to the rest of other networks.
 It is perfect for small businesses and home use.
Disadvantages
 The system is not centralized making administration difficult.
 There is limited security since files can be accessed by any one on the network.
- Client server network. It is the one which has a separate computer acting as a server and other
computers as clients which requests services from the server.
Note; A server refers to a computer which serves the requests of other computers known as
clients. A client refers to a computer which seeks information from the server. It accesses all
the resources from the main sever.
A server provides a centralized storage area for programs data and information.
NB; most of the client server networks always require a network administrator to manage the
network.
Advantages of client server network.
 All resources are centralized making it easy to access.
 Easy management and administration of the network.
 There is more data security since all network access is controlled through the server.
 It is easier to modify/ flexible
 It is much faster than point to point since all information are handled by a dedicated
server.
 It supports many computers than peer to peer.
Disadvantage
 It is much expensive to set up than peer to peer network.
 There is over dependency i.e. when the server breaks down, the network goes down.
 Maintenance costs are high because it requires an administrator to ensure efficient
operation.
 The server can get overloaded since all the processing is controlled at one point.

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN). This refers to a large computer network that
usually connect across a city or targets a campus. MAN usually interconnects two or more LANs
using a high capacity back bone technology such as fiber optical links or other digital media.

NOTE; MAN covers a smaller geographic area than WAN.

3. Personal Area Network (PAN). This is the type of network which interconnects
computers within the range of individual person, single building. A PAN includes one or more
computer, peripheral devices, telephones and other personal entertainment devices. If a multiple
individual within the same residence use the same type of network, then it is referred to as Home
Area Network (HAN). This network is normally managed from a single computer but can be
accessed from any device. This type of network allows sending of a document to a printer,
uploading of photos from the phone to the computer, watching of movies on line etc.
4. Campus Area Network. This is the one which connects two or more LANs but in
limited to a specific geographic Area such as Colleges, industrial complex and military bases.
5. Wide Area Network (WAN). This is the type of network which covers a large
geographic area such as continent. For example, Network that connect the district offices to the
company across the country/ countries in the world. Computers are often connected to WAN via
public networks such as; telephone system, dedicated lines or satellites.

Methods of protecting a network access/ network access control

measures
 Packet filters. This is a program that monitors the movement of data packets.
 Firewalls
 Proxy servers. Proxy servers interact with outside network on behalf of protected
networks
 Isolation of network. This is done by setting up an isolated unique network but within
the same organization.

INTRANET
It refers to a connection for private computer within an organization. An intranet has tools to
facilitate communication between organization, employees, work groups to improve the
knowledge and data sharing capability.
Many schools and nonprofit groups have deployed intranet.
A simple intranet consists of an internal e-mail system. More complicated intranets include
websites and data bases containing company news, forms and personal information.
An example of an intranet is a school network.
ADVANTAGES OF INTRANET

 Work force productivity. Intranets can help employees to quickly find and
view information and applications relevant to their roles and responsibilities.
 Time. With intranets, organizations can make more information available
to employees on a ‘pull’ (i.e. employees can link to relevant information a time
which suits them) rather than being deluged indiscrimated by e-mails. Hence, it
has timely and accurate information.
 Communication. Intranets can serve as powerful tools for communication
within an organization, vertically and horizontally.
 Easy to learn and use.
  Fast, easy, low cost to implement.
 Increases collaboration and coordination.
 Supports links with customers and partners.
 Can capture and share knowledge.
 Reduced margin of errors
 Increased productivity
Disadvantages

 Can be expensive to maintain within an organization

 Can reduce face to face meetings with clients or business partners.
 Overabundance of information
 Users set up own web pages
 Denial of service (unauthorized access)
 Management fears loss of control
 Potential for chaos
 Hidden or unknown complexity and costs

Similarities between Internet and Intranet

• Intranet uses the internet protocols such as TCP/IP and FTP.

• Intranet sites are accessible via the web browser in a similar way as websites in the internet.
However, only members of Intranet network can access intranet hosted sites.

• In Intranet, own instant messengers can be used as similar to yahoo messenger/gtalk over the
internet.

Differences between Internet and Intranet

• Internet is general to PCs all over the world whereas Intranet is specific to few PCs.
 • Internet provides a wider and better access to websites to a large population, whereas
Intranet is restricted.

• Internet is not as safe as Intranet. Intranet can be safely privatized as per the need.

Advantages of installing a school network

 Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files.
 Cost. Networkable versions of many popular software programs are available at a
considerable savings when compared buying individually licensed copies.
 Security. Files and programs on network can be safe i.e. passwords can be established
for specific directories to restrict access to authorized users.
 Sharing resources such as a printer, modems, fax machines, scanners etc. is simplified.
 Electronic mail. Electronic mail on LAN can enable students to communicate with
teachers and peers at their own school.
 Flexible access. School network allow students to access their files from computers
throughout the school. Students can also work cooperatively through the network

Disadvantages of installing a school network

• Expensive to install. Although network will save money over time, the initial costs of
installation can be prohibitive.
• Requires administrative time. Proper maintenance of a network requires a considerable
time and expert. Must monitor security issues. Wireless networks are becoming increasingly
common, however, security can be an issue with a wireless network.

EXTRANET
An extranet is a computer network that allows controlled access from outside for specific
business or educational purposes.
Extranets are extensions to or segments of, private intranet networks that have been built in
many cooperation for information sharing.
More extranets use internet as the entry point for outsiders, a firewall configuration to limit and
a secure protocol for authenticating users.
ADVANTAGES OF EXTRANET
Exchange of large volumes of data using electronic data interchange
(EDI)  Share product catalogs exclusively with trade partners.
 Collaborate with other companies on a joint development efforts.
 Jointly develop and use training programs with other companies
 Provide or access services provided by one company to a group of other companies.
Such as an online banking application managed by one company on behalf affiliated banks 
Share news of common interest exclusively.

Disadvantages of extranet
 Extranet can be expensive to implement and maintain within an organization (e.g.
hardware, software, employee training costs)
 Security of extranets can be a concern when hosting a variable or proprietary
information

QN. Distinguish between intranet, extranet, and internet

 Intranet is used within an organization.
 Extranet is an extension of an intranet- used outside the organization or by two or
more organizations
 Internet is more global

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

A network topology is a description of the possible physical connections within a

network.

In other words, a topology is the physical arrangement of the devices in a

communications network.

Three commonly used network topologies are bus, ring, and star. However, Most
computer networks are hybrids—combinations of these topologies.

In a network topology, any network hardware component is also called a node.

Bus topology

A bus or linear network topology consists of a single central cable that connects all
computers and devices together.
The physical cable that connects the computers and other devices is known as the bus

or the backbone. physical bus topology

Merits of BUS Topology

• Easy to implement and extend (quick setup)  Cheaper than other

topologies.
• Computers and devices can be attached and detached at any point on the
bus without disturbing the rest of the network.
• Failure of one device usually does not affect the rest of the bus network.
• Data, instructions, and information in a bus network can be transmitted in
both directions.
• Cable faults are easily identified.
• Weight reduction due to less wires
Demerits of BUS Topology

• If there is a problem with the cable, the entire network goes down.
• There is no central host computer to control the network.
• Only one device can transfer items at a time.
• If many computers are attached, the amount of data flowing along the
cable increases, data collisions occur and the network slows down.
• Limited cable length and number of stations.
• Performance degrades as additional computers are added or on heavy
traffic.(shared bandwidth)
• It is slower than the other topologies.

Ring Topology
Ring network consists of a cable forming a closed ring, or loop, with all the computers
and devices in a network

A ring network links all nodes together in a circular chain.

The node examines any data that passes by to see if it is the addressee; if not, the data is
passed on to the next node in the ring.

Advantages of Ring Topology

• Ring topology Can cover a larger distance as compared to a bus network and is
commonly used in wide area networks (WAN)
• No collisions occur because data takes one direction only
• Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the
opportunity to transmit
• The speed of data transmission is faster than in a bus topology.

Demerits of a Ring Topology

• Ring Topology Network is More difficult to establish.

• If the cable fails, the whole network goes down.
• Data messages travel in only one direction from device to device around the
entire ring  If a node on a ring network fails, all nodes after the failed nodes
cannot function.
• There is no central host computer to control the network.
• Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect the network
Star Topology

On a star network, all of the computers and devices (nodes) on the network connect to a
central hub or switch.

All data that is transferred from one computer to another passes through the hub.

Merits of a Star Topology

• Easy to install and maintain.

• Better performance: The star topology prevents the passing of data packets
through an excessive number of nodes.
• Computers and devices can be added to or removed from the network with little
or no disruption to the network.
• Reliable because each device connects directly to the hub, if one device fails,
only that device is affected.
Demerits of a Star Topology

• If the hub fails, the entire network fails

• Lots of cable required so that the installation cost is expensive.
• Network size is limited by the number of connections that can be made to the
hub.
• Performance for the entire network depends on the capabilities of the hub.
• Set up of the system can be very complex.
Mesh Topology

This is the type of network topology in which each of the nodes of the network is
connected to each of the other nodes in the network.

Fully connected Mesh topology makes it possible for data to be simultaneously

transmitted from any single node to all of the other nodes.

Merits of Mesh Topology

• Data will always be delivered.

• All of the data that is transmitted between nodes in the network takes the shortest
path between nodes.
• In the case of a failure or break in one of the links, the data takes an alternate path
to the destination.

Demerits of Mesh Topology

• Mesh topology is generally too costly and complex for practical networks, and
very hard to setup.
• Lots of cable required so that the installation cost is expensive.
• Network size is limited by the number of interconnections that can be made
between the computers.
• It requires that the nodes of the network possess some type of logical 'routing'
algorithm to determine the correct path to use at any particular time.

Tree Topology
Tree network topology is also known as a the hierarchical network topology.

This is because it contains different levels of hierarchy.

• The type of network topology in which a central 'root' node (the top level of the
hierarchy) is connected to one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the
hierarchy (i.e., the second level),
• Each of the second level nodes will also have one or more other nodes that are
one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the third level) connected to it.
• The hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical - Each node in the network having a
specific fixed number, of nodes connected to it at the next lower level in the
hierarchy.
• It usually has three layers: the core layer, the distribution layer and the Access
layer.

Factors to consider When Choosing a Topology

• Cost.
• Future growth:
• Length of cable needed.
• Number of computers to be connected
• Level of security required

Factors that influence the speed access to the network

• Bandwidth
• Number of computers connected to the network
• Type of network media used
• Topology
• Location of your computers on the network
• The server – i.e. the amount of RAM and the speed of the hard disk.
• Capacity of hardware e.g. hubs, switches have their own maximum speeds