Channel Equalization

Dr.R.Venkateswari
 The transmission of digital data over a physical communication
channel is limited by two unavoidable factors
1. Intersymbol interference
2. Channel noise

 Lesson 1 : Understanding of the intersymbol interference problem

and how to cure it is of fundamental importance to the design of
digital communication systems
 Lesson 2 : The raised cosine spectrum provides a powerful
mathematical tool for baseband pulse-shaping designed to mitigate
the intersymbol interference problem
 Lesson 3 : The eye pattern is a visual indicator of performance,
displaying the physical limitations of a digital data transmission
system in an insightful manner
2
Binary data transmission

3
 The level-encoded signal and the discrete PAM signal are
 1 if the input bk is symbol 1
ak   (6.1)
 1 if the input bk is symbol 0


s(t )   a g (t  kT )
k  
k b
(6.2)
 The channel output is
x(t )  s(t )  h(t ) (6.3)
y(t )  x(t )  q(t ) (6.4)

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 The Intersymbol Interference Problem
 We may express the receive-filter output as the modified PAM
signal 

y (t )   a p(t  kT )
k  
k b
(6.5)

p(t )  g (t )  h(t )  q(t ) (6.6)

P( f )  G( f ) H ( f )Q( f ) (6.7)


y (iTb )   a p[(i  kT )],

k  
k b
i  0,1,2,...

yi  y(iTb )
pi  p(iTb )

yi  a p
k  
k i k
, i  0,1,2,... (6.8)

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 p0  p(0)  E (6.9)


yi  E ai  a p
k  
k i k , i  0,1,2,... (6.10)
k i

Residual phenomenon, intersymbol

interference (ISI)

yi  Eai , for all i

Without ISI

 Pulse-shaping problem
 Given the channel transfer function, determine the transmit-pulse
spectrum and receive-filter transfer function so as to satisfy two basic
requirements
1. Intersymbol interference is reduced to zero
2. Transminssion bandwidth is conserved
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 The Nyquist Channel
 Nyquist Channel
 The optimum solution for zero intersymbol interference at the minimum
transmission bandwidth possible in a noise-free environment
 the condition for zero ISI, it is necessary for the overall pulse shape p(t), the
inverse Fourier transform of the pulse spectrum P(f), to satisfy the condition

 E , for i  0
pi  p(iTb )   (6.11)
0, for all i  0

 i 
p(t )  
i  
p  sin c(2 B0t  i ) (6.12)
 2 B0 
1
B0  (6.13)
2Tb
Popt (t )  E sin c(2 B0t )
E sin( 2B0t )
 (6.14)
2B0t
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 The overall pulse spectrum is defined by the optimum brick-wall function
 E
 , for  B0  f  B0
popt ( f )   2 B0 (6.15)
0,
 otherwise

1. The brick-wall spectrum defines B0 as the minimum transmission bandwidth for zero
intersymbol interference
2. The optimum pulse shape is the impulse response of an ideal low-pass channel with
an amplitude response in the passband and a bandwidth B0

Fig. 6.2
8
Pulse shape

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 Two difficulties that make its use for a PAM system impractical
1. The system requires that the spectrum P(f) be flat from –B0 to B0, and zero
else-where
2. The time function p(t) decreases as 1/|t| for large |t|, resulting in a slow rate
of decay
 To pursue the timing error problem under point 2, consider Eq. (6.5)
and sample the y(t) at t=∆t 
y (t )  E  a p(t  kT ),
k  
k b
for iTb  0 y (t )   a sin c[2B (t  kT )]
k 0 b
k  


y (t )  E  ak sin c(2 B0 t  k )

k  

sin( 2B0 t  k )
 E a0 sin c(2 B0 t )  E  ak
k   2B0 t  k
k 0

sin( 2B0 t  k )  sin( 2B0 t ) cos(k )  cos(2B0 t ) sin(k )

 sin( 2B0 t )  (1) k ak



y (t )  E a0 sin c(2 B0 t )  E 

 

k  2 B0 t  k
 (6.16)
k 0

10
 Raised-Cosine Pulse Spectrum
 To ensure physical realizability of the overall pulse spectrum P(f), the
modified P(f) decreases toward zero gradually rather than abruptly
1. Flat portion, which occupies the frequency band 0≤|f| ≤f1 for some
parameter f1 to be defined
2. Roll-off portion, which occupies the frequency band f1 ≤|f| ≤2B0-f1

 One full cycle of the cosine function defined in the frequency domain,
which is raised up by an amount equal to its amplitude
 The raised-cosine pulse spectrum

 E
2B , 0  f  f1
 0
 E    ( f  f1 )  
p( f )   1  cos   , f1  f  2 B0  f1 (6.17)
 0
4 B  2( B 0  f 1 
)
0, 2 B0  f1  f



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 The roll-off factor
f1
  1 (6.18)
B0
 cos(2 B0t ) 
p(t )  E sin c(2 B0t ) 2 2 
 (6.19)
 1  16 B0 t 
2

 The amount of intersymbol interference resulting from a timing error

∆t decreases as the roll-off factor is increased form zero to unity.
 For special case of α=1
 sin c(4 B0t ) 
p(t )  E  2 2 
 (6.20)
 1  16 B0 t 

Fig. 6.3
12
Fig.6.3 Back Next

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 Transmission-Bandwidth Requirement
 The transmission bandwidth required by using the raised-cosine pulse
spectrum is
BT  2 B0  f1
BT  B0 (1   ) (6.21)

 Excess channel
 The transmission bandwidth requirement of the raised-cosine spectrum
exceeds that of the optimum Nyquist channel

f v  B0 (6.22)

1. When the roll-off factor is zero, the excess bandwidth is reduced to zero
2. When the roll-off factor is unity, the excess bandwidth is increased to B0.

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15
 Two additional Properties of the Raised-Cosine Pulse Spectrum
 Property 1
 The roll-off protion of the spectrum P(f) exhibits odd symmetry about the midpoints
f=±B0
Pv ( f )  Popt ( f )  P( f ) (6.23)
 A unique characterization of the roll-off portion of the raised-cosine spectrum
0, for 0  f  f1

 E 1  cos  ( f  f1 )  , for f  f  B
 4 B0   2( B  f )  
 1 
1 0
 
Pv ( f )  
0
(6.24)
 E 1  cos  ( f  f1 )  , for B  f  2 B  f
 4B   2( B  f )   0 0 1

 0   0 1 

0, for 2B0  f1  f  2B0

Pv ( f ' )   Pv ( f ' ) (6.25)

f '  f  B0 (6.26)

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 The Eye Pattern
 Eye Pattern
 Be produced by the synchronized superposition of successive symbol
intervals of the distorted waveform appearing at the output of the
receive-filter prior to thresholding
 From an experimental perspective, the eye pattern offers two
compelling virtues
 The simplicity of generation
 The provision of a great deal of insightful information about the
characteristics of the data transmission system, hence its wide use as a
visual indicator of how well or poorly a data transmission system performs
the task of transporting a data sequence across a physical channel.

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 Timing Features
 Three timing features pertaining to binary data transmission system,
 Optimum sampling time : The width of the eye opening defines the time
interval over the distorted binary waveform appearing at the output of the
receive-filter
 Zero-crossing jitter : in the receive-filter output, there will always be
irregularities in the zero-crossings, which, give rise to jitter and therefore
non-optimum sampling times
 Timing sensitivity : This sensitivity is determined by the rate at which the
eye pattern is closed as the sampling time is varied.

Fig. 6.5
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Fig.6.5 Back Next

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 The Peak Distortion for Intersymbol Interference
 In the absence of channel noise, the eye opening assumes two extreme
values
 An eye opening of unity, which corresponds to zero intersymbol
interference
 An eye opening of zero, which corresponds to a completely closed eye
pattern; this second extreme case occurs when the effect of intersymbol
interference is severe enough for some upper traces in the eye pattern to
cross with its lower traces.

Fig. 6.6
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Eye Pattern

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 Interpretation
 Noise margin
 In a noisy environment,
 The extent of eye opening at the optimum sampling time provides a measure of the
operating margin over additive channel noise

(Eye opening )  1  Dpeak (6.34) Fig. 6.7

 Eye opening
 Plays an important role in assessing system performance
 Specifies the smallest possible noise margin

 Zero peak distortion , which occurs when the eye opening is unity
 Unity peak distortion, which occurs when the eye pattern is completely closed.
 The idealized signal component of the receive-filter output is defined by the first
term in Eq. (6.10)
 The intersymbol interference is defined by the second term


yi  E ai  a p
k  
k i k , i  0,1,2,... (6.10)
k i
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Fig.6.7

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 

(Maximum ISI )  p
m  
i k

k i


Dpeak   pi  k
k  


  p (i  k )Tb (6.35)
k  
k i

 Eye pattern for M-ary Transmission

 M-ary data transmission system uses M encoded symbols
 The eye pattern for an M-ary data transmission system contains (M-1)
eye openings stacked vertically one on top of the other.
 It is often possible to find asymmetries in the eye pattern of an M-ary
data-transmission system, which are caused by nonlinearities in the
communication channel or other parts of the system.

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Eye Diagram for M=2 and M=4

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Fig.6.9 Back Next

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 Equalization
 Transversal filter
 Delay line, whose taps are uniformly spaced T second apart; T is the
symbol duration
 Adjustable weights, which are connected to the taps of the delay line
 Summer, which adds successively delayed versions of the input signal,
after they have been individually weighted.
 Adjustable transversal equalizer (transversal equalizer)
 With channel equalization as the function of interest and the transversal
filter with adjustable coefficients as the structure to perform.

Fig. 6.10
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Fig.6.10 Back Next

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Channel Equalization

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 discrete convolution sum, (put t = nT)
N
p(nT )   wk c((n  k )T ) (6.39)
k  N

N
pn   wk cnk (6.40)
k  N

1, for n  0
p  Condition for Zero ISI
0, for all n  0
n

1, n  0
p  (6.41)
0, n  1,2,..., N
n

N 1, n  0
w c 
 k nk  (6.42)
k  N 0, n  1,2,..., N

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 Equivalently, in matrix form we may write

 c0  c N 1 c N c N 1  c2 N   w N  0
            
    
cN 1  c0 c1 c2  c N 1   w1  0
  
 cN  c1 c0 c1  c N   w0   1 (6.43)
cN 1  c2 c1 c0  c N 1   w1  0
    
            
 c2 N  cN 1 cN cN 1  c0   wN  0

 Since the zero-forcing equalizer ignores the effect of additive channel noise,
the equalized system does not always offer the best solution to the intersymbol
interference problem

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Problem

A zero forcing equalizer is to be designed using 3

taps. Assume that the input pulse Pr(t) to the
equalizer is Pr(-2T) = 0.08, Pr(-T) =-0.25,Pr(0)
=1,Pr(T)=-0.2 and Pr(2T)=0.1.

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33
 Training based Equalizer
 How Could the Receiver Determine the {ck}?
 A pilot-assisted training session
 For the binary data sequence applied to the transmitter input, use a
deterministic sequence of 1s and 0s that is noise-like in character, hence the
reference to this sequence as a pseudo-noise (PN) sequence.
 The PN sequence is known a priori to the receiver. Accordingly, with the
receiver synchronized to the transmitter, the receiver is enabled to know
when to initiate the training session
 Finally, knowing the transmitted PN sequence and measuring the
corresponding channel output, it is straight-forward matter for the receiver
to estimate the sequence {ck} representing the sampled impulse response of
the transmit-filter and channel combined.

34
 Summary and Discussion
 Baseband data transmission, for which the channel is of a low-pass type
 Band-pass data transmission, for which the channel is of a band-pass type

 The intersymbol interference problem, which arises due to imperfections in

the frequency response of the channel
 ISI refers to the effect on that pulse due to cross-talk or spillover from all
other signal pulses in the data stream applied to the channel input
 A corrective measure widely used in practice is to shape the overall pulse
spectrum of the baseband system, starting from the source of the message
signal all the way to the receiver.
 The eye pattern portrays the degrading effects of timing jitter, ISI, channel
noise
 ISI is a signal-dependent phenomenon, it therefore disappears when the
information-bearing signal is switched off.
 Noise is always there, regardless of whether there is data transmission or
not.
 Another corrective measure for dealing with the ISI; channel equalization
35
 Thank you

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