2 Intr.

Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

MODULE 3A
Syllabus: DC Machines: (a) Principle of operation, constructional details, induced emf
expression, types of generators, and the relation between induced emf and terminal
voltage. (b) Principle of operation, back emf and torque equations, types of motors,
characteristics (shunt and series only), and applications.

Single Phase Transformer: Necessity of transformer, the principle of operation,

Types, and construction of single-phase transformers, emf equation, losses, variation
of losses with respect to load, efficiency, and condition for maximum efficiency.

Introduction:
 An electrical machine, deals with energy transfer either from mechanical to electrical
or electrical to mechanical is called DC Machine.
 The DC machines are classified into
 i) DC Generator
 ii) DC Motor
 DC Generator: The machine which converts mechanical energy into Electrical
energy
 DC motor: The machine which converts Electrical energy into Mechanical energy

Working principle of D.C.Machine as a generator

Working principle of D.C.Machine as a generator:

 It is based on the principle of dynamically induced e.m.f .

 Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced e.m.f. is produced in
the conductor according to the Faradays laws of Electromagnetic Induction. This
e.m.f. causes a current to flow in the circuit, if the conductor circuit is closed.
 The emf is given by
e=B*l*v*Sinθ volts/coil side where,
Where B=the flux density in Tesla,
l=the active length of the coil side in meters
v=the velocity with which the coil is moved in meters/sec and
θ is the angle between the direction of the flux and relative velocity.
 The direction of the induced voltage can be obtained by applying Fleming's right
hand rule.

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

Construction of DC Machine

Salient parts of a D.C.Machine are:

(i)Yoke
ii) Field system (poles)
(iii) Armature
(iv) Commutator
(v)Brushes
Yoke:
It is made of cast iron or silicon steel
 It serves the purpose of outermost cover of the D.C. machine. So that the insulating
materials get protected from harmful atmospheric elements like moisture, dust and
various gases like SO2, acidic fumes etc.
 It provides mechanical support to the poles, It forms a part of the magnetic circuit and
it provides a path of low reluctance for magnetic flux.
Poles:
It is made cast iron or cast steel laminations which are stamped together.
Each pole is divided into two parts a) pole core and b) pole shoe
 Pole core basically carries a field winding which is necessary to produce the flux.
 It directs the flux produced through air gap to armature core and to the next pole.
 Pole shoe enlarges the area of armature core to come across the flux, which is
necessary to produce larger induced emf. To achieve this, pole shoe has given a
particular shape

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

Field winding [F1-F2]:

It is made of conducting material like copper or Aluminum. The field winding is wound on
the pole core with a definite direction.

 It carries current due to which the pole core behaves as an electromagnet and produces
necessary flux. As it’s exciting the pole as electromagnet hence it is also called Exciting
winding.

Armature:
 It is further divided into two parts namely,
 Armature core and
 Armature winding
• Armature core is cylindrical in shape made up of iron and mounted on the shaft. It is
provided with of slots on its outer periphery to place the conductor and the air ducts to
permit the air flow through armature which serves cooling purpose.
• In order to collect the Emf generated in each conductor they are connected in certain
pattern called armature winding.

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

Commutator:
 The basic nature of Emf induced in the armature conductors is alternating. This needs
rectifications in case of D.C. generator which is possible by device called commutator.
 It is cylindrical in shape made of hard drawn copper segments. These segments are
insulated from each other by a layer of mica.
Brushes and brush gear:
 Brushes collect current from commutator and make it available to the stationary
external circuit. 
 Ball bearings are usually used as they are more reliable.
 For heavy duty machines, roller bearings are preferred.

Types of D.C. Armature Windings

Lap Winding Wave Winding

In this winding all the pole groups of the

In this winding all the coils carrying current in the
coils generating emf in the same
same direction are connected in series and coils
direction at any instant of time are
carrying current in opposite direction are
connected in parallel by the brushes.
connected in other series circuit.

2. Lap winding is also known as parallel 2. Wave winding is also known as series
windings. winding.

3. The number of parallel path is equal 3. The number of parallel paths is always equal
to the number of poles i.e., A = P. to 2 i.e., A = 2.

4. The number of brush required by this

4. The number of brushes required by this
winding is always equal to the number
winding is always equal to 2.
of poles.

5. Lap windings are used for low 6. Wave windings are used for high voltage and
voltage and high current machines. low current machines.

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

Emf Equation of DC Generator:

Let,
Φ = Flux produced by each pole in weber (Wb) and
P = number of poles in the DC generator.
N = speed of the armature conductor in rpm.
Consider a one revolution of the conductor
Total flux produced by all the poles =Ø×P
60
Time taken to complete one revolution =
N

Now, according to Faraday’s law of induction, the induced EMF of the conductor is equal to
rate of change of flux.

Therefore,
Induced EMF of one conductor is

Let us suppose there are Z total numbers of conductor in a generator, and arranged in such a
manner that all parallel paths are always in series.
Here, Z = total numbers of conductor A = number of parallel paths
Then, Z/A = number of conductors connected in series

Therefore,
Induced EMF of DC generator
Eg = EMF of one conductor × number of conductor connected in series.
Induced Emf of DC generator is

Ø𝑷𝑵𝒁
e=
𝟔𝟎𝑨

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

Problems on Emf equation

Formula

Φ- flux produced by each pole in wb

Z- total no of conductors in armature
N- speed armature in rpm
P- No of poles
A- No of parallel paths , for wave winding A=2
for lap winding A=P
1. A 4 pole, 1500 rpm DC generator has a lap wound armature having 24 slots with 10
conductors per slot. If the flux per pole is 0.04 Wb, calculate EMF generated in the
armature. What would be the generated EMF if the winding is wave connected?
Solution:
Given: P = 4, N = 1500rpm, Lap i. e. A = P = 4, Ø = 0.04 Wb

Z = Slots X Conductors per Slot = 24 X 10 = 240

ØPNZ 0.04 × 4 × 1500 × 240

Eg = = = 240 V
60A 60 × 4

If winding is wave connected, A = 2

0.04 × 4 × 1500 × 240

Eg = = 480V
60 × 2

2. A 4 pole generator with wave wound armature has 51 slots each having 24 conductors.
The flux per pole is 0.01 weber. At what speed must the armature rotate to give an
induced EMF of 220 V? What will be the voltage developed if the winding is lap
connected and the armature rotates at the same speed?
Solution:

Given: P = 4, wave connected hence A = 2, 51 slots, 24 conductors per slot, Ø =

0.01 Wb , Eg = 220V

ØPNZ
Eg = Where Z = 51 X 24 = 1224
60A

0.01×4×N×1224
220 =
60×2

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

220×60×2
N=
0.01 X 4 X1224

i.e N = 539.2156 r.p.m … speed for 220V

For lap wound, A = P = 4 and N = 539.2156 r.p.m

ØPNZ 0.01 × 4 × 539.2156 × 1224

Eg = = = 110V
60A 60 × 4

3. A 8 pole DC generator has 500 armature conductors and useful flux per pole of
0.065 wb. What will be EMF generated if the winding is lap connected and runs at
1000 rpm? What must be the speed at which it is to be driven to produce the same
EMF if the winding is Wave connected?
Solution:

Given: P = 8 Z= 500 conductors Ø = 0. 065 𝑊𝑏 , N = 1000rpm

When it is lap connected A=P =8 and Eg =?

Ø𝑃𝑁𝑍 0.065 x 8 x1000 x 500

𝐸g = = = 541. 667 V
60𝐴 60 𝑥 8

ii) N=? When Eg = 541.667V and winding is wave connected I,e A=2

0.065×8×N×500
541.667 =
60×2

541.667×60×2
N=
0.065 X 8 X 500

N = 250 rpm

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

Types of DC Generators
 Thw field winding is also called as exciting winding. Supplying current to the field
winding is excitation.
 Depending upon the method of excitation used in the generators are classified into
i) Separately excited DC generator
ii) Self-excited DC generator.
.
Separately Excited Generators:
In separately excited dc machines, the field winding is supplied from a separate power
source as shown in below fig.

Eg- generated Emf in generator

Ia – Armature current
R - armature resistance
a
I - Load current
L
Vt- Terminal voltage
F1 and F2 – Terminals of field winding

Self-Excited Field Generators:

 The self-excited DC generator produces a magnetic field by itself without DC sources
from an external. The electromotive force that produced by generator at armature
winding is supply to a field winding instead of DC source from outside of the generator.
Therefore, field winding is necessary connected to the armature winding.
 When generator started, due to residual flux, it develops a small amount of EMF
which drives a small current in the field winding. This tends to increase the flux in the
poles in turn increases the EMF.This cumulative process continues until generator
produces a rated voltage.
They further classified into:
a) DC Shunt generator
b) DC Series generator
c) DC Compound generator.

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

a) Shunt generator:
 In shunt generator, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature
winding and combination across the load. As shown in the fig. 

Ish- current through shunt field winding Rsh- Resistance of shunt field winding
From the fig
𝑉𝑡
Armature current and Ish =
Ia = IL + Ish 𝑅𝑠ℎ

Induced EMF Eg = Vt+ IaRa + Vbrush

Terminal voltage Vt = Eg - IaRa - Vbrush

b) Series generator:
 In series generator, the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding
and to the load. As shown in the fig. 

Ia

Ise- current through series field winding Rse- Resistance of series field winding
From the fig
Armature current Ia = Ise = IL
Induced EMF Eg = Vt+ IaRa + IseRse + Vbrush
Eg = Vt+ Ia(Ra + Rse) + Vbrush [Ia = Ise]
Terminal voltage Vt = Eg - Ia(Ra + Rse) - Vbrush

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

Compound Generator:
 The compound generator has provided with magnetic field in combine with excitation
of shunt and series field winding. The part of field winding is connected in parallel with
armature called shunt field winding and part in series with armature winding called
series field winding. 
 There are two types of Compound generators such as
(i) Long shunt Compound Generator
(ii) Short Shunt Compound Generator

Short Shunt Compound Generator:

The shunt field winding is connected in parallel only with the armature. As shown in the fig.

From the fig

Armature current Ia = Ise + Ish and Ise = IL
Induced EMF Eg = Vt+ IaRa + IseRse + Vbrush
Terminal voltage Vt = Eg - IaRa -Ise Rse - Vbrush
Long Shunt Compound generator: The shunt field winding is connected in parallel
with the series combination of armature and series field winding.

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

From the fig

Armature current Ia = IL + Ish , Ia = Ise and Ish

Induced EMF Eg = Vt+ IaRa + IseRse + Vbrush

Eg = Vt+ Ia(Ra + Rse) + Vbrush [Ia = Ise]
Terminal voltage Vt = Eg - Ia(Ra + Rse) - Vbrush

Problems:
1. The emf generated in the armature of a shunt generator is 625 volts, delivering its
full load current of 400 A to the external circuit. The field current is 6 amps and
the armature resistance is 0.06Ω. What is the terminal voltage?

Solution:

Given: Eg=625 V, IL= 400 A, Ish = 6A, and 𝑅𝑎 = 0.06Ω Vt=?

Wkt Ia = IL + Ish = 400+6 = 406 A

Terminal Voltage Vt = Eg – IaRa (neglecting brush voltage drop)

= 625 - (406X0.06)

Vt = 600.64V
2. A 30 kW, 300V, DC shunt generator has armature and field resistances of 0.05
ohm and 100ohm respectively. Calculate the total power developed by armature
when delivers full output power.

Solution: PL = 30kW, Vt = 300 V, 𝑅𝑎 = 0.05Ω, 𝑅𝑠ℎ = 100Ω Pa= ?

Wkt the power developed in the armature Pa = Eg x Ia
Therefore PL= Vt x 𝐼𝐿
𝑃𝐿 30×103
𝐼 = = = 100 𝐴 , 𝐼 =
𝑉𝑡
=
300 =3A
𝐿 𝑉𝑡 𝑠ℎ
300 𝑅𝑠ℎ 100

Ia = IL + Ish = 100 + 3 = 103A

Eg = Vt + Ia Ra = 300 + 103 X 0.05 = 305.15V

Power developed by armature = EgIa = 305.15 X 103 = 31.4304kW

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

3. A d.c. series generator has armature resistance of 0.5 Ω and a series field resistance
of 0.03 Ω. It drives a load of 50 A. If it has 6 turns/coil and total 540 coils on the
armature and is driven at 1500r.p.m., calculate the terminal voltage at the load.
Assume 4 poles, lap type winding, flux per pole as 2mWb and total brush drop as 2
V.

Solution:

𝑅𝑎 = 0.5Ω, 𝑅𝑠𝑒 = 0.03Ω, IL= 50A Total coils are 540 with 6 turns/coil.
i.e. Total turns = 540X6 = 3240
Total Conductors Z = 2 X Turns
Z= 2 X 3240 = 6480
𝑁 = 1500 rpm Vt= ?
For P=4 lap type, A = P =4 and Ø = 2 m Wb = 2 X 10-3 Wb
Ø𝑃𝑁Z 2𝑋10−3 ×4 𝑋 1500×6480
E g= = = 324 𝑉
60𝐴 60𝑋 4

Wkt terminal voltage Vt = Eg - Ia(Ra + Rse) - Vbrush

Where Ia = IL = 50A
Vt = 324- 50(0.5+0.03) -2
Vt = 295.5V

DC Motors
Operation of a DC motor:

 When a DC machine is loaded as a motor, the armature conductors carry current. These
conductors lie in the magnetic field of the air gap. Thus, each conductor experiences a
force. The conductors lie near the surface of the rotor at a common radius from its
centre. Hence, a torque is produced around the circumference of the rotor, and the rotor
starts rotating.

Working Principle of a DC motor

The principle of operation of the D C motor is” when a current carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force”.

Consider a single conductor place in a magnetic field as shown in the fig and the main flux
produced by the poles.

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

When conductor excited by a separate supply it carries a current in a particular direction.

Consider the conductor carries the current away from an observer as shown in the fig.

Any current carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field around it hence, this
conductor also produces its own flux around it. The direction of this flux can be determined
by right hand thumb rule. It is observed that the direction of flux is in clockwise direction.

Now there are two fluxes present,

1. The flux produced by the poles called main flux.
2. The flux produced by the current carrying conductor.
These are shown in the fig

From this, it is clear that on one side (left side) of the conductor, both fluxes are in the same
direction, there is gathering of the flux lines as two fluxes help each other.

As against this, on the right of the conductor, the two fluxes are in the opposite direction and
hence try to cancel each other. Due to this, density of the flux line in this area gets weakened.

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

So on the left, there exists high flux density area while on the right of the conductor there
exists low flux density as shown in the fig.

This flux distribution around the conductor acts like a stretched rubber band under tension.
This exerts a mechanical force on the conductor which acts from high flux density area
towards low flux density area, i.e. From left to right for the case considered as shown in the
fig,

Due to this, overall armature experience a twisting force called torque and armature of the
motor starts rotating.
The magnitude of the force experienced by the conductor in a motor is given by,
F=B l I Newtons(N)
B=Flux density due to the flux produced by the field winding.
l=Active length of the conductor.
I=Magnitude of the current passing through the conductor.
The direction of such force i.e. the direction of rotation of motor can be determined by
Fleming’s right hand rule.

Back Emf and its Significance:

 When the Armature of D C motor starts rotating and armature conductor cuts the
magnetic flux, hence an EMF is induced in the Conductor called Back EMF.
 The induced emf acts in opposite direction to the applied voltage ‘V’(Lenz’s law) ,
hence it is called as back EMF. It is given by
Ø𝑃𝑁𝑍
𝐸𝑏=
60 𝐴
The Voltage equation of DC motor is V = Eb + IaRa
𝑉−𝐸𝑏
Therefore armature current Ia =

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

Significance:

 The basic Principle of the Back EMF is that 𝐸𝑏 N

 When the load suddenly put on the motor, motor tries to slow down. So speed of the
motor reduces due to which the back EMF decreases. So the net Voltage (𝑉 − 𝐸𝑏 )
increases and motor draws more armature current.
 When the load on the motor decreases, the speed of the motor increases due to which
the back EMF increases. So the net Voltage (𝑉 − 𝐸𝑏 ) decreases and motor draws
less armature current
 Therefore due to the presence of back emf. The d.c. motor acts as a self-regulating
machine. It regulates the flow of armature current i.e., it automatically changes the
armature current to meet the load requirement 

Voltage equation of a Dc motor:

Multiplying the equation (1) by Ia we get

Where,

VIa is the electrical power input to the armature.

I2aRa is the copper loss in the armature.

EbIa is the Mechanical power developed by the armature

The mechanical power developed by the armature is Pm.

Pm= EbIa

Torque equation of a DC Motor:

The turning and twisting force about an axis is called torque.
Consider a wheel of radius ‘R’ meters acted upon the circumferential force ‘F’ netwons as
shown in fig

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

The wheel is rotating with speed of ‘N’ rpm then its angular speed is,

ω= 2𝜋𝑁 rad/sec -------------- 1

60
so work done in one revolution is

W= force X distance travelled in one revolution = F X 2πR joules

w𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝐹*2𝜋𝑅 = F*R *2𝜋𝑁

Power P= = 60
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 60
𝑁

P = T* ω

Where T =Torque in Nm and ω= angular speed in rad/sec

Let ‘Ta’is torque developed in the armature of the motor. It is also called as armature
torque.
The gross mechanical power developed in the armature is ‘EbIa’

Power in armature = armature torque *ω

2𝜋𝑁
EbIa = Ta *
60

Ø𝑃𝑁Z
But, 𝐸𝑏= 60 𝐴
Ø𝑃𝑁𝑍 2𝜋𝑁
Therefore * Ia= Ta *
60 𝐴 60
Ta =
So, the torque equation is given as

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

Types of DC Motors:
Motors are classified into 3 types: a) DC Shunt motor.
b) DC Series motor.
c) DC Compound motor.

a) DC Shunt motor:
 In shunt motor the field winding is connected in parallel with armature.
 The current through the shunt field winding is not the same as the armature current.

In above circuit
IL= Ia + Ish and Ish = 𝑉
Rsh

V= Eb + IaRa+ Vbrush
b) DC Series motor:

 In series wound motor the field winding is connected in series with the armature.
 Therefore, series field winding carries the armature current.

R
a

In above circuit

IL= Ia = Ise
V= Eb + IaRa+ IseRse +Vbrush

V= Eb + Ia(Ra+ Rse) +Vbrush

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

c) DC Compound motor:

 Compound wound motor has two field windings; one connected in parallel with the
armature and the other in series with it.
 There are two types of compound motor connections :
1) Short-shunt connection Compound Motor
When the shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding it
is called short-shunt connection.

In above circuit
IL= Ise= Ia + Ish
V= Eb + IaRa+ IseRse +Vbrush

Long shunt connection Compound Motor

When the shunt winding is so connected that in parallel with the series
combination of armature and series field it is called long-shunt connection

R
a

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

In above circuit
IL= Ise + Ish and Ise= Ia
V= Eb + IaRa+ IseRse +Vbrush

V= Eb + Ia(Ra+ Rse) +Vbrush

List of the formulas

Ø𝑃𝑁Z
1) 𝐸𝑏= 60 𝐴
1 φIa𝑃Z
2) Armature torque Ta = 𝑋
2𝜋 𝐴

Shaft torque Tsh = P / ω

3) The mechanical power developed by the armature is Pm= EbIa

4) DC Shunt motor
IL= Ia + Ish and Ish = 𝑉
Rsh
V= Eb + IaRa+ Vbrush
5) DC series Motor IL= Ia = Ise
V= Eb + Ia(Ra+ Rse) +Vbrush

PROBLEMS

1. A 4 pole DC motor takes 50A armature current. The armature has lap connected
winding with 480 conductors. The flux per pole is 20mwb. Calculate the gross
torque developed in the armature.

Solution: Given P=4 lap onnected A = P = 4

Ia = 40A Z = 480 φ = 20 x 10-3 wb Ta =?

1 φIa𝑃Z
Wkt Armature torque Ta = 𝑋
2𝜋 𝐴

1 20 x 10
−3
x 40x 4 x 480
Ta = 𝑋
2𝜋 4

Ta = 76.39 N-m

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

2. A 200V, 4 pole, lap wound, d.c shunt motor has 800 conductors on its armature. The
resistance of armature winding is 0.5 ohm & that of shunt field winding is 200 ohm.
The motor takes a current of 21A, the flux/pole is 30mWb. Find the speed & gross
torque developed in the motor

Solution: Given V = 200 V P=4 lap connected A = P = 4

DC shunt motor Z = 800 Ra= 0.5Ω and Rsh= 200Ω
-3
IL = 21A φ = 30 x 10 wb

N =? Ta =?

Ø𝑃𝑁Z 𝐸𝘣𝑥60 𝑥𝐴
Wkt 𝐸𝑏 = N=
60 𝐴 Ø𝑃Z

For DC Shunt motor

V= Eb + IaRa I,e Eb =V - IaRa

IL= Ia + Ish

𝑉 200
Ish =Rsh = 200
=1𝐴

Ia= IL- Ish = 21 -1 =20A

Therefore Eb =V - IaRa = 200 – 20x0.5

Eb =190V

𝐸𝘣𝑥60 𝑥𝐴 190𝑥60 𝑥4
N= =
Ø𝑃Z 30 x 10−3𝑥4𝑥800

N= 475 rpm

1 φIa𝑃Z
Armature torque Ta = 𝑋
2𝜋 𝐴

1 30 x 10
−3
x 20x 4 x 800
Ta = 𝑋
2𝜋 4

Ta = 76.38 N-m

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

3. A 4 pole, 220V , lap connected ,DC shunt motor has 36 slots, each slot has 16
conductors. It draws a current of 40A from the supply. The field and armature
resistances are 110Ω and 0.1Ω respectively. The motor develop an output power of
6KW .the flux per pole is 40mwb calculate
i) The speed
ii) Torque developed in the armature
iii) Shaft torque
Solution: Given V = 220 V P=4 lap connected A=P=4

DC shunt motor Z = 36 x16 =576

IL = 40A Ra= 0.1Ω and Rsh= 110Ω

P = 6 𝑥103 W φ = 40 x 10-3 wb

N =? Ta =? Tsh =?

Ø𝑃𝑁Z 𝐸𝘣𝑥60 𝑥𝐴
Wkt 𝐸𝑏 = N=
60 𝐴 Ø𝑃Z

For DC Shunt motor

V= Eb + IaRa I,e Eb =V - IaRa

IL= Ia + Ish

𝑉 220
Ish =Rsh = 110
= 2𝐴

Ia= IL- Ish = 40 -2 =38A

Therefore Eb =V - IaRa = 220 – 38x0.1

Eb =216.2 V

𝐸𝘣𝑥60 𝑥𝐴 216.2𝑥60 𝑥4
N= =
Ø𝑃Z 40 x 10−3𝑥4𝑥576

N= 563.02 rpm

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

1 φIa𝑃Z
Armature torque Ta = 𝑋
2𝜋 𝐴

1 40 x 10
−3
x 38 x 4 x 576
Ta = 𝑋
2𝜋 4

Ta =139.207 N-m

𝑃
Shaft torque Tsh =
𝜔
3
6 𝑥10
=
2𝜋𝑁/60
3
6 𝑥10 𝑥 60
= = 101.73 N-m
2𝜋 𝑥 563.02

4. 220 V series motor is taking a current of 40A, resistance of armature 0.5 ohms,
resistance of series field is 0.25 ohms. Calculate
i) Back Emf
ii) Power wasted in armature, and power wasted in series field.

Solution: Given V = 220

DC Series motor IL = 40A Ra= 0.5Ω and Rse= 0.25Ω

Eb =? Pa =? Pse =?

Wkt DC series Motor IL= Ia = Ise =40A

V= Eb + Ia(Ra+ Rse)

Therefore
Eb = V - Ia(Ra+ Rse)

Eb = 220 - 40(0.5+ 0.25)

Eb = 190 V

Power wasted in armature Pa = Ia2 Ra = 402 X 0.5 = 800 W

Power wasted in series field Pse = Ise2 Rse = 402 X 0.25 = 400 W

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

Characteristics of DC Motors:
The three important characteristic curves are

1. Torque Vs Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia)

2. Speed Vs Armature current characteristic (N/Ia)
3. Speed Vs Torque characteristic (N/Ta)
DC Shunt Motor Characteristics:

In DC shunt motor the field winding is connected in parallel with the source voltage, so the
field current Ish and the flux are constant in a shunt motor .

Torque Vs Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia):

We know that in a DC Motor Ta α Φ Ia by torque equation

The flux Φ is constant in shunt motor, therefore Ta α Ia
The torque increases linearly with the armature current

Speed Vs Armature current characteristic (N/Ia):

 N Eb and Eb=V-IaRa. As the flux is constant.

 When load increases , the armature current increases hence the drop IaRa
increases therefore V-IaRa decreases hence speed decreases.

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

Speed Vs Torque characteristic (N/Ta ): The speed reduces when the load torque increases.

DC Series Motor:

In DC series motor the field winding is connected in series with the source voltage, so the
field current Ise and the flux are not constant.

Torque Vs Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia):

We know that Ta ∝ ΦIa

Ta ∝ I2a

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

 The armature torque vs. armature current curve up to magnetic saturation is a

parabola, which is shown in the characteristic curve OA.
 On the other hand once the magnetic saturation is reached, the Ta is directly
proportional to the Ia.
 As a result the armature torque vs. armature current magnetic saturation characteristic
is a straight line, which is shown in the curve AB.

Speed Vs Armature current characteristic (N/Ia):

In Series Motor Speed -- N α (Eb/Φ)

N α 1/ Ia φ
N α 1/ Ia2

Speed Vs Torque characteristic (N/Ta): The speed reduces when the load torque increases.

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

Transformers

Definition
Transformer is a static device which transfer an electric
power from one electrical circuit to another electrical
circuit, with or without change of the voltage and without
change of the frequency.
WORKING PRINCIPLE: - A transformer works on the
principle of mutual induction between two magnetically
coupled coils.

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

Let N1-----> be the number of turns in coil 1 and

N2 ---------- > be the number of turns in coil 2
When the supply Voltage ‘V1’ is applied to the coil 1 the current ‘I1’ starts flowing in the
winding, which sets an alternating flux ‘φ’. Hence an emf ‘E1’ induced in the coil 1 due
the Electromagnetic Induction .
I,e E1= -N1 𝑑Ø
(self Induced Emf)
𝑑𝑡

The part of flux ‘φ’ links the coil 2,which induces an Emf ‘E2’ in coil 2 due to Mutual
Induction. Hence current ‘I2’ starts flowing coil 2.
𝑑Ø
i.e E2 = -N2 (mutually Induced Emf) .
𝑑𝑡

Therefore we will get output voltage ‘V2’ across the coil 2.

CONSTRUCTION:

There are two basic parts of a transformer:

1) Magnetic core 2) winding
 The core of the transformer is either rectangular or square in size.
 The core is divided into i) Yoke ii)Limb
 Core is the Rectangular in shape which is made of thin sheets of silicon steel, which
are laminated in order to reduce eddy current losses.
 The laminated sheets are overlapped so that to avoid air gap and they stamped
together to form a core.
 The steel laminations are insulated from each other by using insulations like varnish
 The core provides low reluctance path for the flux provided by the winding
 The vertical portion on which the winding is wound is called Limb.
 The top and bottom horizontal portion is called Yoke.
 The core forms the magnetic circuit
 There are 2 windings i) Primary winding ii) Secondary winding which formsthe
Electric circuit, made up of conducting material like copper.
 The winding which is connected to the supply is called primary winding andhaving
'N1' number of turns.
 The winding which is connected to a load is secondary winding and having'N2'
number of turns.

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

TYPES OF TRANSFORMER:

I) Based on Construction the transformer is divided into:

a) CORE TYPE b) SHELL TYPE.

Core type transformer:

 It is rectangular in shape.
 It consists of 2 limbs on which the windings are wound.
 Since the windings are placed on the outer limbs of the core they can be
easily removed for maintenance.
 The windings encircle the core.
 It has single magnetic circuit.
 It used for used for low voltage application.

Shell type transformer:

⚫ It is rectangular in shape.
⚫ It consists of 3 limbs and both the windings are wound on a central limb of the core.
⚫ Since the windings are placed on the central limb of the core they cannot be easily
removed for maintenance.
⚫ The core encircles the winding.
⚫ It has double magnetic circuit.
⚫ It used for used for high voltage application

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

II) Based on of turns in primary and secondary winding the transformer is divided into:
a) STEP UP TRANSFORMER b) STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER c) ONE-ONE TRANSFORMER

Step up transformer
When N2 > N1 then (V2 > V1) the voltage is raised on the output side and is known as
Step up transformer

Step down transformer

When N2 < N1 then (V2 < V1) the voltage level is lowered on the output side and is
known as Step down transformer

(iii) 0ne-one transformer

When N2 = N1 then V2 =V1 the voltage is same on both side
Losses in a Transformer
The transformer has two types of losses
• Core or Iron losses [constant losses]
• Copper losses [cu losses]

Iron Losses (Pi)

Iron losses are caused by the alternating flux in the core of the transformer as this loss
occurs in the core it is also known as Core loss. Iron loss is further divided into hysteresis
and eddy current loss.
Once the core is manufactured the losses occurs in the core are constant. Hence the name
constant losses

1. Hysteresis Loss
Due to the alternating flux setup in the core of the transformer, it undergoes a cycle of
magnetization and demagnetization. Due to hysteresis effect there is a loss of energy in
this process which is called hysteresis loss
The hysteresis loss can be minimized by using silicon steel material for the construction
of core

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

2. Eddy Current Loss

The EMF induced in the winding sets up an eddy current in the core, the losses due to the
eddy current is called eddy current losses.
The eddy current loss is minimized by making the core with thin laminations.

Copper losses (Pcu)

The copper losses are the power wasted in the form of I2 R loss due to the resistance of
primary and secondary winding.
The copper loss depends on the magnitude of current flowing though the windings
When the load is connected across the transformer the current I1 and I2 starts flowing in
the primary and secondary winding.
The losses can be minimized by designing the winding with low resistance conducting
material
Thus total losses in the transformer = iron losses + copper losses
= Pi +Pcu

EMF equation of a single phase transformer

Let
N1 - be the no. of turns of the primary winding
N2 – be the no. of turns secondary winding
f – Frequency in Hz
Φ – flux in weber
E1- be the RMS value of emf induced in the primary
E2 – be the RMS value of emf induced in the secondary
When the supply Voltage is applied to the primary winding which sets an alternating flux
‘φ’. Hence an EMF ‘E1’ and ‘E2’ are induced in the primary and secondary winding
respectively

𝑑Ø
e= -------------- (i)
𝑑𝑡

Consider a one cycle of EMF

Let us consider 1/4th cycle of EMF

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

The change in flux in 1/4th cycle is

dφ= Φm – 0 = Φm
The time taken to complete 1/4th of cycle is

dt = 1/4f

Substituting dφ and dt in equation I we get

𝑑Ø 𝚽m
Eavg = = = 4 f Φm
𝑑𝑡 1/4f

we know that Erms = 1.11 x Eavg

Therefore Erms = 1.11 X 4 f Φm

Erms = 4.44 f Φm induced per turn

If N1 be the number of turns in primary then E1 =4.44 f Φm N1 volts

If N2 be the number of turns in secondary then E2 =4.44 f Φm N2 volts

Transformer ratio
Voltage Ratio

W.k.t 𝐸1 = 4.44 f φm N1

𝐸2 = 4.44 f φm N2
𝐸2 4.44 f 𝛗m 𝑁2 𝑁2
Taking a ratio = =
𝐸1 4.44 f 𝛗m𝑁1 𝑁1

The transformer rating is done in VA( volt ampere)

(power)VA rating of a transformer= V1I1=V2I2

𝑉2 𝐼1
= 𝐸2 𝑁2 𝐼1
𝑉1 𝐼2 = = = K(transformer ratio)

Therefore

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

Efficiency
It is the ratio of the output power to the input power of a transformer
𝑃𝑜w𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜼=
𝑃𝑜w𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Power input = Power output + losses
= Power output + Pcu + Pi
= V2I2 cosφ + Pcu + Pi wkt Pcu = I2R2

Condition for Maximum efficiency

The efficiency of a transformer is given by

𝑃𝑜w𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
ƞ=
𝑃𝑜w𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Power input = Power output + losses
= Power output + Pcu + Pi
= V2I2 cosφ + Pcu + Pi wkt Pcu = I2R

Diff w.r.t I2 and equating to zero

𝑑𝜂 [V I 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø+ 𝐼2 R + Pi] [V 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø] −V I 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø [V 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø+ 2𝐼2 R ]
2 2
= 22 2 2 22 2 2 = 0
𝑑𝐼2 [V I 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø+ 𝐼2 R + Pi] 2
2
22 2

[V I 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø + 𝐼2 R + Pi] [V 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø] = V 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø[I2[V 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø + 2𝐼2 R ]

22 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
[V I 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø + 𝐼 R + Pi] = [V I 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø + 2𝐼 R ]
2 2
22 2 2 22 2 2

V I 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø + 𝐼2 R + Pi − V I 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø − 2𝐼2 R = 0

22 2 2 22 2 2

Pi −𝐼22 R2 = 0
Therefore 𝐏𝐢 = 𝑰𝟐𝟐 𝐑𝟐

Pi = Pcu

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI

2 Intr. Electrical Engineering BESCK104B

List of formulas for problems

 𝐸1 = 4.44𝑓ø𝑚𝑁1
 𝐸2 = 4.44𝑓ø𝑚𝑁2
 Flux density Bm= φm/a wb/m2
𝑁 𝐼
 Transformer ratio k=𝐸2 = 2 = 1
𝐸1 𝑁1 𝐼2
Power

 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦(𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) = 𝑉1𝐼1 = 𝐸1𝐼1

 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 (𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) = 𝑉2𝐼2 = 𝐸2𝐼2
𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛g 𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛g
 I1= and I2= 
𝑉1 𝑉2
 Efficiency (𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø
%𝜂= 2 × 100
(𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø + 𝑃𝑖 + 𝐼 R

If n is fraction of load [n=1 for full load and n=0.5 for 50% (half)load etc ]
𝒏 (𝑽𝑨 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 Ø
%𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒏(𝑽𝑨 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 Ø + 𝑷𝒊 + 𝒏 𝟐𝑰𝟐𝐑

At maximum efficiency Pi =Pcu = I2 R

Dept of ECE, KLECET CHIKODI