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The document provides links to various eBooks related to C++ programming and other programming languages, including titles by D.S. Malik and Paul Deitel. It emphasizes resources for learning programming concepts from problem analysis to program design. Additionally, it includes information on steam tractors and their components, detailing the mechanics of steam engines and their operation.

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100% found this document useful (1 vote)
19 views57 pages

(Ebook PDF) C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis To Program Design 7th Instant Download

The document provides links to various eBooks related to C++ programming and other programming languages, including titles by D.S. Malik and Paul Deitel. It emphasizes resources for learning programming concepts from problem analysis to program design. Additionally, it includes information on steam tractors and their components, detailing the mechanics of steam engines and their operation.

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than would be possible by hand and at the same time enables one
man to operate both the engine and the plows.

The “Case” Gas Tractor.

Cost of Gas Engine Op

GAS PRODUCER NATURAL-G


PLANT. ENGINE.
Three- Three-
Half
Load. quarter Load. quarter
Load.
Load. Load.
1 Fuel per hp- 1.25 10 cu. 12 cu.
1.5 1.8 lb.
hour lb. ft. ft.
2 Fuel per hp-
2.5 3.6 45,000 54,000
year (4,500 3 tons
tons tons cu. ft. cu. ft.
hours)
3 Cost of fuel $4.00 per ton 30 cents per 1,00
4 Cost of fuel
$10.00 $12.00 $14.40 $13.50 $16.26
per year
5 Cost of
attendance 0.40 cent 0.25 cent
per hp-hour
6 Cost of
attendance $18.00 $11.25
per year
7 Lubricating oil
0.006 pint 0.006 pint
per hp-hour
8 Cost of oil per
year at 25
$0.84 $0.84
cents per
gal.
9 Scrubber and
cooling
8 gals. 5 gals.
water per
hp-hour
10 Cost of water
per year at
30 cents per $1.44 0.90
1,000 cubic
feet
11 Operating
expenses;
$30.28 $32.28 $34.68 $26.49 $29.19
items, 4, 6,
8 and 10
12 Saving by
Diesel 5.43 6.47 7.90 1.64 3.39
engine
13 Interest,
depreciation
and
maintenance
6 + 7 + 2 = 15% 6+7+2=1
respectively
in per cent
of
investment
14 Assuming $80 $12.00 $12.00
initial cost
per hp. the
yearly fixed
charges will
be

From a Paper Read Before the Americ


CHAPTER XIV
THE STEAM TRACTOR
(147) The Steam Tractor.
The steam tractor consists of the following elements, which will take
up in detail under separate headings.
(1) Engine proper, consisting of the cylinder, piston, valve motion,
guides, crank, fly wheel, etc.
(2) Boiler—with the grates, burners, etc.
(3) Feed pump or injector.
(4) Feed water heater.
(5) Driving gear, differential, clutch, etc.
As in the case of the gas tractor, the machine consists simply of a
steam engine and its boiler that drive the road wheels of the tractor
through a gear train. With the steam tractor the gearing is simplified
as the reverse is performed by the engine’s valve motion, and not
through gearing. There is no need of speed changing transmission
gears in the steam tractor as the engine is sufficiently flexible to
provide an innumerable number of speeds by simple throttle control.
While the fuel most commonly used is coal, straw and wood, crude
oil is often used, the fuel being determined principally by the
location of the engine, and by its cost on the job. The matter of fuel
should be taken into consideration when the engine is purchased as
the different grades demand different fire box and boiler
construction. When it is possible to obtain crude oil at a reasonable
figure, it certainly should be used in preference to all others as liquid
fuel is the most compact, most easily controlled, and efficient of any.
The subject of oil burners is taken up later in this chapter, a number
of types of which are clearly illustrated.
(148) The Cylinder and Slide Valve.
The steam engine cylinder consists essentially of a smoothly bored
iron casting in which a plunger called the “piston” slides to and fro,
the cylinder acting not only as a container for the steam acting on
the piston but as a guide and support as well. Needless to say, the
contact or fit between the piston and cylinder walls must be as
perfect as possible, tight enough to prevent steam passing the
piston, and free enough to allow the piston to slide without
unnecessary friction. The reciprocating piston is connected to the
crank through a connecting rod by which the pressure on the piston
is communicated to the crank arm.
The pressure exerted on the crank pin by the piston depends on the
area of the piston (in square inches) and the pressure of the steam
on each square inch of the area. With a given steam pressure, the
greater the area, the greater the force tending to turn the crank. As
power is the rate or distance through which the force acts in a unit
of time it is obvious that the power developed by the engine is equal
(in foot pounds) to the force in pounds multiplied by the velocity of
the piston in feet per minute. Since there are 33,000 foot pound
minutes in a horse-power, the power developed by such a cylinder is
equal to the force multiplied by the piston velocity, divided by
33,000.
As the cylinder is necessarily limited in length it is evident that the
piston cannot travel in one direction continuously but must be
reversed in direction when it travels the length of the cylinder bore
thereby traveling the next distance in the opposite direction. This
reversal of the piston is accomplished by admitting the steam in one
end of the cylinder and then into the other, this causing the steam to
act on the opposite sides of the piston alternately. To establish a
difference of pressure on the two piston forces, the steam pressure
is relieved on one side while the steam acts on the other.
A typical cylinder furnished with the ordinary steam tractor is shown
by Fig. 133, in which T is the cylinder, P the piston and R is the
piston rod. When the steam in the cylinder end E acts in the
direction shown by arrow E, the piston pulls the rod R in the
direction shown by arrow S, the pressure in the cylinder end D being
relieved to atmospheric at this time. The steam is admitted and
relieved by the valve L which slides back and forth on its seat
actuated by the valve rod VR.
In the position shown, the valve L is moving to the left as shown by
arrow O. The edge of the valve N is just opening the steam port G
through which the cylinder end F is placed in communication with
the steam filled valve chest A. Steam at boiler pressure fills the
space A, which flows into E past N and through G when the valve
opens and establishes pressure against P, which, through the piston
and connecting rods turns the crank.
The steam is exhausted from the cylinder end D, through the port F,
through the exhaust port U, and out of the exhaust pipe X. As will be
seen from the figure, the inside valve edge Y has moved to the left
so that the port F is fully opened. When the piston reaches the left
hand end of the cylinder, the valve L moves to the right so that the
end of the cylinder E is connected to the exhaust port V through the
cylinder port G, thus allowing the steam in the space E to pass out
of the exhaust pipe X. A further movement of the valve to the right
causes the left edge Z of the valve to uncover the cylinder port F
which allows the steam to flow into the cylinder space D and push
the piston to the right. This motion is carried on continuously, the
valve moving in a fixed relation to the piston, and admits the steam
and releases it first on one side of the piston and then on the other.
The valve shown is known as a “D” valve and is one of a variety of
valves furnished with steam engines, which, however perform
exactly the same functions as the valve shown.
An “eccentric” which is really a form of crank, drives the valve to and
fro, the eccentric being fastened to the crankshaft. The full pressure
of the steam forces the D valve down on its seat, and as the valve is
of considerable size, this pressure causes much friction and power
loss. In some engines a “balanced” valve is used in which the
pressure on the valve is balanced by an equal pressure that acts on
the under side of the valve face. Balanced or unbalanced, the
function of the slide is to alternate the flow of steam in the two ends
of the cylinder.
Steam is prevented from passing the piston into the opposite end of
the cylinder by elastic rings placed in grooves on the piston which
are known as “piston rings.” Being thin and elastic these rings
instantly conform with any irregularity of the piston bore and
effectually stop the flow of steam past them. At the point where the
reciprocating piston rod R passes through the cylinder, a steam tight
joint is made by the “stuffing box” or gland H. The space between
the inner walls of the stuffing box and the piston rod are either filled
with some description of fibrous packing or a metallic packing that
fits around the rod in the same manner that the piston rings fit in
the bore of the cylinder. The packing is arranged around the valve
rod VR in the same manner.
As the piston, piston rod, and valve slide on their respective surfaces
with considerable pressure it is absolutely necessary that these parts
receive ample lubrication. In practically all engines the oil is taken
into the cylinder with the steam in the form of drops, the oil being
measured out by a sight feed lubricator that is tapped into the steam
supply pipe. In this device, the oil from the lubricator reservoir is fed
through a regulating needle valve, drop by drop, up through a gauge
glass so that the engineer can tell the amount of oil that he is
feeding. The body of the lubricator is filled with condensed water up
to the level of the outlet through which the oil passes into the
cylinder, and the entire lubricator, reservoir and all is under boiler
pressure at all points. The oil regulating valve is placed at the
bottom of the lubricator, and as oil is lighter than water, it floats up
from the valve to the level of the outlet, through the gauge glass,
and from the outlet level floats out into the steam pipe and mixes
with the steam. By floating the oil in this manner, the engineer can
see every drop that is fed.
(149) Expansion of Steam.
In order to reduce the amount of steam used, the valve does not
allow the steam to follow the piston at full boiler pressure through
the entire stroke, but cuts it off at a certain point after the piston
has started on its travel. As the volume of the steam is increased by
the further travel of the piston after the point of cut-off, the steam
expands in volume until the end of the stroke is reached, at which
point the pressure is naturally much below the initial or boiler
pressure. This reduction in temperature and pressure results in a
wider working temperature range than would be the case with the
steam following the piston throughout the stroke, and as the steam
is exhausted to atmosphere at a temperature much lower than that
of the boiler steam, much less heat is carried out through the
exhaust. As a general rule, the most economical point of cut-off is at
¼ of the stroke. Engines requiring more steam than is supplied at ¼
cut-off in order to carry the load, are too highly taxed for efficient
results. Since the most efficient point of cut-off is only ¼ of the
possible steam travel it is evident that an engine can carry a load
much greater than that for which it is rated, but it is also evident
that this increased capacity is gained at the expense operating
economy. Wear and tear on the engine parts are also duly increased.
Fig. 134. Case Steam Tractor.
(150) Speed Regulation.
On steam tractors a constant speed is maintained by “throttling” the
steam, to meet the demands of the load by partially restricting the
flow of steam at light loads and opening the inlet at full load. The
valve that controls the steam for the different loads is controlled by a
“governor” which depends on the centrifugal force exerted by two
fly-balls. The balls, or weights are hinged to a revolving spindle,
driven by the engine, in such manner that an increase of speed
tends to straighten out and revolve in a more nearly horizontal
plane. The amount of travel of the balls for a given speed increase,
is governed by a spring, which returns them to a vertical position
when the speed decreases. By means of a simple system of levers,
the valve is closed when the balls fly out, due to an increase of
speed, and is opened when the speed decreases, so that the engine
will receive the steam at a higher pressure and again build up its
speed to normal. As the load fluctuates, the balls are constantly
moving up and down, seeking a valve position that will keep the
engine at a constant speed.
Speed variation is generally accomplished by increasing or
decreasing the tension of the spring that controls the travel of the
governor fly balls, and in the majority of engines this may be done
without stopping the engine.
Another form of governor used extensively on stationary engines
controls the speed by increasing or decreasing the cut-off. Thus with
a heavy load the cut-off may occur at ½ the stroke while with a very
1
light load it may be at 10 stroke. This is by far the most sensitive and
economical form of governor, but on account of the reverse gear it is
difficult to apply it on a tractor.
(151) Reverse Gear.
As explained under “Cylinders” the travel of the valve bears a
definite relation to the piston position so that the ports may be
opened and closed at the proper times. It may be shown by a rather
complicated diagram that this relation of the valve together with that
of the eccentric that drives it is only correct for one direction of
rotation. For any other direction of rotation the relation of the valve
and piston position must be changed. This may be done in several
ways but the most common types are the Stevenson Link and the
Wolff slotted yoke.
The Stevenson link motion used on the majority of engines, consists
of two independent eccentrics, one being fixed in the relation for
forward motion and the other for the reverse direction. The ends of
the eccentric rods leading from these eccentrics are connected by a
slotted bar or link, in which a block is placed that is connected with
the valve rod. The block is free to slide in the slot of the links, that
is, it may be moved from one end of the slot to the other. When it is
desired to have the engine rotate in a right handed direction, for
example, the link is lowered so that the rod from the forward
eccentric is brought directly in line with the block so that this
eccentric alone acts directly on the valve through the valve stem.
When the reverse is desired the link is raised until the rod from the
reverse eccentric is brought in line with the block and valve stem,
drive being by the reverse eccentric.
When the block is on the link in a position between the two points
mentioned, the valve has less travel and it cuts off earlier in the
stroke than when driven directly by one eccentric, for the motion at
an intermediate point on the link is much different than at the ends
of the slots. This fact is taken advantage of in operating engines with
the idea of economy in view, and is known commonly as “hooking
up” the engine. The best point at which to “hook up” the engine is
best determined by experiment, and is equivalent in many respects
to the problem of advancing and retarding the spark of a gas engine.
We earnestly advise an engineer of a traction engine to take up this
subject and determine the best point of cut-off for different loads as
he will find that different positions make a considerable difference in
his coal bill. Of course the proper way is to determine this point with
a steam engine indicator, but as few engineers have such an
appliance, the work is generally of the cut and try order. Wear and
varying adjustment soon change the points marked on the reverse
sector, and for economy’s sake these points should be checked
occasionally.
In the Wolff motion, a single eccentric is used for both directions of
rotation, in connection with a slotted link. A single eccentric is
securely keyed to the crank shaft. The eccentric strap has an
extended arm which is pivoted to a block that slides back and forth
in a curved guide. The angle at which the guide stands with the
horizontal determines the direction of rotation, the angle being
changed by the reverse lever. The degree of the angle made by the
block also determines the point of cut-off. This is a very efficient and
simple valve gear.

Guides and Cross-Head.

The outer end of the piston rod is supported by a sliding block


known as the “cross-head” which in turn is supported by the guides.
An oscillating rod called the “connecting rod” connects the
reciprocating cross-head with the crank pin, this rod is used in the
same way as the connecting rod of the gas engine except that it is
connected to the cross-head instead of the piston.

Clutch.
The clutch affords a means of connecting and disconnecting the
driving wheels and engine shaft. It is usually of the friction type
described under “Gas Tractors.” By releasing the clutch the engine is
disconnected from the driving gear so that the tractor remains
stationary while the engine is driving a load through the belt.

Use of the Exhaust Steam.

The exhaust from the cylinders is used in two ways, first to create a
draft for the fire, and second to heat the feed water pumped into the
boiler. The draft is increased by exhausting a portion of the steam
into a nozzle placed directly under the stack. The friction of the
steam on the surrounding air, draws the air with it, forming a partial
vacuum over the grate at each puff, and in this way it causes
additional air to rush through the fuel and increases the temperature
of the combustion. As the load increases the “puffs” increase in
intensity due to the greater terminal pressure and the fire is
accelerated in proportion. This is a simple but rather expensive way
of increasing the draft.
A considerable proportion of the heat in the exhaust steam is saved
by using it to heat the feed water supplied to the boiler. Besides the
saving in fuel, affected by heating the water from steam that would
otherwise be thrown away, the strains on the boiler due to the
injection of cold water are greatly decreased as the difference
between the temperatures of the boiling water in the boiler and the
hot feed water are much less than in the former case.
The feed water heater consists essentially of a series of tubes in a
cylindrical shell. The tubes are surrounded on the outside by the
feed water, and are filled with the exhaust steam which passes from
end to end through the tubes. The hot water is pumped from the
heater into the boiler. An efficient feed water heater adds greatly to
the steaming capacity of the boiler.
(152) Feed Pump.
A small steam pump is furnished for pumping the water into the
boiler. This device consists of a small steam cylinder connected
directly with the pump plunger and is absolutely independent of the
main engine so that it can be used whether the engine is running or
not. The exhaust of the pump should be turned into the feed water
heater when the engine is not running so as to heat the water, but
should be directed to atmosphere when the main exhaust is passing
through the heater. An injector is usually supplied with the engine
for feeding the boiler in emergencies.
The injector forces water into the boiler by means of a steam jet
which is arranged so that a high velocity is imparted to the water in
the injector nozzle by the condensation of the steam furnished by
the jet. In this way water is pumped into the boiler against a
pressure that is equal to the pressure of the steam acting on the
water. Except for a check valve there are no moving parts. No feed
water heater connection is made with the injector for this device
raises the temperature of the feed to a considerable temperature.
The temperature is not as high, however, as the temperature of the
water from the feed water heater and pump, and because of the
comparatively low temperature coupled with the fact that live steam
is used in heating the injector water, it is not an economical method
of pumping.
(153) The Boiler.
As the boilers of traction engines sustain the pull and vibration of the
engine as well as the stresses due to traveling over rough roads in
addition to the steam pressure strains, they must be made very
substantially and of the best materials. The service of the boiler on a
traction engine is very different from that met with in stationary or
locomotive practice for the tractor seldom receives the attention that
is given to the other types and as it goes bumping over the fields
with the water whacking at every joint and the engine rushing and
surging at every little grade, it receives an “endurance” test every
moment of its existence.
A boiler should show an inspection pressure considerably in excess
of that which it is intended to carry. It should be well stayed and
braced, and should be suspended from the road wheels in such a
way as to be relieved from as much strain as possible. No transverse
seams should be permitted, and the barrel should be well reinforced
at the point where the front bolster is attached as well as at points
where pipe connections are tapped into the shell. No large bolts
should be tapped into the steam or water space. The tubes should
be placed so that they may be easily withdrawn or cleaned. The
location of the hand holes and washout holes is also an important
item, for inaccessible hand-holes are an abomination.
Boiler lagging or covering is intended to reduce the heat loss by
radiation, and for this reason it should be of a good insulating
material and should be thick enough to be effective. The cost of
jacketing is more than covered by the saving in coal, especially in
cold weather.
A straw-burning fire box differs from a coal burner in having a fire
brick arch and a shorter grate, and in having a special chute on the
fire door for feeding the straw into the furnace. After a short time,
the fire brick arch becomes incandescent, keeping the firebox
temperature constant and producing perfect combustion of the tarry
vapors distilled from the straw. A trap door is provided on the straw
chute which automatically keeps the outside air from chilling the fire.
(154) Oil-Burning Steam Tractors.
As with the straw-burning furnace, a brick arch is used in burning oil
for the purpose of preventing fractional distillation of the oil during
the combustion. In some forms of oil furnaces a brick checker-work
is used that provides a much greater surface to the gases than the
ordinary firebrick arch and therefore keeps a steadier temperature
and pressure. Broken firebrick in the furnace placed in heaps with a
rather porous formation is also an aid to combustion. With very
heavy oils a jet of steam in the firebox is of great assistance in
consuming the free carbon of the fuel (soot).
The oil in practically all cases is atomized or is broken up into a very
finely subdivided state by the action of a jet of steam. The finer this
subdivision the better will be the combustion for the oil particles will
be brought into more intimate contact with the air. Provision is also
made in the burner for either whirling or stirring the oil vapor with
the air so that a rapidly burning mixture is formed. In other respects
the oil burning engine is the same as the coal or wood burner.
(155) Care of the Steam Tractor.
During the idle season, the engine should be well housed, all bright
parts slushed with grease and the whole engine carefully covered
with tarpaulins. A tractor is an expensive machine and should be
given care, or it will rapidly depreciate and start giving trouble.
When one considers the abuse and neglect given farm machinery it
is remarkable that it will work at all, let alone give efficient service.

Small Fairbanks-Morse
Motor Driving Binder.

Before starting a new engine or one that has been idle for a
considerable time, all of the bearings and lubricating should be
thoroughly cleaned with kerosene oil, removing all grit or gum. After
cleaning, they should be thoroughly oiled with the proper grade of
lubricant and then adjusted for the correct running fit, taking care
that the bearings and wedges are not taken up too tight, nor too
many shims are taken out. Be sure that the openings in the
lubricating cups and oil pipes are not clogged and that oil holes in
the bearing bushings register with those in the bearing caps. At
points where there are sight feed gauge glasses, the glasses should
be cleaned with gasoline and all of the joints repacked with new
packing.
Careful attention should be paid to the piston rod and valve rod
packing taking care that it is only tight enough to prevent the
leakage of steam and no greater. Excessively tight packing burns out
rapidly, scores and shoulders the piston rod, making it impossible to
keep the joint tight. When rods are badly scored they should be
trued up in the lathe taking care not to take off too much metal on
the finishing cut. When renewing fibrous packing be sure that all of
the old packing is removed before placing the new packing in the
box. Keep the packing well lubricated at all times to prevent wear,
and in some cases it will be advisable to add an oil cup to the
stuffing box to insure sufficient lubrication.
Go over the valve gear and make sure that there is no looseness or
play in the eccentrics or pins, and that all of the bolts and keys are
tight and in place. Loose connections in the valve gear are not only
productive of knocks and wear but also tend to increase the fuel
consumption of the engine. When possible, indicator cards should be
taken at intervals to make sure that the valves are correctly set. In a
test recently made by the author, the indicator cards showed a
defective setting due to wear, that when corrected saved the owner
of the engine about 600 pounds of coal per day, and as the coal cost
$9.50 per ton delivered in the field, the saving soon paid for the
expense of the test. Points of adjustment are provided on all valve
gears, and as they differ in detail for each engine we cannot give
explicit directions for settling the valves, but will leave this point for
the direction book of the maker.
The governor and governor belt should now receive attention
making sure that there are no loose points or nuts in the mechanism
and that the governor belt is in good condition. Defective governor
belts are dangerous through the possibility of over speeding.
Slipping or oily belts not only increase the chances of fly-wheel
explosions, but also cause a fluctuation in the speed which is not
desirable especially in threshing, where good results are obtained
only by a constant speed. Make sure that the safety lever works
properly and shuts off the steam with a loose or broken belt. Test
the governor valve stem for sticking or for rough shots that are likely
to cause uneven running. Keep the governor well lubricated with
light oil, and keep the oil off the belt as much as possible. Governor
valve should be carefully tested for tightness and freedom.
The throttle valve must be absolutely steam tight for a leaking valve
is a dangerous proposition especially in stopping the engine. It is
generally arranged so that it can be reground with pumice stone or
crocus powder and oil. If the valve is of bronze or brass do not use
emery or carborundum for the particles will become imbedded in the
soft metal and put it in a worse condition than ever. Pack the valve
stem.
A leaking slide valve is the cause of much loss of power, and waste
of coal, and as the leakage mingles directly with the exhaust, it often
remains unknown until it has thrown away a considerable quantity of
fuel. It is best detected by blocking the engine with the piston at
mid-stroke and opening the throttle valve slightly. If the cylinder
drain cocks are now opened, the leaking steam that escapes into the
cylinder will be seen issuing from the drains. The leakage that
passes into the exhaust will be seen escaping from the stack while it
is practically impossible to have the valves absolutely tight at all
times, the steam should not escape so rapidly that it roars through
the openings. Leakage past the piston is another source of loss that
can be detected by blocking the engine so that the piston is very
near, one end of the stroke, with the valve opening one of the
cylinder ports. Any steam that passes the piston will pass out of the
exhaust. With an old engine it is likely that the cylinder is worn oval,
or that the valve seat is grooved or uneven, in which case it will be
necessary to rebore the cylinder and fit new piston rings or reface
the valve seat. Broken piston rings are often the source of leakage,
and if not replaced with new at an early date, are likely to destroy
the cylinder bore as well. Broken rings generally make themselves
known by a wheezing click when the engine is running.
The steam feed pump should be well lubricated with a good grade of
cylinder oil and should be well packed around the piston rod
especially at the water end. To guard against pump troubles a good
strainer should be provided on the water suction line to prevent the
entrance of sticks and dirt into the cylinder. Great care should be
exercised in keeping the suction line air tight, for if any air escapes
into this line no water will be lifted. Dirt under the valves is the
cause of much pump trouble, as a very small particle of dirt will
allow the water to pass in both directions through the valves.
Leaking packing will also destroy the vacuum in one end of the
cylinder. For the best results the pump should be run slowly but
continuously, feeding a small amount of water at one time. This
method of feeding allows the feed water heater to bring the water
up to the highest possible temperature which reduces the fuel
consumption and reduces the strains on the boiler. It is a bad policy
to let the water get low in the boiler and then “ram” full of cold
water in a couple of minutes. Attention should be paid to the check
valve that is located between the pump and boiler. It should be kept
clean and the valve kept tight and in good condition.
When the feed water is hard a boiler compound should be used to
reduce the amount of scale in the boiler or soften it and make its
1
removal easier. Scale of 16 inch thickness will decrease the efficiency
of the boiler by 12%, and this loss increases rapidly with a further
increase in the thickness of the scale because of its insulating effect
on the tubes. Soft sludges such as mud and clay may be removed
by-blowing off or by the filtration of the water before it is pumped
into the boiled. Lime and magnesia which form flint-hard deposits,
require chemical treatment such as the addition of sodium
phosphate, etc. In any case, the deposits waste heat and increase
the liability of burning out tubes or bagging the sheets.
Buffalo Marine Motor.

A solution that has given good results with waters containing lime,
consists of 50 pounds of Sal Soda and 35 pounds of japonica,
1
dissolved in 50 gallons of boiling water. About 40 quart is fed into the
boiler for every horse-power in 10 hours, the solution being mixed
with the feed water. Kerosene has been used a great deal to soften
scale, and gives good results if not fed in quantities to exceed 0.01
quart per horse-power day of 10 hours. An excess of kerosene is to
be guarded against for it is likely to accumulate in spots and cause
bagged sheets or burn outs.
CHAPTER XV.
OIL BURNERS.
(156) Combustion.
To obtain the full heat value of a liquid fuel it must be provided with
sufficient air to complete the combustion, it must be in a very finely
subdivided state, or in the form of a vapor at the time of ignition,
and it must be thoroughly mixed with the air so that every part of
the oil is in contact which its chemical equivalent of oxygen. Failure
to comply with any of these conditions will not only result in a waste
of fuel but will also be the cause of troublesome carbon deposits and
soot, which eventually will interfere with the operation of the burner.
Complete combustion is much more easily attained with the lighter
hydrocarbons such as gasoline or naptha than with crude oil or the
heavier distillates, for they are more readily vaporized and mix more
thoroughly with the oxygen. Only a slight degree of heat and
pressure is required with gasoline while with crude oil a high
atomizing pressure and high temperature are required to obtain a
satisfactory flame. In the majority of cases where heavy oils are
used the fuel is not even completely vaporized but enters the
combustion chamber in the form of a more or less finely atomized
spray. The methods by which the liquid fuel is broken up divides the
burners into three primary classes.
(1) LOW PRESSURE BURNERS in which the fuel is atomized by a
blast of low pressure air which also supplies a considerable
percentage of the air required for combustion.
(2) HIGH PRESSURE BURNER in which a small jet of high pressure
air or steam is used to atomize the oil, the air for combustion being
supplied from a source external to the burner.
(3) COMBINED HIGH AND LOW PRESSURE BURNER in which the
fuel is atomized by high pressure air or steam, and the greater part
of the air for combustion is furnished by a blower at a comparatively
low pressure.
In class (1) the oil is supplied to the burner under pressure and by
means of a specially designed jet is thrown against hot baffle plates
or gauze screens where the partially broken up liquid is caught by
the high velocity air and reduced to a still finer spray by its impact
against other screens or baffles further on in the burner. This system
is applicable only to the light and intermediate grades of oils, such
as gasoline, naptha or kerosene, unless heat is applied to the
external casing to aid in the vaporization. In some cases the
projection of the burner into the furnace gives satisfactory results,
but with such an arrangement there is a tendency to deposit carbon
in the burner and for the flame to “strike back” should the velocity of
the air fall below a certain critical point. Better results were had with
this type of burner, by the author when the air blast was preheated
by passing several long lengths of the intake air pipe over a hot part
of the furnace, instead of entering the burner nozzle into the
combustion chamber proper.
A well known modification of this type is the gasoline torch used by
electricians and plumbers in which the gasoline is sprayed into a
perforated hot tube by air pressure in the tank. When the spray
formed at the needle valve strikes the surrounding hot tube it is
instantly vaporized and is mixed with the air passing through the
perforations in the tube. While the air entering the tube is not forced
through the openings by external pressure it attains sufficient
velocity to aid in the vaporization because of the vacuum established
by the jet. This however is only enough for the more volatile fuels—
such as gasoline or benzine.
The high pressure which is by far the most commonly used with low
grade fuels may be divided into five principal types (a) ATOMIZER
burner, (b) The INJECTOR burner, (c) DRIP feed burner, (d)
CHAMBER OR INTERNAL burner, (e) EXTERNAL BLAST burner.
All of these burners break up the fuel by high pressure air or steam,
the types given being different only in the way that the pressure is
applied to the fuel.
The atomizer acts on the same principle as the medical or perfumery
atomizer, the high pressure jet playing directly across the open end
of the oil passage as shown by Fig. A. As the vacuum created by the
blast is very low, and has little effect in lifting the fuel to the burner,
the oil either is made to flow by gravity or by a pump. In the figure
the oil in the upper passage is shown pouring down in front of the
air or steam jet issuing from the lower port. Both ports are supplied
by the pipes shown by the circular openings at the right. The steam
and oil are controlled by independent valves placed in the two
passages.
In practice the oil and steam openings at the end of the burner may
be either single or multiple round openings or long thin slots, the
former style being the most common. Since only a small amount of
air is admitted through the blast nozzle, far too little to completely
consume the oil, the air for the combustion is admitted through
openings in the combustion chamber proper, this air being supplied
by natural draft or by blower. In some cases the burner is entered
into the furnace through an opening that is much larger than the
burner itself. The atmospheric air enters through baffle plates in this
opening which impart a whirling motion to the air that passes over
the burner. This is of considerable aid in maintaining complete
combustion in the furnace, and also tends to prevent deposits in the
burner.
Fig. 135. Showing the
Different Classes of Oil
Burners.

Fig. F. Mixed Pressure Burner, Using Both


Steam and Low Pressure Air.
Fig. G. Burner Used by the Pennsylvania
Railroad Under Locomotives.

In the injector type of burner shown by Fig. B the air or steam


nozzle terminates inside of a shell and is completely surrounded by
the oil. A mixture of air and oil issues from main nozzle shown by
(2). When the air or steam blows through the inner opening, a
partial vacuum is formed in the space (1) which draws the oil into
the burner from the supply pipe. On entering this vacuous space the
oil comes into contact with the jet and is blown out through the
opening (2) in the form of a spray. This vacuum is high enough to lift
the fuel for a considerable distance without the aid of a pump and
for this reason is the type most commonly met with in practice. A
boiler or furnace equipped with this burner will lift the oil directly to
the furnace from the reservoir in the same way that a feed water
injector will lift water into the boiler. With the commercial injector,
the position of the steam jet is made adjustable in relation to the
main jet to meet different feed conditions. The steam enters the
inner port through the end of the pipe shown at the right. The oil
enters the outer port at the right through a port not shown.
Fig. H. Lassoe-Lovelsin Burner.

Fig. C shows a drip feed or “dribbling” burner in which the oil pours
out of the upper port and over the lower port through which the
steam or air issues. As would be expected, the atomization is not as
perfect with this burner as with the atomizer or injector type.

Fig. I. Sheedy Oil Burner, Used for


Locomotives.

A burner in which the oil and steam mix before passing out into the
furnace through the final opening is known as a “Chamber burner,”
and is shown by Fig. D. In some respects, at least in construction, it
is similar to the injector burner, but it does not possess the lifting
abilities of the latter because of the open space in front of the steam
nozzle. The atomization takes place largely within the burner
because of the eddy currents of air and oil vapor created both by the
vapor striking the walls of the outer tube and by the large space in
which it has to circulate before passing out of the orifice.
An external blast burner as shown by Fig. E, in which the oil is
forced out of the openings (3–3) at the extreme end of the burner
atomizes by blowing the oil off of the tube by jets of steam directed
by a series of annular openings in a disc. This is really a type of
atomizer burner as will be seen by close inspection. This type must
be very carefully constructed and the steam jets must be kept very
clean in order to have good results for a little variation in the
pressure or a small particle of dirt in the openings will deflect the
steam and prevent a perfect oil spray. It’s one advantage lies in the
fact that the oil and air are always separate and therefore minimize
the danger of carbonization.

It should be noted that the figures just shown in the illustration of


the various classes of burners are diagrammatic only, and that many
modifications in detail are made in the practical burner such as
regulating valves, sliding steam nozzles, etc.
A burner much used in stationary engine practice and with heating
furnaces, where air at two or three ounces pressure is available, is
the mixed pressure burner shown by Fig. F. In this burned steam or
air compressed, to say 80 pounds per square inch is used for
breaking up the fuel oil. A blast of air at low pressure but with
considerable volume is used to support combustion in the furnace.
The steam or compressed air enters the burner at (5) and meets the
oil at the nozzle (8) where it is sprayed into the chamber (9). The oil
enters the burner by the pipe (4), flows into the annular passage
around the steam nozzle and meets the steam at (8). It will be
noted that the steam nozzle (5) is free to slide back and forth in its
casing so that the relation between the steam nozzle and spray
nozzle may be adjusted to meet different operating conditions. This
adjustment is affected by the levers (10) at the end of the burner.
The low pressure air entering through opening (6) from the blower
passes around the chamber (9) and mixes with the oil spray from (8)
in the mixing chamber (7). This causes a violent swirl in (7) with the
result that a comparatively intimate mixture of oil vapor and air is
formed before they issue into the furnace. In many burners of this
type a gauze screen (11) is placed over the mouth of the final orifice
so that back fires are prevented and a still better mixture is formed.
Many burners of this type have been built by the author with very
satisfactory results, and he knows of only one weak point in the
type. This is due to the fact that if a sufficient volume of air is not
kept flowing through the low pressure pipe (6), the oil vapor may
collect in the piping with the result a back fire will wreck all of the
low pressure connections. To prevent this trouble a light galvanized
iron weighted damper was placed beneath (6) which closed the pipe
when the pressure fell below a certain amount. Since this check
valve was placed there were no more pipe fires.
In all cases a sliding damper should be placed in the opening so that
the blast can be regulated to suit the amount of oil injected.
As these burners were used in a closed building continuously without
smoke or smell and with indifferent grade of oil it will be seen that
the combustion was as nearly perfect as could be expected with any
type of oil burner.
Several of these burners were made from ordinary steam pipe
fittings without steam nozzle adjustment.
While the burners shown are arranged to give a flat flame (with the
exception of burner F) they may all be built for a circular flame by
surrounding the injection nozzle with a suitable nozzle. A ROSE or
circular flame is particularly desirable for a vertical boiler where it
can be made to conform with the circular shell and apply the heat
directly to the tube sheet through suitable fire brick baffles.
A burner of the injector type shown by Fig. G, has been used by the
Pennsylvania Railroad with a considerable degree of success. The
steam enters the steam nozzle at (12) through the circular openings
from which point it passes through the nozzle (13) and carries the oil
from the air port (14). The mixture or spray of steam and oil passes
out of the nozzle (15) into the furnace. The steam nozzle is threaded
into the casing at (16), and is keyed to the bevel gear (17). Meshing
with (17) is the bevel mounted on the vertical stem which
terminates in a hand-wheel in the engineer’s cab. By turning the
bevels, the nozzle turns in the casing threads causing it to move
back and forth for the adjustment.
In many types of burners having a nozzle similar to (15) a twisted
form of rifling is placed in the bore that gives the escaping gas a
rotary motion. This is very effective in mixing the air and oil vapor
and spreads the flame very close to the orifice. In burners of the
chamber type a spiral vane is sometimes used to gain the same
effect, and in one make a rotating fan, is placed near the opening of
the outer nozzle which gives a sudden whirl to the gases. While this
latter attachment does all that is claimed for it while it is in good
repair, it is very likely to stick and put the burner out of commission.
The Lassoe-Lovelsin locomotive burner is shown by Fig. H in which
the gas exits through a series of holes in the end of the nozzle (22).
The steam enters the outside casing, and unlike the burners just
described, entirely surrounds the central oil nozzle, (20). The steam
in passing through the openings 21–22 draws the oil through the
central opening (23), this oil nozzle being controlled by the needle
valve (24) which terminates in the handle (25). Oil enters the oil
nozzle through the inlet pipe (26).
The Sheedy oil burner shown by Fig. I has a rectangular nozzle for a
flat flame, and has no steam nozzle adjustment. Oil surrounds the
steam nozzle and enters the casing through the upper connection.
Air enters the lower port through the lower opening as shown in the
cross-section of the burner. As the oil flows over the trough formed
by the steam nozzle it meets the jet of steam at (30) and is
atomized. The air from the lower port aids in bringing the
combustion near the tip of the nozzle and therefore prevents carbon
deposits from being formed in the burner as well as spreading the
flame at a wide angle.
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