For the journal, see Machine Learning (journal).

"Statistical learning" redirects here. For statistical learning in linguistics,

see Statistical learning in language acquisition.

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Machine learning
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Paradigms

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Supervised learning
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Clustering

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Dimensionality reduction

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Structured prediction

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Anomaly detection

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 Artificial neural network

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Reinforcement learning

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Learning with humans

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Model diagnostics

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Artificial intelligence (AI)

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 Recursive self-improvement
 Planning
 Computer vision
 General game playing
 Knowledge representation
 Natural language processing
 Robotics
 AI safety

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Glossary
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Machine learning (ML) is a field of study in artificial intelligence concerned with the
development and study of statistical algorithms that can learn
from data and generalise to unseen data, and thus perform tasks without
explicit instructions.[1] Within a subdiscipline in machine learning, advances in the
field of deep learning have allowed neural networks, a class of statistical algorithms,
to surpass many previous machine learning approaches in performance.[2]

ML finds application in many fields, including natural language processing, computer

vision, speech recognition, email filtering, agriculture, and medicine.[3][4] The
application of ML to business problems is known as predictive analytics.

Statistics and mathematical optimisation (mathematical programming) methods

comprise the foundations of machine learning. Data mining is a related field of study,
focusing on exploratory data analysis (EDA) via unsupervised learning.[6][7]
From a theoretical viewpoint, probably approximately correct learning provides a
framework for describing machine learning.

History
[edit]
See also: Timeline of machine learning
The term machine learning was coined in 1959 by Arthur Samuel, an IBM employee
and pioneer in the field of computer gaming and artificial intelligence.[8][9] The
synonym self-teaching computers was also used in this time period.[10][11]

Although the earliest machine learning model was introduced in the 1950s
when Arthur Samuel invented a program that calculated the winning chance in
checkers for each side, the history of machine learning roots back to decades of
human desire and effort to study human cognitive processes.[12] In
1949, Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb published the book The Organization of
Behavior, in which he introduced a theoretical neural structure formed by certain
interactions among nerve cells.[13] Hebb's model of neurons interacting with one
another set a groundwork for how AIs and machine learning algorithms work under
nodes, or artificial neurons used by computers to communicate data.[12] Other
researchers who have studied human cognitive systems contributed to the modern
machine learning technologies as well, including logician Walter Pitts and Warren
McCulloch, who proposed the early mathematical models of neural networks to
come up with algorithms that mirror human thought processes.[12]

By the early 1960s, an experimental "learning machine" with punched tape memory,
called Cybertron, had been developed by Raytheon Company to
analyse sonar signals, electrocardiograms, and speech patterns using
rudimentary reinforcement learning. It was repetitively "trained" by a human
operator/teacher to recognise patterns and equipped with a "goof" button to cause it
to reevaluate incorrect decisions.[14] A representative book on research into machine
learning during the 1960s was Nilsson's book on Learning Machines, dealing mostly
with machine learning for pattern classification.[15] Interest related to pattern
recognition continued into the 1970s, as described by Duda and Hart in 1973.[16] In
1981 a report was given on using teaching strategies so that an artificial neural
network learns to recognise 40 characters (26 letters, 10 digits, and 4 special
symbols) from a computer terminal.[17]

Tom M. Mitchell provided a widely quoted, more formal definition of the algorithms
studied in the machine learning field: "A computer program is said to learn from
experience E with respect to some class of tasks T and performance measure P if its
performance at tasks in T, as measured by P, improves with experience E."[18] This
definition of the tasks in which machine learning is concerned offers a
fundamentally operational definition rather than defining the field in cognitive terms.
This follows Alan Turing's proposal in his paper "Computing Machinery and
Intelligence", in which the question "Can machines think?" is replaced with the
question "Can machines do what we (as thinking entities) can do?".[19]

Modern-day machine learning has two objectives. One is to classify data based on
models which have been developed; the other purpose is to make predictions for
future outcomes based on these models. A hypothetical algorithm specific to
classifying data may use computer vision of moles coupled with supervised learning
in order to train it to classify the cancerous moles. A machine learning algorithm for
stock trading may inform the trader of future potential predictions.[20]

Relationships to other fields

[edit]
Artificial intelligence
[edit]

Machine learning as subfield of AI[21]

As a scientific endeavour, machine learning grew out of the quest for artificial
intelligence (AI). In the early days of AI as an academic discipline, some researchers
were interested in having machines learn from data. They attempted to approach the
problem with various symbolic methods, as well as what were then termed "neural
networks"; these were mostly perceptrons and other models that were later found to
be reinventions of the generalised linear models of statistics.[22] Probabilistic
reasoning was also employed, especially in automated medical diagnosis.[23]: 488

However, an increasing emphasis on the logical, knowledge-based approach caused

a rift between AI and machine learning. Probabilistic systems were plagued by
theoretical and practical problems of data acquisition and representation.[23]: 488 By
1980, expert systems had come to dominate AI, and statistics was out of favour.
[24]
Work on symbolic/knowledge-based learning did continue within AI, leading
to inductive logic programming(ILP), but the more statistical line of research was now
outside the field of AI proper, in pattern recognition and information retrieval.[23]: 708–710,
755
Neural networks research had been abandoned by AI and computer
science around the same time. This line, too, was continued outside the AI/CS field,
as "connectionism", by researchers from other disciplines including John
Hopfield, David Rumelhart, and Geoffrey Hinton. Their main success came in the
mid-1980s with the reinvention of backpropagation.[23]: 25

Machine learning (ML), reorganised and recognised as its own field, started to
flourish in the 1990s. The field changed its goal from achieving artificial intelligence
to tackling solvable problems of a practical nature. It shifted focus away from
the symbolic approaches it had inherited from AI, and toward methods and models
borrowed from statistics, fuzzy logic, and probability theory.[24]
Data compression
[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Data compression § Machine learning.[edit]
There is a close connection between machine learning and compression. A system
that predicts the posterior probabilities of a sequence given its entire history can be
used for optimal data compression (by using arithmetic coding on the output
distribution). Conversely, an optimal compressor can be used for prediction (by
finding the symbol that compresses best, given the previous history). This
equivalence has been used as a justification for using data compression as a
benchmark for "general intelligence".[25][26][27]

An alternative view can show compression algorithms implicitly map strings into
implicit feature space vectors, and compression-based similarity measures compute

associated vector space ℵ, such that C(.) maps an input string x, corresponding to
similarity within these feature spaces. For each compressor C(.) we define an

the vector norm ||~x||. An exhaustive examination of the feature spaces underlying
all compression algorithms is precluded by space; instead, feature vectors chooses
to examine three representative lossless compression methods, LZW, LZ77, and
PPM.[28]

According to AIXI theory, a connection more directly explained in Hutter Prize, the
best possible compression of x is the smallest possible software that generates x.
For example, in that model, a zip file's compressed size includes both the zip file and
the unzipping software, since you can not unzip it without both, but there may be an
even smaller combined form.

Examples of AI-powered audio/video compression software include NVIDIA Maxine,

AIVC.[29] Examples of software that can perform AI-powered image compression
include OpenCV, TensorFlow, MATLAB's Image Processing Toolbox (IPT) and High-
Fidelity Generative Image Compression.[30]

In unsupervised machine learning, k-means clustering can be utilized to compress

data by grouping similar data points into clusters. This technique simplifies handling
extensive datasets that lack predefined labels and finds widespread use in fields
such as image compression.[31]

Data compression aims to reduce the size of data files, enhancing storage efficiency
and speeding up data transmission. K-means clustering, an unsupervised machine
learning algorithm, is employed to partition a dataset into a specified number of
clusters, k, each represented by the centroid of its points. This process condenses
extensive datasets into a more compact set of representative points. Particularly
beneficial in image and signal processing, k-means clustering aids in data reduction
by replacing groups of data points with their centroids, thereby preserving the core
information of the original data while significantly decreasing the required storage
space.[32]

Large language models (LLMs) are also efficient lossless data compressors on some
data sets, as demonstrated by DeepMind's research with the Chinchilla 70B model.
Developed by DeepMind, Chinchilla 70B effectively compressed data, outperforming
conventional methods such as Portable Network Graphics (PNG) for images
and Free Lossless Audio Codec (FLAC) for audio. It achieved compression of image
and audio data to 43.4% and 16.4% of their original sizes, respectively. There is,
however, some reason to be concerned that the data set used for testing overlaps
the LLM training data set, making it possible that the Chinchilla 70B model is only an
efficient compression tool on data it has already been trained on.[33][34]
Data mining
[edit]
Machine learning and data mining often employ the same methods and overlap
significantly, but while machine learning focuses on prediction, based
on known properties learned from the training data, data mining focuses on
the discovery of (previously) unknown properties in the data (this is the analysis step
of knowledge discovery in databases). Data mining uses many machine learning
methods, but with different goals; on the other hand, machine learning also employs
data mining methods as "unsupervised learning" or as a preprocessing step to
improve learner accuracy. Much of the confusion between these two research
communities (which do often have separate conferences and separate
journals, ECML PKDD being a major exception) comes from the basic assumptions
they work with: in machine learning, performance is usually evaluated with respect to
the ability to reproduce known knowledge, while in knowledge discovery and data
mining (KDD) the key task is the discovery of previously unknown knowledge.
Evaluated with respect to known knowledge, an uninformed (unsupervised) method
will easily be outperformed by other supervised methods, while in a typical KDD task,
supervised methods cannot be used due to the unavailability of training data.

Machine learning also has intimate ties to optimisation: Many learning problems are
formulated as minimisation of some loss function on a training set of examples. Loss
functions express the discrepancy between the predictions of the model being
trained and the actual problem instances (for example, in classification, one wants to
assign a label to instances, and models are trained to correctly predict the
preassigned labels of a set of examples).[35]

Generalization
[edit]
Characterizing the generalisation of various learning algorithms is an active topic of
current research, especially for deep learning algorithms.

Statistics
[edit]
Machine learning and statistics are closely related fields in terms of methods, but
distinct in their principal goal: statistics draws population inferences from a sample,
while machine learning finds generalisable predictive patterns.[36] According
to Michael I. Jordan, the ideas of machine learning, from methodological principles to
theoretical tools, have had a long pre-history in statistics.[37] He also suggested the
term data science as a placeholder to call the overall field.[37]

Conventional statistical analyses require the a priori selection of a model most

suitable for the study data set. In addition, only significant or theoretically relevant
variables based on previous experience are included for analysis. In contrast,
machine learning is not built on a pre-structured model; rather, the data shape the
model by detecting underlying patterns. The more variables (input) used to train the
model, the more accurate the ultimate model will be.[38]

Leo Breiman distinguished two statistical modelling paradigms: data model and
algorithmic model,[39] wherein "algorithmic model" means more or less the machine
learning algorithms like Random Forest.

Some statisticians have adopted methods from machine learning, leading to a

combined field that they call statistical learning.[40]

Statistical physics
[edit]
Analytical and computational techniques derived from deep-rooted physics of
disordered systems can be extended to large-scale problems, including machine
learning, e.g., to analyse the weight space of deep neural networks.[41] Statistical
physics is thus finding applications in the area of medical diagnostics.[42]

Theory
[edit]
Main articles: Computational learning theory and Statistical learning theory
A core objective of a learner is to generalise from its experience.[5][43] Generalisation in
this context is the ability of a learning machine to perform accurately on new, unseen
examples/tasks after having experienced a learning data set. The training examples
come from some generally unknown probability distribution (considered
representative of the space of occurrences) and the learner has to build a general
model about this space that enables it to produce sufficiently accurate predictions in
new cases.

The computational analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is

a branch of theoretical computer science known as computational learning theory via
the probably approximately correct learning model. Because training sets are finite
and the future is uncertain, learning theory usually does not yield guarantees of the
performance of algorithms. Instead, probabilistic bounds on the performance are
quite common. The bias–variance decomposition is one way to quantify
generalisation error.

For the best performance in the context of generalisation, the complexity of the
hypothesis should match the complexity of the function underlying the data. If the
hypothesis is less complex than the function, then the model has under fitted the
data. If the complexity of the model is increased in response, then the training error
decreases. But if the hypothesis is too complex, then the model is subject
to overfitting and generalisation will be poorer.[44]

In addition to performance bounds, learning theorists study the time complexity and
feasibility of learning. In computational learning theory, a computation is considered
feasible if it can be done in polynomial time. There are two kinds of time
complexity results: Positive results show that a certain class of functions can be
learned in polynomial time. Negative results show that certain classes cannot be
learned in polynomial time.

Approaches
[edit]

In supervised learning, the training

data is labelled with the expected answers, while in unsupervised learning, the
model identifies patterns or structures in unlabelled data.
Machine learning approaches are traditionally divided into three broad categories,
which correspond to learning paradigms, depending on the nature of the "signal" or
"feedback" available to the learning system:

 Supervised learning: The computer is presented with example inputs and their
desired outputs, given by a "teacher", and the goal is to learn a general rule
that maps inputs to outputs.
 Unsupervised learning: No labels are given to the learning algorithm, leaving it on
its own to find structure in its input. Unsupervised learning can be a goal in itself
(discovering hidden patterns in data) or a means towards an end (feature
learning).
 Reinforcement learning: A computer program interacts with a dynamic
environment in which it must perform a certain goal (such as driving a vehicle or
playing a game against an opponent). As it navigates its problem space, the
program is provided feedback that's analogous to rewards, which it tries to
maximise.[5]
Although each algorithm has advantages and limitations, no single algorithm works
for all problems.[45][46][47]

Supervised learning
[edit]
Main article: Supervised learning
 A support-vector machine is a supervised
learning model that divides the data into regions separated by a linear boundary.
Here, the linear boundary divides the black circles from the white.
Supervised learning algorithms build a mathematical model of a set of data that
contains both the inputs and the desired outputs.[48] The data, known as training data,
consists of a set of training examples. Each training example has one or more inputs
and the desired output, also known as a supervisory signal. In the mathematical
model, each training example is represented by an array or vector, sometimes called
a feature vector, and the training data is represented by a matrix. Through iterative
optimisation of an objective function, supervised learning algorithms learn a function
that can be used to predict the output associated with new inputs.[49] An optimal
function allows the algorithm to correctly determine the output for inputs that were
not a part of the training data. An algorithm that improves the accuracy of its outputs
or predictions over time is said to have learned to perform that task.[18]

Types of supervised-learning algorithms include active

learning, classification and regression.[50] Classification algorithms are used when the
outputs are restricted to a limited set of values, while regression algorithms are used
when the outputs can take any numerical value within a range. For example, in a
classification algorithm that filters emails, the input is an incoming email, and the
output is the folder in which to file the email. In contrast, regression is used for tasks
such as predicting a person's height based on factors like age and genetics or
forecasting future temperatures based on historical data.[51]

Similarity learning is an area of supervised machine learning closely related to

regression and classification, but the goal is to learn from examples using a similarity
function that measures how similar or related two objects are. It has applications
in ranking, recommendation systems, visual identity tracking, face verification, and
speaker verification.

Unsupervised learning
[edit]
Main article: Unsupervised learning
See also: Cluster analysis
Unsupervised learning algorithms find structures in data that has not been labelled,
classified or categorised. Instead of responding to feedback, unsupervised learning
algorithms identify commonalities in the data and react based on the presence or
absence of such commonalities in each new piece of data. Central applications of
unsupervised machine learning include clustering, dimensionality reduction,
[7]
and density estimation.[52]

Cluster analysis is the assignment of a set of observations into subsets

(called clusters) so that observations within the same cluster are similar according to
one or more predesignated criteria, while observations drawn from different clusters
are dissimilar. Different clustering techniques make different assumptions on the
structure of the data, often defined by some similarity metric and evaluated, for
example, by internal compactness, or the similarity between members of the same
cluster, and separation, the difference between clusters. Other methods are based
on estimated density and graph connectivity.

A special type of unsupervised learning called, self-supervised learning involves

training a model by generating the supervisory signal from the data itself.[53][54]

Semi-supervised learning
[edit]
Main article: Semi-supervised learning
Semi-supervised learning falls between unsupervised learning (without any labelled
training data) and supervised learning (with completely labelled training data). Some
of the training examples are missing training labels, yet many machine-learning
researchers have found that unlabelled data, when used in conjunction with a small
amount of labelled data, can produce a considerable improvement in learning
accuracy.

In weakly supervised learning, the training labels are noisy, limited, or imprecise;
however, these labels are often cheaper to obtain, resulting in larger effective
training sets.[55]

Reinforcement learning
[edit]
Main article: Reinforcement learning
Reinforcement learning is an area of machine learning concerned with how software
agents ought to take actions in an environment so as to maximise some notion of
cumulative reward. Due to its generality, the field is studied in many other disciplines,
such as game theory, control theory, operations research, information
theory, simulation-based optimisation, multi-agent systems, swarm
intelligence, statistics and genetic algorithms. In reinforcement learning, the
environment is typically represented as a Markov decision process (MDP). Many
reinforcement learning algorithms use dynamic programming techniques.
[56]
Reinforcement learning algorithms do not assume knowledge of an exact
mathematical model of the MDP and are used when exact models are infeasible.
Reinforcement learning algorithms are used in autonomous vehicles or in learning to
play a game against a human opponent.

Dimensionality reduction
[edit]
Dimensionality reduction is a process of reducing the number of random variables
under consideration by obtaining a set of principal variables.[57] In other words, it is a
process of reducing the dimension of the feature set, also called the "number of
features". Most of the dimensionality reduction techniques can be considered as
either feature elimination or extraction. One of the popular methods of dimensionality
reduction is principal component analysis (PCA). PCA involves changing higher-
dimensional data (e.g., 3D) to a smaller space (e.g., 2D). The manifold
hypothesis proposes that high-dimensional data sets lie along low-
dimensional manifolds, and many dimensionality reduction techniques make this
assumption, leading to the area of manifold learning and manifold regularisation.

Other types
[edit]
Other approaches have been developed which do not fit neatly into this three-fold
categorisation, and sometimes more than one is used by the same machine learning
system. For example, topic modelling, meta-learning.[58]

Self-learning
[edit]
Self-learning, as a machine learning paradigm was introduced in 1982 along with a
neural network capable of self-learning, named crossbar adaptive array (CAA).[59][60] It
gives a solution to the problem learning without any external reward, by introducing
emotion as an internal reward. Emotion is used as state evaluation of a self-learning
agent. The CAA self-learning algorithm computes, in a crossbar fashion, both
decisions about actions and emotions (feelings) about consequence situations. The
system is driven by the interaction between cognition and emotion.[61] The self-
learning algorithm updates a memory matrix W =||w(a,s)|| such that in each iteration
executes the following machine learning routine:

1. in situation s perform action a

2. receive a consequence situation s'
3. compute emotion of being in the consequence situation v(s')
4. update crossbar memory w'(a,s) = w(a,s) + v(s')
It is a system with only one input, situation, and only one output, action (or
behaviour) a. There is neither a separate reinforcement input nor an advice input
from the environment. The backpropagated value (secondary reinforcement) is the
emotion toward the consequence situation. The CAA exists in two environments, one
is the behavioural environment where it behaves, and the other is the genetic
environment, wherefrom it initially and only once receives initial emotions about
situations to be encountered in the behavioural environment. After receiving the
genome (species) vector from the genetic environment, the CAA learns a goal-
seeking behaviour, in an environment that contains both desirable and undesirable
situations.[62]

Feature learning
[edit]
Main article: Feature learning
Several learning algorithms aim at discovering better representations of the inputs
provided during training.[63] Classic examples include principal component
analysis and cluster analysis. Feature learning algorithms, also called representation
learning algorithms, often attempt to preserve the information in their input but also
transform it in a way that makes it useful, often as a pre-processing step before
performing classification or predictions. This technique allows reconstruction of the
inputs coming from the unknown data-generating distribution, while not being
necessarily faithful to configurations that are implausible under that distribution. This
replaces manual feature engineering, and allows a machine to both learn the
features and use them to perform a specific task.

Feature learning can be either supervised or unsupervised. In supervised feature

learning, features are learned using labelled input data. Examples include artificial
neural networks, multilayer perceptrons, and supervised dictionary learning. In
unsupervised feature learning, features are learned with unlabelled input data.
Examples include dictionary learning, independent component
analysis, autoencoders, matrix factorisation[64] and various forms of clustering.[65][66][67]

Manifold learning algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned
representation is low-dimensional. Sparse coding algorithms attempt to do so under
the constraint that the learned representation is sparse, meaning that the
mathematical model has many zeros. Multilinear subspace learning algorithms aim
to learn low-dimensional representations directly from tensor representations for
multidimensional data, without reshaping them into higher-dimensional vectors.
[68]
Deep learning algorithms discover multiple levels of representation, or a hierarchy
of features, with higher-level, more abstract features defined in terms of (or
generating) lower-level features. It has been argued that an intelligent machine is
one that learns a representation that disentangles the underlying factors of variation
that explain the observed data.[69]

Feature learning is motivated by the fact that machine learning tasks such as
classification often require input that is mathematically and computationally
convenient to process. However, real-world data such as images, video, and sensory
data has not yielded attempts to algorithmically define specific features. An
alternative is to discover such features or representations through examination,
without relying on explicit algorithms.
Sparse dictionary learning
[edit]
Main article: Sparse dictionary learning
Sparse dictionary learning is a feature learning method where a training example is
represented as a linear combination of basis functions and assumed to be a sparse
matrix. The method is strongly NP-hard and difficult to solve approximately.[70] A
popular heuristic method for sparse dictionary learning is the k-SVD algorithm.
Sparse dictionary learning has been applied in several contexts. In classification, the
problem is to determine the class to which a previously unseen training example
belongs. For a dictionary where each class has already been built, a new training
example is associated with the class that is best sparsely represented by the
corresponding dictionary. Sparse dictionary learning has also been applied in image
de-noising. The key idea is that a clean image patch can be sparsely represented by
an image dictionary, but the noise cannot.[71]

Anomaly detection
[edit]
Main article: Anomaly detection
In data mining, anomaly detection, also known as outlier detection, is the
identification of rare items, events or observations which raise suspicions by differing
significantly from the majority of the data.[72] Typically, the anomalous items represent
an issue such as bank fraud, a structural defect, medical problems or errors in a text.
Anomalies are referred to as outliers, novelties, noise, deviations and exceptions.[73]

In particular, in the context of abuse and network intrusion detection, the interesting
objects are often not rare objects, but unexpected bursts of inactivity. This pattern
does not adhere to the common statistical definition of an outlier as a rare object.
Many outlier detection methods (in particular, unsupervised algorithms) will fail on
such data unless aggregated appropriately. Instead, a cluster analysis algorithm may
be able to detect the micro-clusters formed by these patterns.[74]

Three broad categories of anomaly detection techniques exist.[75] Unsupervised

anomaly detection techniques detect anomalies in an unlabelled test data set under
the assumption that the majority of the instances in the data set are normal, by
looking for instances that seem to fit the least to the remainder of the data set.
Supervised anomaly detection techniques require a data set that has been labelled
as "normal" and "abnormal" and involves training a classifier (the key difference from
many other statistical classification problems is the inherently unbalanced nature of
outlier detection). Semi-supervised anomaly detection techniques construct a model
representing normal behaviour from a given normal training data set and then test
the likelihood of a test instance to be generated by the model.

Robot learning
[edit]
Robot learning is inspired by a multitude of machine learning methods, starting from
supervised learning, reinforcement learning,[76][77] and finally meta-learning (e.g.
MAML).
Association rules
[edit]
Main article: Association rule learning
See also: Inductive logic programming
Association rule learning is a rule-based machine learning method for discovering
relationships between variables in large databases. It is intended to identify strong
rules discovered in databases using some measure of "interestingness".[78]

Rule-based machine learning is a general term for any machine learning method that
identifies, learns, or evolves "rules" to store, manipulate or apply knowledge. The
defining characteristic of a rule-based machine learning algorithm is the identification
and utilisation of a set of relational rules that collectively represent the knowledge
captured by the system. This is in contrast to other machine learning algorithms that
commonly identify a singular model that can be universally applied to any instance in
order to make a prediction.[79] Rule-based machine learning approaches
include learning classifier systems, association rule learning, and artificial immune
systems.

Based on the concept of strong rules, Rakesh Agrawal, Tomasz Imieliński and Arun
Swami introduced association rules for discovering regularities between products in
large-scale transaction data recorded by point-of-sale (POS) systems in
supermarkets.[80] For example, the rule found in the sales data of a supermarket
would indicate that if a customer buys onions and potatoes together, they are likely
to also buy hamburger meat. Such information can be used as the basis for
decisions about marketing activities such as promotional pricing or product
placements. In addition to market basket analysis, association rules are employed
today in application areas including Web usage mining, intrusion
detection, continuous production, and bioinformatics. In contrast with sequence
mining, association rule learning typically does not consider the order of items either
within a transaction or across transactions.

Learning classifier systems (LCS) are a family of rule-based machine learning

algorithms that combine a discovery component, typically a genetic algorithm, with a
learning component, performing either supervised learning, reinforcement learning,
or unsupervised learning. They seek to identify a set of context-dependent rules that
collectively store and apply knowledge in a piecewise manner in order to make
predictions.[81]

Inductive logic programming (ILP) is an approach to rule learning using logic

programming as a uniform representation for input examples, background
knowledge, and hypotheses. Given an encoding of the known background
knowledge and a set of examples represented as a logical database of facts, an ILP
system will derive a hypothesized logic program that entails all positive and no
negative examples. Inductive programming is a related field that considers any kind
of programming language for representing hypotheses (and not only logic
programming), such as functional programs.

Inductive logic programming is particularly useful in bioinformatics and natural

language processing. Gordon Plotkin and Ehud Shapiro laid the initial theoretical
foundation for inductive machine learning in a logical setting.[82][83][84] Shapiro built their
first implementation (Model Inference System) in 1981: a Prolog program that
inductively inferred logic programs from positive and negative examples.[85] The
term inductive here refers to philosophical induction, suggesting a theory to explain
observed facts, rather than mathematical induction, proving a property for all
members of a well-ordered set.

Models
[edit]
A machine learning model is a type of mathematical model that, once "trained" on
a given dataset, can be used to make predictions or classifications on new data.
During training, a learning algorithm iteratively adjusts the model's internal
parameters to minimise errors in its predictions.[86] By extension, the term "model"
can refer to several levels of specificity, from a general class of models and their
associated learning algorithms to a fully trained model with all its internal parameters
tuned.[87]

Various types of models have been used and researched for machine learning
systems, picking the best model for a task is called model selection.

Artificial neural networks

[edit]
Main article: Artificial neural network
See also: Deep learning

An artificial neural network is an

interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of neurons in a brain. Here,
each circular node represents an artificial neuron and an arrow represents a
connection from the output of one artificial neuron to the input of another.
Artificial neural networks (ANNs), or connectionist systems, are computing systems
vaguely inspired by the biological neural networks that constitute animal brains. Such
systems "learn" to perform tasks by considering examples, generally without being
programmed with any task-specific rules.

An ANN is a model based on a collection of connected units or nodes called "artificial

neurons", which loosely model the neurons in a biological brain. Each connection,
like the synapses in a biological brain, can transmit information, a "signal", from one
artificial neuron to another. An artificial neuron that receives a signal can process it
and then signal additional artificial neurons connected to it. In common ANN
implementations, the signal at a connection between artificial neurons is a real
number, and the output of each artificial neuron is computed by some non-linear
function of the sum of its inputs. The connections between artificial neurons are
called "edges". Artificial neurons and edges typically have a weight that adjusts as
learning proceeds. The weight increases or decreases the strength of the signal at a
connection. Artificial neurons may have a threshold such that the signal is only sent if
the aggregate signal crosses that threshold. Typically, artificial neurons are
aggregated into layers. Different layers may perform different kinds of
transformations on their inputs. Signals travel from the first layer (the input layer) to
the last layer (the output layer), possibly after traversing the layers multiple times.

The original goal of the ANN approach was to solve problems in the same way that
a human brain would. However, over time, attention moved to performing specific
tasks, leading to deviations from biology. Artificial neural networks have been used
on a variety of tasks, including computer vision, speech recognition, machine
translation, social network filtering, playing board and video games and medical
diagnosis.

Deep learning consists of multiple hidden layers in an artificial neural network. This
approach tries to model the way the human brain processes light and sound into
vision and hearing. Some successful applications of deep learning are computer
vision and speech recognition.[88]

Decision trees
[edit]
Main article: Decision tree learning
 A decision tree showing survival probability of
passengers on the Titanic
Decision tree learning uses a decision tree as a predictive model to go from
observations about an item (represented in the branches) to conclusions about the
item's target value (represented in the leaves). It is one of the predictive modelling
approaches used in statistics, data mining, and machine learning. Tree models
where the target variable can take a discrete set of values are called classification
trees; in these tree structures, leaves represent class labels, and branches
represent conjunctions of features that lead to those class labels. Decision trees
where the target variable can take continuous values (typically real numbers) are
called regression trees. In decision analysis, a decision tree can be used to visually
and explicitly represent decisions and decision making. In data mining, a decision
tree describes data, but the resulting classification tree can be an input for decision-
making.

Random forest regression

[edit]
Random forest regression (RFR) falls under umbrella of decision tree-based models.
RFR is an ensemble learning method that builds multiple decision trees and
averages their predictions to improve accuracy and to avoid overfitting. To build
decision trees, RFR uses bootstrapped sampling, for instance each decision tree is
trained on random data of from training set. This random selection of RFR for
training enables model to reduce bias predictions and achieve accuracy. RFR
generates independent decision trees, and it can work on single output data as well
multiple regressor task. This makes RFR compatible to be used in various
application.[89][90]

Support-vector machines
[edit]
Main article: Support-vector machine
Support-vector machines (SVMs), also known as support-vector networks, are a set
of related supervised learning methods used for classification and regression. Given
a set of training examples, each marked as belonging to one of two categories, an
SVM training algorithm builds a model that predicts whether a new example falls into
one category.[91] An SVM training algorithm is a non-probabilistic, binary, linear
classifier, although methods such as Platt scaling exist to use SVM in a probabilistic
classification setting. In addition to performing linear classification, SVMs can
efficiently perform a non-linear classification using what is called the kernel trick,
implicitly mapping their inputs into high-dimensional feature spaces.

Regression analysis
[edit]
Main article: Regression analysis

Illustration of linear regression on a

data set
Regression analysis encompasses a large variety of statistical methods to estimate
the relationship between input variables and their associated features. Its most
common form is linear regression, where a single line is drawn to best fit the given
data according to a mathematical criterion such as ordinary least squares. The latter
is often extended by regularisation methods to mitigate overfitting and bias, as
in ridge regression. When dealing with non-linear problems, go-to models
include polynomial regression (for example, used for trendline fitting in Microsoft
Excel[92]), logistic regression (often used in statistical classification) or even kernel
regression, which introduces non-linearity by taking advantage of the kernel trick to
implicitly map input variables to higher-dimensional space.

Multivariate linear regression extends the concept of linear regression to handle

multiple dependent variables simultaneously. This approach estimates the
relationships between a set of input variables and several output variables by fitting
a multidimensional linear model. It is particularly useful in scenarios where outputs
are interdependent or share underlying patterns, such as predicting multiple
economic indicators or reconstructing images,[93] which are inherently multi-
dimensional.

Bayesian networks
[edit]
Main article: Bayesian network
 A simple Bayesian network. Rain influences
whether the sprinkler is activated, and both rain and the sprinkler influence whether
the grass is wet.
A Bayesian network, belief network, or directed acyclic graphical model is a
probabilistic graphical model that represents a set of random variables and
their conditional independence with a directed acyclic graph (DAG). For example, a
Bayesian network could represent the probabilistic relationships between diseases
and symptoms. Given symptoms, the network can be used to compute the
probabilities of the presence of various diseases. Efficient algorithms exist that
perform inference and learning. Bayesian networks that model sequences of
variables, like speech signals or protein sequences, are called dynamic Bayesian
networks. Generalisations of Bayesian networks that can represent and solve
decision problems under uncertainty are called influence diagrams.

Gaussian processes
[edit]
Main article: Gaussian processes

An example of Gaussian Process Regression

(prediction) compared with other regression models[94]
A Gaussian process is a stochastic process in which every finite collection of the
random variables in the process has a multivariate normal distribution, and it relies
on a pre-defined covariance function, or kernel, that models how pairs of points
relate to each other depending on their locations.

Given a set of observed points, or input–output examples, the distribution of the

(unobserved) output of a new point as function of its input data can be directly
computed by looking like the observed points and the covariances between those
points and the new, unobserved point.

Gaussian processes are popular surrogate models in Bayesian optimisation used to

do hyperparameter optimisation.

Genetic algorithms
[edit]
Main article: Genetic algorithm
A genetic algorithm (GA) is a search algorithm and heuristic technique that mimics
the process of natural selection, using methods such as mutation and crossover to
generate new genotypes in the hope of finding good solutions to a given problem. In
machine learning, genetic algorithms were used in the 1980s and 1990s.[95]
[96]
Conversely, machine learning techniques have been used to improve the
performance of genetic and evolutionary algorithms.[97]

Belief functions
[edit]
Main article: Dempster–Shafer theory
The theory of belief functions, also referred to as evidence theory or Dempster–
Shafer theory, is a general framework for reasoning with uncertainty, with
understood connections to other frameworks such
as probability, possibility and imprecise probability theories. These theoretical
frameworks can be thought of as a kind of learner and have some analogous
properties of how evidence is combined (e.g., Dempster's rule of combination), just
like how in a pmf-based Bayesian approach would combine probabilities.[98] However,
there are many caveats to these beliefs functions when compared to Bayesian
approaches in order to incorporate ignorance and uncertainty quantification. These
belief function approaches that are implemented within the machine learning domain
typically leverage a fusion approach of various ensemble methods to better handle
the learner's decision boundary, low samples, and ambiguous class issues that
standard machine learning approach tend to have difficulty resolving.[4][9] However,
the computational complexity of these algorithms are dependent on the number of
propositions (classes), and can lead to a much higher computation time when
compared to other machine learning approaches.

Rule-based models
[edit]
Main article: Rule-based machine learning
Rule-based machine learning (RBML) is a branch of machine learning that
automatically discovers and learns 'rules' from data. It provides interpretable models,
making it useful for decision-making in fields like healthcare, fraud detection, and
cybersecurity. Key RBML techniques includes learning classifier systems,
[99]
association rule learning,[100] artificial immune systems,[101] and other similar models.
These methods extract patterns from data and evolve rules over time.

Training models
[edit]
Typically, machine learning models require a high quantity of reliable data to perform
accurate predictions. When training a machine learning model, machine learning
engineers need to target and collect a large and representative sample of data. Data
from the training set can be as varied as a corpus of text, a collection of
images, sensor data, and data collected from individual users of a
service. Overfitting is something to watch out for when training a machine learning
model. Trained models derived from biased or non-evaluated data can result in
skewed or undesired predictions. Biased models may result in detrimental outcomes,
thereby furthering the negative impacts on society or objectives. Algorithmic bias is a
potential result of data not being fully prepared for training. Machine learning ethics
is becoming a field of study and notably, becoming integrated within machine
learning engineering teams.

Federated learning
[edit]
Main article: Federated learning
Federated learning is an adapted form of distributed artificial intelligence to training
machine learning models that decentralises the training process, allowing for users'
privacy to be maintained by not needing to send their data to a centralised server.
This also increases efficiency by decentralising the training process to many devices.
For example, Gboard uses federated machine learning to train search query
prediction models on users' mobile phones without having to send individual
searches back to Google.[102]

Applications
[edit]
There are many applications for machine learning, including:

 Agriculture
 Anatomy
 Adaptive website
 Affective computing
 Astronomy
 Automated decision-making
 Banking
 Behaviorism
 Bioinformatics
 Brain–machine interfaces
 Cheminformatics
 Citizen Science
 Climate Science
 Computer networks
 Computer vision
 Credit-card fraud detection
 Data quality
 DNA sequence classification
 Economics
 Financial market analysis[103]
 General game playing
 Handwriting recognition
 Healthcare
 Information retrieval
 Insurance
 Internet fraud detection
 Knowledge graph embedding
 Linguistics
 Machine learning control
 Machine perception
 Machine translation
 Material Engineering
 Marketing
 Medical diagnosis
 Natural language processing
 Natural language understanding
 Online advertising
 Optimisation
 Recommender systems
 Robot locomotion
 Search engines
 Sentiment analysis
 Sequence mining
 Software engineering
 Speech recognition
 Structural health monitoring
 Syntactic pattern recognition
 Telecommunications
 Theorem proving
 Time-series forecasting
 Tomographic reconstruction[104]
 User behaviour analytics
In 2006, the media-services provider Netflix held the first "Netflix Prize" competition
to find a program to better predict user preferences and improve the accuracy of its
existing Cinematch movie recommendation algorithm by at least 10%. A joint team
made up of researchers from AT&T Labs-Research in collaboration with the teams
Big Chaos and Pragmatic Theory built an ensemble model to win the Grand Prize in
2009 for $1 million.[105] Shortly after the prize was awarded, Netflix realised that
viewers' ratings were not the best indicators of their viewing patterns ("everything is
a recommendation") and they changed their recommendation engine accordingly.
[106]
In 2010 The Wall Street Journal wrote about the firm Rebellion Research and
their use of machine learning to predict the financial crisis.[107] In 2012, co-founder
of Sun Microsystems, Vinod Khosla, predicted that 80% of medical doctors jobs
would be lost in the next two decades to automated machine learning medical
diagnostic software.[108] In 2014, it was reported that a machine learning algorithm had
been applied in the field of art history to study fine art paintings and that it may have
revealed previously unrecognised influences among artists.[109] In 2019 Springer
Nature published the first research book created using machine learning.[110] In 2020,
machine learning technology was used to help make diagnoses and aid researchers
in developing a cure for COVID-19.[111] Machine learning was recently applied to
predict the pro-environmental behaviour of travellers.[112] Recently, machine learning
technology was also applied to optimise smartphone's performance and thermal
behaviour based on the user's interaction with the phone.[113][114][115] When applied
correctly, machine learning algorithms (MLAs) can utilise a wide range of company
characteristics to predict stock returns without overfitting. By employing effective
feature engineering and combining forecasts, MLAs can generate results that far
surpass those obtained from basic linear techniques like OLS.[116]

Recent advancements in machine learning have extended into the field of quantum
chemistry, where novel algorithms now enable the prediction of solvent effects on
chemical reactions, thereby offering new tools for chemists to tailor experimental
conditions for optimal outcomes.[117]

Machine Learning is becoming a useful tool to investigate and predict evacuation

decision making in large scale and small scale disasters. Different solutions have
been tested to predict if and when householders decide to evacuate during wildfires
and hurricanes.[118][119][120] Other applications have been focusing on pre evacuation
decisions in building fires.[121][122]

Machine learning is also emerging as a promising tool in geotechnical engineering,

where it is used to support tasks such as ground classification, hazard prediction,
and site characterization. Recent research emphasizes a move toward data-centric
methods in this field, where machine learning is not a replacement for engineering
judgment, but a way to enhance it using site-specific data and patterns.[123]

Limitations
[edit]
Although machine learning has been transformative in some fields, machine-learning
programs often fail to deliver expected results.[124][125][126] Reasons for this are
numerous: lack of (suitable) data, lack of access to the data, data bias, privacy
problems, badly chosen tasks and algorithms, wrong tools and people, lack of
resources, and evaluation problems.[127]

The "black box theory" poses another yet significant challenge. Black box refers to a
situation where the algorithm or the process of producing an output is entirely
opaque, meaning that even the coders of the algorithm cannot audit the pattern that
the machine extracted out of the data.[128] The House of Lords Select Committee,
which claimed that such an "intelligence system" that could have a "substantial
impact on an individual's life" would not be considered acceptable unless it provided
"a full and satisfactory explanation for the decisions" it makes.[128]

In 2018, a self-driving car from Uber failed to detect a pedestrian, who was killed
after a collision.[129] Attempts to use machine learning in healthcare with the IBM
Watson system failed to deliver even after years of time and billions of dollars
invested.[130][131] Microsoft's Bing Chat chatbot has been reported to produce hostile
and offensive response against its users.[132]

Machine learning has been used as a strategy to update the evidence related to a
systematic review and increased reviewer burden related to the growth of biomedical
literature. While it has improved with training sets, it has not yet developed
sufficiently to reduce the workload burden without limiting the necessary sensitivity
for the findings research themselves.[133]

Explainability
[edit]
Main article: Explainable artificial intelligence
Explainable AI (XAI), or Interpretable AI, or Explainable Machine Learning (XML), is
artificial intelligence (AI) in which humans can understand the decisions or
predictions made by the AI.[134] It contrasts with the "black box" concept in machine
learning where even its designers cannot explain why an AI arrived at a specific
decision.[135] By refining the mental models of users of AI-powered systems and
dismantling their misconceptions, XAI promises to help users perform more
effectively. XAI may be an implementation of the social right to explanation.

Overfitting
[edit]
Main article: Overfitting

The blue line could be an example of overfitting a

linear function due to random noise.
Settling on a bad, overly complex theory gerrymandered to fit all the past training
data is known as overfitting. Many systems attempt to reduce overfitting by
rewarding a theory in accordance with how well it fits the data but penalising the
theory in accordance with how complex the theory is.[136]

Other limitations and vulnerabilities

[edit]
Learners can also disappoint by "learning the wrong lesson". A toy example is that
an image classifier trained only on pictures of brown horses and black cats might
conclude that all brown patches are likely to be horses.[137] A real-world example is
that, unlike humans, current image classifiers often do not primarily make
judgements from the spatial relationship between components of the picture, and
they learn relationships between pixels that humans are oblivious to, but that still
correlate with images of certain types of real objects. Modifying these patterns on a
legitimate image can result in "adversarial" images that the system misclassifies.[138]
[139]

Adversarial vulnerabilities can also result in nonlinear systems, or from non-pattern

perturbations. For some systems, it is possible to change the output by only
changing a single adversarially chosen pixel.[140] Machine learning models are often
vulnerable to manipulation or evasion via adversarial machine learning.[141]

Researchers have demonstrated how backdoors can be placed undetectably into

classifying (e.g., for categories "spam" and well-visible "not spam" of posts) machine
learning models that are often developed or trained by third parties. Parties can
change the classification of any input, including in cases for which a type
of data/software transparency is provided, possibly including white-box access.[142][143]
[144]

Model assessments
[edit]
Classification of machine learning models can be validated by accuracy estimation
techniques like the holdout method, which splits the data in a training and test set
(conventionally 2/3 training set and 1/3 test set designation) and evaluates the
performance of the training model on the test set. In comparison, the K-fold-cross-
validation method randomly partitions the data into K subsets and then K
experiments are performed each respectively considering 1 subset for evaluation
and the remaining K-1 subsets for training the model. In addition to the holdout and
cross-validation methods, bootstrap, which samples n instances with replacement
from the dataset, can be used to assess model accuracy.[145]

In addition to overall accuracy, investigators frequently report sensitivity and

specificity meaning true positive rate (TPR) and true negative rate (TNR)
respectively. Similarly, investigators sometimes report the false positive rate (FPR)
as well as the false negative rate (FNR). However, these rates are ratios that fail to
reveal their numerators and denominators. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC)
along with the accompanying Area Under the ROC Curve (AUC) offer additional
tools for classification model assessment. Higher AUC is associated with a better
performing model.[146]

Ethics
[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Ethics of artificial intelligence.[edit]
The ethics of artificial intelligence covers a broad range of topics within AI that are
considered to have particular ethical stakes.[147] This includes algorithmic
biases, fairness,[148] automated decision-making,[149] accountability, privacy,
and regulation. It also covers various emerging or potential future challenges such
as machine ethics (how to make machines that behave ethically), lethal autonomous
weapon systems, arms race dynamics, AI safety and alignment, technological
unemployment, AI-enabled misinformation, how to treat certain AI systems if they
have a moral status (AI welfare and rights), artificial superintelligence and existential
risks.[147]

Some application areas may also have particularly important ethical implications,
like healthcare, education, criminal justice, or the military.
Bias
[edit]
Main article: Algorithmic bias
Different machine learning approaches can suffer from different data biases. A
machine learning system trained specifically on current customers may not be able
to predict the needs of new customer groups that are not represented in the training
data. When trained on human-made data, machine learning is likely to pick up the
constitutional and unconscious biases already present in society.[150]
Systems that are trained on datasets collected with biases may exhibit these biases
upon use (algorithmic bias), thus digitising cultural prejudices.[151] For example, in
1988, the UK's Commission for Racial Equality found that St. George's Medical
School had been using a computer program trained from data of previous
admissions staff and that this program had denied nearly 60 candidates who were
found to either be women or have non-European sounding names.[150] Using job
hiring data from a firm with racist hiring policies may lead to a machine learning
system duplicating the bias by scoring job applicants by similarity to previous
successful applicants.[152][153] Another example includes predictive policing
company Geolitica's predictive algorithm that resulted in "disproportionately high
levels of over-policing in low-income and minority communities" after being trained
with historical crime data.[154]

While responsible collection of data and documentation of algorithmic rules used by

a system is considered a critical part of machine learning, some researchers blame
lack of participation and representation of minority population in the field of AI for
machine learning's vulnerability to biases.[155] In fact, according to research carried
out by the Computing Research Association (CRA) in 2021, "female faculty merely
make up 16.1%" of all faculty members who focus on AI among several universities
around the world.[156] Furthermore, among the group of "new U.S. resident AI PhD
graduates," 45% identified as white, 22.4% as Asian, 3.2% as Hispanic, and 2.4% as
African American, which further demonstrates a lack of diversity in the field of AI. [156]

Language models learned from data have been shown to contain human-like biases.
[157][158]
Because human languages contain biases, machines trained on
language corpora will necessarily also learn these biases.[159][160] In 2016, Microsoft
tested Tay, a chatbot that learned from Twitter, and it quickly picked up racist and
sexist language.[161]

In an experiment carried out by ProPublica, an investigative journalism organisation,

a machine learning algorithm's insight into the recidivism rates among prisoners
falsely flagged "black defendants high risk twice as often as white defendants".[154] In
2015, Google Photos once tagged a couple of black people as gorillas, which
caused controversy. The gorilla label was subsequently removed, and in 2023, it still
cannot recognise gorillas.[162] Similar issues with recognising non-white people have
been found in many other systems.[163]

Because of such challenges, the effective use of machine learning may take longer
to be adopted in other domains.[164] Concern for fairness in machine learning, that is,
reducing bias in machine learning and propelling its use for human good, is
increasingly expressed by artificial intelligence scientists, including Fei-Fei Li, who
said that "[t]here's nothing artificial about AI. It's inspired by people, it's created by
people, and—most importantly—it impacts people. It is a powerful tool we are only
just beginning to understand, and that is a profound responsibility."[165]

Financial incentives
[edit]
There are concerns among health care professionals that these systems might not
be designed in the public's interest but as income-generating machines. This is
especially true in the United States where there is a long-standing ethical dilemma of
improving health care, but also increasing profits. For example, the algorithms could
be designed to provide patients with unnecessary tests or medication in which the
algorithm's proprietary owners hold stakes. There is potential for machine learning in
health care to provide professionals an additional tool to diagnose, medicate, and
plan recovery paths for patients, but this requires these biases to be mitigated.[166]

Hardware
[edit]
Since the 2010s, advances in both machine learning algorithms and computer
hardware have led to more efficient methods for training deep neural networks (a
particular narrow subdomain of machine learning) that contain many layers of
nonlinear hidden units.[167] By 2019, graphics processing units (GPUs), often with AI-
specific enhancements, had displaced CPUs as the dominant method of training
large-scale commercial cloud AI.[168] OpenAI estimated the hardware compute used in
the largest deep learning projects from AlexNet (2012) to AlphaZero (2017), and
found a 300,000-fold increase in the amount of compute required, with a doubling-
time trendline of 3.4 months.[169][170]

Tensor Processing Units (TPUs)

[edit]
Tensor Processing Units (TPUs) are specialised hardware accelerators developed
by Google specifically for machine learning workloads. Unlike general-
purpose GPUs and FPGAs, TPUs are optimised for tensor computations, making
them particularly efficient for deep learning tasks such as training and inference.
They are widely used in Google Cloud AI services and large-scale machine learning
models like Google's DeepMind AlphaFold and large language models. TPUs
leverage matrix multiplication units and high-bandwidth memory to accelerate
computations while maintaining energy efficiency.[171] Since their introduction in 2016,
TPUs have become a key component of AI infrastructure, especially in cloud-based
environments.

Neuromorphic computing
[edit]
Neuromorphic computing refers to a class of computing systems designed to
emulate the structure and functionality of biological neural networks. These systems
may be implemented through software-based simulations on conventional hardware
or through specialised hardware architectures.[172]

physical neural networks

[edit]
A physical neural network is a specific type of neuromorphic hardware that relies on
electrically adjustable materials, such as memristors, to emulate the function
of neural synapses. The term "physical neural network" highlights the use of physical
hardware for computation, as opposed to software-based implementations. It broadly
refers to artificial neural networks that use materials with adjustable resistance to
replicate neural synapses.[173][174]
Embedded machine learning
[edit]
Embedded machine learning is a sub-field of machine learning where models are
deployed on embedded systems with limited computing resources, such as wearable
computers, edge devices and microcontrollers.[175][176][177][178] Running models directly on
these devices eliminates the need to transfer and store data on cloud servers for
further processing, thereby reducing the risk of data breaches, privacy leaks and
theft of intellectual property, personal data and business secrets. Embedded
machine learning can be achieved through various techniques, such as hardware
acceleration,[179][180] approximate computing,[181] and model optimisation.[182][183] Common
optimisation techniques include pruning, quantisation, knowledge distillation, low-
rank factorisation, network architecture search, and parameter sharing.

Software
[edit]
Software suites containing a variety of machine learning algorithms include the
following:

Free and open-source software

[edit]

 Caffe
 Deeplearning4j
 DeepSpeed
 ELKI
 Google JAX
 Infer.NET
 Keras
 Kubeflow
 LightGBM
 Mahout
 Mallet
 Microsoft Cognitive Toolkit
 ML.NET
 mlpack
 MXNet
 OpenNN
 Orange
 pandas (software)
 ROOT (TMVA with ROOT)
 scikit-learn
 Shogun
 Spark MLlib
 SystemML
 TensorFlow
 Torch / PyTorch
 Weka / MOA
 XGBoost
 Yooreeka
Proprietary software with free and open-source editions
[edit]

 KNIME
 RapidMiner
Proprietary software
[edit]

 Amazon Machine Learning

 Angoss KnowledgeSTUDIO
 Azure Machine Learning
 IBM Watson Studio
 Google Cloud Vertex AI
 Google Prediction API
 IBM SPSS Modeller
 KXEN Modeller
 LIONsolver
 Mathematica
 MATLAB
 Neural Designer
 NeuroSolutions
 Oracle Data Mining
 Oracle AI Platform Cloud Service
 PolyAnalyst
 RCASE
 SAS Enterprise Miner
 SequenceL
 Splunk
 STATISTICA Data Miner
Journals
[edit]

 Journal of Machine Learning Research

 Machine Learning
 Nature Machine Intelligence
 Neural Computation
 IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence
Conferences
[edit]

 AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence

 Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL)
 European Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of
Knowledge Discovery in Databases (ECML PKDD)
 International Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for
Bioinformatics and Biostatistics (CIBB)
 International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML)
 International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR)
 International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS)
 Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD)
 Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS)
See also
[edit]

 Automated machine learning – Process of automating the application of machine

learning
 Big data – Extremely large or complex datasets
 Deep learning — branch of ML concerned with artificial neural networks
 Differentiable programming – Programming paradigm
 List of datasets for machine-learning research
 M-theory (learning framework)
 Machine unlearning
 Solomonoff's theory of inductive inference – A mathematical theory
References
[edit]

1. ^ The definition "without being explicitly programmed" is often attributed to Arthur

Samuel, who coined the term "machine learning" in 1959, but the phrase is not found
verbatim in this publication, and may be a paraphrase that appeared later. Confer
"Paraphrasing Arthur Samuel (1959), the question is: How can computers learn to
solve problems without being explicitly programmed?" in Koza, John R.; Bennett,
Forrest H.; Andre, David; Keane, Martin A. (1996). "Automated Design of Both the
Topology and Sizing of Analog Electrical Circuits Using Genetic
Programming". Artificial Intelligence in Design '96. Artificial Intelligence in Design
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94-009-0279-4_9. ISBN 978-94-010-6610-5.
2. ^ "What is Machine Learning?". IBM. 22 September 2021. Archived from the
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3. ^ Hu, Junyan; Niu, Hanlin; Carrasco, Joaquin; Lennox, Barry; Arvin, Farshad
(2020). "Voronoi-Based Multi-Robot Autonomous Exploration in Unknown
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John; Eskandari, Milad (2021). "Application of Machine Learning Algorithms in Plant
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624273. Bibcode:2021FrPS...1124273Y. doi:10.3389/fpls.2020.624273. PMC 7835
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5. ^ Jump up to:a b c Bishop, C. M. (2006), Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning,
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6. ^ Machine learning and pattern recognition "can be viewed as two facets of the
same field".[5]: vii
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Friedman, Jerome H. (1998). "Data Mining and Statistics: What's the
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Sources
[edit]

 Domingos, Pedro (22 September 2015). The Master Algorithm: How the Quest
for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World. Basic
Books. ISBN 978-0465065707.
 Nilsson, Nils (1998). Artificial Intelligence: A New Synthesis. Morgan
Kaufmann. ISBN 978-1-55860-467-4. Archived from the original on 26 July
2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
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Intelligence: A Logical Approach. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-
0-19-510270-3. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 22
August 2020.
 Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003), Artificial Intelligence: A Modern
Approach (2nd ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-
790395-2.
Further reading
[edit]

 Alpaydin, Ethem (2020). Introduction to Machine Learning, (4th edition) MIT

Press, ISBN 9780262043793.
 Bishop, Christopher (1995). Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition, Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-853864-2.
 Bishop, Christopher (2006) Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning,
Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-31073-2
 Domingos, Pedro (September 2015), The Master Algorithm, Basic Books, ISBN 978-0-
465-06570-7
 Duda, Richard O.; Hart, Peter E.; Stork, David G. (2001) Pattern classification (2nd
edition), Wiley, New York, ISBN 0-471-05669-3.
 Hastie, Trevor; Tibshirani, Robert & Friedman, Jerome H. (2009) The Elements of
Statistical Learning, Springer. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-84858-7 ISBN 0-387-95284-5.
  MacKay, David J. C. Information Theory, Inference, and Learning
Algorithms Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-64298-1
 Murphy, Kevin P. (2021). Probabilistic Machine Learning: An Introduction Archived 11
April 2021 at the Wayback Machine, MIT Press.
 Nilsson, Nils J. (2015) Introduction to Machine Learning Archived 16 August 2019 at
the Wayback Machine.
 Russell, Stuart & Norvig, Peter (2020). Artificial Intelligence – A Modern Approach. (4th
edition) Pearson, ISBN 978-0134610993.
 Solomonoff, Ray, (1956) An Inductive Inference Machine Archived 26 April 2011 at
the Wayback Machine A privately circulated report from the 1956 Dartmouth Summer
Research Conference on AI.
 Witten, Ian H. & Frank, Eibe (2011). Data Mining: Practical machine learning tools and
techniques Morgan Kaufmann, 664pp., ISBN 978-0-12-374856-0.

External links
[edit]

 International Machine Learning Society

 mloss is an academic database of open-source machine learning software.
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