International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control 15 (2013) 174–185

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijggc

Review

Pipeline transport of CO2 mixtures: Models for transient simulation

P. Aursand, M. Hammer, S.T. Munkejord ∗ , Ø. Wilhelmsen
SINTEF Energy Research, P.O. Box 4761 Sluppen, NO-7465 Trondheim, Norway

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper reviews current research challenges related to the modelling of transient flow of multiphase
Received 24 October 2012 CO2 -rich mixtures in pipes. This is relevant not only for events like start-up, shutdown or planned or
Received in revised form 8 February 2013 uncontrolled depressurization of pipelines, but also for normal operation, and therefore needs to be
Accepted 18 February 2013
taken into account by simulation tools employed for design and operation of CO2 pipelines. During trans-
Available online 26 March 2013
portation, CO2 will often be in a dense liquid phase, whereas e.g. natural gas is in a dense gaseous phase.
This requires special attention to depressurization and the possible propagation of cracks. In addition, we
Keywords:
highlight and illustrate research challenges related to thermodynamics, and the modelling of the wave-
CO2 transport
Fluid dynamics
propagation velocity (speed of sound) for two-phase flows. Further, some relevant currently available
Thermodynamics simulation tools, and their applicability to CO2 transport, are briefly discussed.
Non-equilibrium © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Depressurization
Crack propagation

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
2. Averaged 1D models for pipeline flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
2.1. The two-fluid model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
2.2. The drift-flux model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
2.3. Wave speeds in multifluid models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
2.3.1. Non-equilibrium fluid-dynamical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3. Closure relations and thermophysical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.1. Closure relations for CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.2. Thermophysical models for pure CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.3. Thermophysical models for CO2 mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.4. Implementation in fluid-dynamic pipeline models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.5. Hydrate formation, solid CO2 and non-equilibrium effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4. Flow through valves and cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.1. Running ductile fractures in CO2 pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
4.2. Depressurization through valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5. Available simulation tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.1. OLGA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.2. LedaFlow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.3. TACITE/PIPEPHASE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.4. PipeTech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +47 73593897; fax: +47 73592889.

E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (S.T. Munkejord).

1750-5836/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijggc.2013.02.012
 P. Aursand et al. / International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control 15 (2013) 174–185 175

1. Introduction Table 1
Natural gas composition (Aihara and Misawa, 2010).

CO2 capture and storage (CCS) is considered one of the most Component (mol%)
important technologies for reducing the world’s emission of green- CH4 88.9
house gases. In the International Energy Agency’s two-degree C2 H6 6.2
scenario (2DS), CCS will contribute to reducing the global CO2 emis- C3 H8 2.5
sions by about seven gigatonnes per year in 2050 (IEA, 2012). This is iC4 H10 0.4
nC4 H10 0.6
a much larger amount than what is transported in pipelines today
iC5 H12 0.1
for enhanced oil and gas recovery purposes (about 50 megatonnes nC5 H12 0.1
per year in the USA, US DOE, 2010), and a major part will be trans- nC6 H14 0.1
ported in high-pressure pipelines. Therefore, existing knowledge N2 0.3
CO2 1.0
on models and simulation tools for multiphase flow of CO2 with
relevant impurities should be further developed to help improve
safety and cost-efficiency.
Multiphase flow modelling has been an active field of research There are, however, significant gaps in knowledge when it comes to
for the last half century (Slattery, 1967; Ishii, 1975; Drew, 1983; CO2 with impurities. Furthermore, in pipeline transport of CO2 , it is
Drew and Passman, 1999; Ellul et al., 2004; Ellul, 2010). This devel- of interest to predict the minimum water content where hydrates
opment has mainly been driven by the energy sector. In the nuclear form at a specified pressure, temperature and composition, both for
industry, two-phase flow is important in reactor cooling systems. economical and safety reasons (Sloan and Koh, 2008). It is known
Herein, the RELAP model developed by the US Nuclear Regulatory that even small amounts of impurities can change the equilibrium
Commission has become the standard tool for simulating transients water content at which hydrates are formed (Song and Kobayashi,
and accidents in water-cooled reactors (Allison and Hohorst, 2010). 1987; Song and Kobayash, 1990). In case of impurities like water
In the petroleum industry, there has been a need for pipeline mod- and hydrogen sulphide it is also possible to have multiple liquid
els enabling safe and cost-efficient transport of oil and gas. This phases.
research has led to models and tools for dynamic pipeline simu- When considering tools for simulating multiphase pipe trans-
lation of three-phase (oil–gas–water) mixtures (Bendiksen et al., port, one should distinguish between steady state and transient
1991; Pauchon et al., 1994; Larsen et al., 1997; Danielson et al., (time dependent) models. Under normal operation, one scenario
2011). An example of such a tool is the dynamic multiphase flow for pipeline transport is CO2 in a dense or liquid state, since this is
simulator OLGA (Bendiksen et al., 1991), which has become indus- the most energy-efficient condition (Zhang et al., 2006; Jung and
try standard for such applications. Nicot, 2010). For this case, pressure-drop predictions for single-
There are a number of specific challenges related to CO2 trans- phase flow are believed to be satisfactory with the well known
port that makes it, from a modelling point of view, different from correlations for friction factors (see e.g. White, 1994). This is also
the transport of oil and gas. First, the critical point (7.38 MPa at the case for Nusselt number heat-transfer correlations like the
31.1 ◦ C) and triple point (about 518 kPa at −56.6 ◦ C) are different. Dittus–Boelter equation (see e.g. Bejan, 1993, Chapter 6). Under
This is illustrated in Fig. 1, which highlights that CO2 will normally such conditions, steady-state analysis to calculate pressure drop,
be transported in a dense liquid state, whereas natural gas is in a compression work and mass flow might be sufficient for flow assur-
dense gaseous state. Second, CO2 transported in a CCS chain will ance. It should be noted, however, that some sources of CO2 , such
in general not be pure (de Visser et al., 2008). Depending on the as coal- or gas-fired powerplants, will be fluctuating, since they
fuel source and capture process, CO2 might contain nitrogen, oxy- are operated in response to external demands. This will cause a
gen, water, sulphur oxides, methane and other impurities. This will transient flow of CO2 in the pipeline, and moreover, due to the
introduce considerable modelling challenges since the presence of fluctuating mass flow, the pressure will change, and the state in
even minute quantities of impurities may significantly affect the the pipeline may change between single- and two-phase (Klinkby
thermodynamic and transport properties of the mixture (Li et al., et al., 2011).
2011a,b). The equation of state by Span and Wagner (1996) (SW There are also other transient events, related to start-up, shut-
EOS) is commonly considered to be the reference for pure CO2 . down and accidents for which the steady-state methodology will be

1000 12
Solid Phase envelope
Isentropic path
100 10 Critical point

Liquid
Pressure(MPa)

8
Pressure(MPa)

10

6
1
4
Vapour
0.1
2
Isentropic path
0.01 0
180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 200 220 240 260 280 300
Temperature(K) Temperature(K)
(a) Pure CO2 (b) Natural gas

Fig. 1. Isentropic depressurization from p = 12 MPa, T = 293 K. CO2 is in a dense liquid state until it reaches the saturation line and then the triple point, whereas the natural
gas is in a dense gaseous state until it reaches the two-phase area. The Span–Wagner EOS has been used for CO2 and the Peng–Robinson EOS for natural gas. The natural gas
composition is given in Table 1.
176 P. Aursand et al. / International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control 15 (2013) 174–185

inadequate. One example is pipe depressurization, either acciden- review some common commercially available tools for simulating
tal or as a part of planned maintenance. The decompression wave transient multiphase flow in pipelines, and discuss their applicabil-
associated with such an event will cause the initially dense or liq- ity to CO2 transport. Section 6 concludes the paper and highlights
uid CO2 to undergo phase change. The subsequent cooling might topics in which more research is needed.
render the pipe material, and any coatings, brittle and vulnera-
ble to cracks. Also, CO2 has a relatively high triple-point pressure,
2. Averaged 1D models for pipeline flow
which means that dry-ice might form during such a depressuriza-
tion event (Jäger and Span, 2012; Trusler, 2011, 2012). Accurate
It is not uncommon to state that two-phase flow should be
predictions of the velocity and magnitude of the depressurization
avoided in CO2 pipelines (see e.g. Race et al., 2007). However,
and cooling is therefore crucial for assuring safe and reliable oper-
this requirement may not always be realistic. Klinkby et al. (2011)
ation of a CCS pipeline.
performed a modelling study of the CO2 transport chain from a coal-
In a transport model, depressurization waves will propagate
fired power plant, including injection into a reservoir. Due to the
at the speed of sound of the mixture. In order to accurately
transient operation of the power plant, the CO2 supply will vary. As
resolve transient events, it is therefore essential to model the speed
a result of this, Klinkby et al. found that the CO2 will change phase
of sound in a physically reasonable way. The multiphase speed
from dense phase to two-phase gas and liquid in the upper part of
of sound is, however, very sensitive to various physical equilib-
the well and in the pipeline. It is also interesting to note that two-
rium assumptions (Flåtten and Lund, 2011). Also, the presence
phase conditions have been documented in a demonstration well
of impurities will affect the propagation velocities of the model
at the Ketzin site in Germany (Henninges et al., 2011). There are
(Munkejord et al., 2010). Even in a pure single-phase case, CO2
also indications of two-phase flow at the wellhead at the Sleipner
mixtures from different capture technologies will give different
field in the North Sea (Munkejord et al., 2012). In addition to this,
dynamic behaviour during pipeline transport. This includes com-
phase change will occur during situations like first fill and depres-
pressor power and hence fuel consumption (Chaczykowski and
surization. This motivates the study of transient multi-phase flow
Osiadacz, 2012).
of CO2 -rich mixtures.
Widespread implementation of CCS will in some cases require
In this section we discuss some of the most common formula-
onshore CO2 transport pipelines running through populated areas.
tions of the governing dynamics of multi-phase pipeline flow. Note
This may require strict safety guidelines due to the pipeline pres-
that most of these topics will be generic with regard to the trans-
sure and since CO2 is toxic at high concentrations. Developing
ported medium and impurities. Issues specific to CO2 transport will
such guidelines will require accurate models for predicting both
be most apparent when introducing equations of state and closure
the occurrence and evolution of pipeline cracks (Nordhagen et al.,
relations for the averaged model, which will be the topic of the
2012). Pipelines can then be designed specifically to avoid the
subsequent sections.
significant hazards and financial costs associated with the forma-
tion of a running ductile fracture – while reducing the need for
safety factors. Existing models for predicting cracks in pipes are 2.1. The two-fluid model
semi-empirically based and were mainly developed for natural gas
transport. Such models will need re-calibration when applied to For a real-scale pipeline, fully resolving the governing equa-
CO2 with impurities transported in pipes made of modern steel tions of the multiphase flow is computationally intractable. The
materials. usual way to get around this problem is to consider averaged mod-
It should be emphasized that the accuracy of a simulation els (see e.g. Drew and Passman, 1999). For a pipeline, a commonly
depends not only on the accuracy of the physical model, but also on used approach is to consider transport equations for mass, momen-
the ability of the numerical scheme to correctly resolve the under- tum and energy averaged across the cross section of the pipe.
lying model. It has been shown that numerical diffusion associated For two-phase flow, the resulting 1D model takes a form often
with certain numerical methods can adversely affect the resolution referred to as the two-fluid model. A common formulation is given
of a depressurization wave in a pipeline (Clausen and Munkejord, by
2012; Morin et al., 2009). This is, however, outside the scope of this
paper. Conservation of mass:
Race et al. (2007) reviewed key technical challenges for anthro-
pogenic CO2 offshore pipeline transport. Fracture propagation and
∂ ∂
transient flow were mentioned among the subjects requiring fur- (g ˛g ) + (g ˛g ug ) = , (1)
ther attention. The purpose of this paper is to review the challenges ∂t ∂x
which should be addressed in the development of models and tools ∂ ∂
for transient simulation of pipeline flow of CO2 . It should be noted ( ˛ ) + ( ˛ u ) = −. (2)
∂t ∂x
that the subject of this article is composed of several research
areas, each with their abundant literature. This is a reflection of
Conservation of momentum:
the fact that the problem at hand is multifaceted. In particular,
in this article, we will focus on leaks and crack propagation as
highly relevant examples of transient events for which currently
∂ ∂ ∂˛g
available models may not be sufficient for the application to CO2 (g ˛g ug ) + (g ˛g u2g + ˛g pg ) − pi
transport. ∂t ∂x ∂x
The outline of this paper is as follows: in Section 2 we discuss = g ˛g fx − Mw,g − M i + ui , (3)
the most common approaches for modelling multiphase flow in
pipelines. Section 3 is devoted to the modelling of closure relations,
thermodynamics and transport properties of CO2 mixtures, as well
as issues associated with the formation of hydrates. In Section 4 we ∂ ∂ ∂˛
( ˛ u ) + ( ˛ u2 + ˛ p ) − pi
consider the modelling of leaks and crack propagation in pipelines. ∂t ∂x ∂x
Different scenarios where such modelling is essential as well as =  ˛ fx − Mw, + M i − ui . (4)
specific challenges related to CO2 are discussed. In Section 5 we
 P. Aursand et al. / International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control 15 (2013) 174–185 177

Conservation of energy: Conservation of energy:

     
∂ ∂ pg ∂˛g ∂ ∂ p
(g ˛g Eg +  ˛ E ) + g ˛g ug Eg +
(g ˛g Eg ) + g ˛g ug Eg + + pi ui ∂t ∂x g
∂t ∂x g ∂x
  p

= g ˛g ug fx + Qw,g − Q i − uiM M i + E i , (5) +  ˛ u E + = (g ˛g ug +  ˛ u )fx + Qw . (11)

Besides being simpler and in conservation form, the drift-flux
∂ ∂
  p
 ∂˛
model also, as discussed by Munkejord (2005), has some advan-
( ˛ E ) +  ˛ u E + + pi ui tages over the two-fluid model when it comes to stability and
∂t ∂x  ∂x well-posedness. However, it may not be appropriate to model all
=  ˛ u fx + Qw, + Q i + uiM M i − E i , (6) relevant flow regimes with a slip relation of the form (7). The drift-
flux model (8)–(11) with the additional assumptions of no slip
where the nomenclature is as follows: ˛k is the volume fraction of (ug = u ) and equal chemical potential in the two phases is often
phase k; k is the mass density of phase k; uk is the velocity of phase referred to as the homogeneous equilibrium model.
k; pk is the pressure of phase k; Ek is the energy density for fluid For two-phase mixtures, the composition of the gas and the liq-
k, Ek = ek + 1/2 u2k ; Qk is the heat source for phase k; and fx is the uid will in general differ. Hence, if there is slip between the phases,
x-component of the body force. the flow model needs to include a mass-conservation equation for
In the cross-section averaged description above, the model each component.
does not contain information about the internal moving interfaces
between the phases. Also, any information on local gradients along 2.3. Wave speeds in multifluid models
the cross section of the pipe is lost in the averaging procedure.
Closure relations are thus needed to model the source terms rep- When studying transient events in CO2 pipelines, the speed with
resenting transfer of heat, Q, mass,  , and momentum, M, between which disturbances propagate along the pipe is an important factor.
the fields (denoted by the index i) and between the fields and the In any fluid, pressure waves travel at the speed of sound relative to
pipe wall (denoted by the subscript w). In general, these closure the local velocity. It is therefore essential to include a realistic speed
relations will depend on the detailed description of the flow, and of sound to be able to correctly simulate many transient events in
they cannot be derived from first principles based on averaged pipes.
quantities (Stewart and Wendroff, 1984). The modelling of such For the basic two-fluid model (1)–(6), the eigenvalues of the
terms is further discussed in Section 3. flux Jacobian are not guaranteed to be real (Gidaspow, 1974).
When this occurs, the equation system is no longer hyperbolic,
2.2. The drift-flux model which causes problems related to stability and well-posedness
(Stuhmiller, 1977). To remedy this, regularization terms are often
In multiphase pipe flow, there are flow regimes where the veloc- introduced, forcing the eigenvalues to be real. In the opposite case,
ities of the individual phases are highly correlated. For two-phase robustness issues are typically encountered, unless the solver has
flow, the relative velocity between the phases can be expressed as a high-enough numerical smearing.
a slip relation
2.3.1. Non-equilibrium fluid-dynamical models
u1 − u2 = ˚(˛1 , p, T, u1 ), (7) In general, the wave speeds of a set of conservation laws are
also influenced by various source terms. Local source terms will
see the work of e.g. Zuber and Findlay (1965), Ishii (1977) and Hibiki not influence the characteristics of the system but will introduce
and Ishii (2002). dispersion, i.e. wave-number dependent sound velocities (Aursand
A slip relation in the form (7) can be used to reduce the com- and Flåtten, 2012).
plexity of the two-fluid model (1)–(6). In particular, if the pressures Relaxation terms represent a class of local source terms that
in both phases are assumed to be equal, p1 = p2 = p, the momen- are of particular relevance to multiphase flow modelling (Baer
tum equations (3) and (4) can be combined into a single mixture and Nunziato, 1986; Saurel et al., 2008; Flåtten and Lund, 2011).
momentum equation. Likewise, with the assumption of equal pha- Chemical, thermal and mechanical non-equilibrium are examples
sic temperatures, T1 = T2 = T, the energy equations (5) and (6) can of processes that can be described with relaxation terms. A hyper-
also be combined. The resulting drift-flux model is given by bolic relaxation model can be written in the form
∂ ∂ 1
Conservation of mass: Q+ F(Q ) = R(Q ), (12)
∂t ∂x ε

∂ ∂ where R( Q ) is a relaxation term representing the driving-force

(g ˛g ) + (g ˛g ug ) = , (8) pulling the system towards local equilibrium, characterized by
∂t ∂x
R( Q ) = 0. The relaxation time ε can be seen as a characteristic time
∂ ∂ scale of the relaxation process.
( ˛ ) + ( ˛ u ) = −. (9)
∂t ∂x For a given relaxation process there is a corresponding local
equilibrium approximation. The characteristic velocities of the
Conservation of momentum: equilibrium model are in general different from those of the relax-
ation model. Flåtten and Lund (2011) analysed two-phase drift-flux
models with and without thermal, mechanical and chemical equi-
∂ ∂ librium. They showed that imposing equilibrium will always reduce
((g ˛g ug +  ˛ u ) + (g ˛g u2g +  ˛ u2 + p)
∂t ∂x the speed of sound for such models, i.e. the characteristic velocities
= (g ˛g +  ˛ )fx − Mw . (10) of the local equilibrium model are smaller than those of the non-
equilibrium (relaxation) model. In general, this concept is known
178 P. Aursand et al. / International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control 15 (2013) 174–185

350 compositions, as a function of the variables of the fluid-dynamic

chem transport model.
ctf,μ g = μ
300 ctf
cg 3.1. Closure relations for CO2
Speed of sound (m/s)

250
c
While the field of multiphase flow modelling is mature, there
exists no general way of modelling closures valid for all fluids. Flow
200
maps and correlations must be validated, adjusted or developed for
each new working fluid or composition of fluids. This presents one
150 of the main challenges in the modelling of CO2 flow in pipelines.
Existing correlations and models used by research and industry
100 for oil–gas–water mixtures cannot necessarily be assumed to be
valid for CO2 with impurities. These models need to be adapted to
50
these new applications, a process needing experimental input for
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 validation.
For CO2 , there exist flow maps and pressure-drop measure-
α g (-)
ments for tubes and channels with a hydraulic diameter in the
Fig. 2. Speed of sound of pure CO2 in the gas–liquid two-phase area as a function millimetre range. Most of them are developed for heat exchanger
of gas volume fraction for various two-phase flow models. T = 250 K, SW EOS. ‘hem’ applications (see e.g. Bredesen et al., 1997; Pettersen, 2002; Yun
denotes the homogeneous equilibrium model, ‘tf’ denotes the two-fluid model with and Kim, 2003; Cheng et al., 2008).
no phase change and no slip, ‘tf g =  ’ is the two-fluid model with full chemical Aakenes (2012) compared experimental data for frictional
equilibrium and no slip, ‘g’ is gas and ‘’ is liquid.
pressure-drop for steady-state two-phase flow of pure CO2 (see
also de Koeijer et al., 2011) to data calculated using the model of
Friedel (1979) and that of Cheng et al. (2008). Although the latter
as the sub-characteristic condition and is closely related to the sta-
was developed specifically for CO2 , the former fitted the data better,
bility and well-posedness of the model (Chen et al., 1994).
most likely to its broader experimental base.
In the modelling of multiphase flow, the assumption of ther-
Since the existing small-scale data may not be representative
mal, mechanical or chemical equilibrium is ubiquitous. While these
for real pipelines, there is a need for medium and large-scale data.
assumptions often simplify the model in question, it is important to
Presently, there exist some initiatives towards this end, such as
be aware that they will directly influence the wave dynamics of the
the OXYCFB300 Compostilla Project (CIUDEN, 2012) and the mul-
model. For example, assuming chemical, thermal and mechanical
tiphase CO2 lab at the Institute for Energy Technology (IFE) (SPT
equilibrium may lead to a significant underestimation of the rate of
Group, 2012).
which disturbances will propagate in a pipeline, compared to a non-
equilibrium model. This is illustrated in Fig. 2, where the speed of
3.2. Thermophysical models for pure CO2
sound of pure CO2 is calculated for different two-phase flow mod-
els as a function of gas volume fraction. The graphs are plotted for a
For pure CO2 , a large amount of experiments have been con-
temperature of T = 250 K using the Span–Wagner equation of state
ducted for thermodynamic properties such as densities, heat
(SW EOS). It can be seen that models with the assumption of full
capacities and liquid–vapour coexisting curves, as well as for trans-
chemical equilibrium (instantaneous phase transfer) have the arti-
port properties. The accurate single-component equation of state
fact of a discontinuous speed of sound in the limit of single-phase
(EOS) by Span and Wagner (1996) is considered the reference EOS
flow. This is not believed to be physical. Further, it can be seen
for pure CO2 . The EOS is valid for temperatures from 216 to 1100 K
from the figure that allowing phase transfer lowers the predicted
and pressures up to 800 MPa, which is more than sufficient for
speed of sound in almost the entire volume-fraction range. This
pipeline transport of CO2 . Accurate models for the viscosity and
highlights how tightly intertwined thermo and fluid dynamics are
the thermal conductivity were developed by Vesovic et al. (1990).
for two-phase flow.
Fenghour and Wakeman (1998) presented an improved viscosity
In Fig. 2, we have plotted analytical expressions for the speed of
model. The resulting overall viscosity model for pure CO2 covers
sound. The speed of sound in the homogeneous equilibrium model
the temperature range of 200–1500 K and pressures up to 300 MPa.
is also referred to as the ‘Wood speed of sound’, and it can e.g. be
found in Martínez Ferrer et al. (2012, eq. (3.7)). The speed of sound
3.3. Thermophysical models for CO2 mixtures
in the two-fluid model with no phase change and no slip can be
found in Martínez Ferrer et al. (2012, eq. (3.74)). Finally, the speed of
For CO2 mixtures relevant for CCS, the amount of available data
sound in the two-fluid model with full chemical equilibrium and no
is more scarce than for single-component CO2 . This is true both
slip can be found in Morin and Flåtten (submitted for publication),
for the thermodynamic properties (Li et al., 2011a; Hu et al., 2007)
see also Morin (2012).
and for the transport properties (Li et al., 2011b). Consequently the
Since decompressions of CO2 will often pass through the triple
development of comprehensive reference models has not yet been
point, it is interesting to note that at the triple point, for full equilib-
possible.
rium, the speed of sound is zero (Henderson, 2000, Section 2.8.1).
Li et al. (2011a) argue in their review that there is no equa-
tion of state which shows any clear advantages in CCS applications.
3. Closure relations and thermophysical models The cubic equations of state have a simple structure and are capa-
ble of giving reasonable results for the thermodynamic properties,
For an averaged multifluid model such as (1)–(6), closure rela- but are inaccurate in the dense phase and around the critical point
tions are needed for terms depending on transversal gradients (Wilhelmsen et al., 2012). More complex equations of state such
and the detailed phase configuration. Since these relations can- as Lee–Kesler (Lee and Kesler, 1975), SAFT (Wertheim, 1984a,b,
not be derived from the same first principles as the averaged flow 1986a,b) and GERG (Kunz et al., 2007) typically give better results
model, they need to be modelled. Moreover, thermodynamic rela- for the density, but not necessarily for the vapour–liquid equilib-
tions are needed for calculating the pressures, temperatures and rium. See also Dauber and Span (2012). Wilhelmsen et al. (2012)
 P. Aursand et al. / International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control 15 (2013) 174–185 179

have recently shown evaluations with the SPUNG EOS (Jørstad, CPA equation, or SRK with Huron–Vidal mixing rules (Austegard
1993). They found that the SPUNG equation represents a good com- et al., 2006). See also Chapoy et al. (2004). Jäger et al. (2013)
promise between accuracy, versatility and computational time-use employed accurate equations of state to predict hydrate formation
for calculations with CO2 mixtures. in pure CO2 with water.
It is well known that the EOS must be equipped with suitable Several commercial codes predict hydrate equilibrium prop-
interaction parameters to give reliable phase-equilibrium predic- erties also for CO2 with impurities. However, without an EOS
tions (Wilhelmsen et al., 2012). These are available for cubic EOS’es tailormade to provide an accurate estimate of the chemical poten-
and several CO2 mixtures (Li and Yan, 2009), but for other EOS’es, tials of water in CO2 mixtures, the results may not be reliable.
regression of new interaction parameters is needed (Wilhelmsen During depressurization events or formation of cracks in pipelines,
et al., 2012). there is a risk of formation of solid CO2 . Zhang (2012) shows mod-
For the viscosities and thermal conductivities of CO2 mixtures, els which are capable of providing accurate predictions of the CO2
the gas phase is well investigated for many impurities. Accu- freeze-out temperature of several CO2 –CH4 mixtures, and exper-
rate models are available in the literature, for instance through imental data are also available for systems with N2 (Argwal and
Chapman–Enskog theory or corresponding-state relations (Reid Laverman, 1974). A comprehensive evaluation solid-phase equilib-
et al., 1987). For the liquid phase, however, no experimental data ria for CO2 mixtures with impurities is currently not available.
are available except for mixtures of CO2 /H2 O/NaCl, which makes Uncertainties in the models should be expected for CO2 -rich mix-
development and validation of models difficult (Li et al., 2011b). tures with other impurities than CH4 and N2 (Zhang, 2012).
One should therefore expect large uncertainties in empirical clo- In fluid-dynamical simulations, it is common to assume
sure relations which rely heavily on the prediction of viscosities or mechanical, thermal and chemical equilibrium between the coex-
thermal conductivities in liquid phase CO2 mixtures. isting phases. Flåtten and Lund (2011) argue that this is insufficient
Currently, some experimental work is being carried out towards in many applications. In dynamic simulations of depressurization
obtaining properties for CO2 mixtures (Sanchez-Vicente et al., of pipelines for instance, the transients in the systems will be so fast
2013; Stang et al., 2012). It should also be noted that pseudo- that the coexisting phases are not in equilibrium. The metastable
experimental data of vapour–liquid equilibrium and transport sections of an equations of state where subcooling or overheat-
properties for CO2 mixtures can be calculated using molecular sim- ing occurs, are well defined mathematically and may be used to
ulations based on Monte Carlo and Molecular Dynamics. CO2 + N2 O a certain extent to account for situations away from equilibrium.
and CO2 + NO are investigated by Lachet et al. (2012). However, the rate at which transfer of heat, mass and momentum
Water is a common impurity in the CO2 stream, which is the key between the phases occurs is not easily described by thermody-
component in several undesired phenomena, such as hydrate for- namics alone, since it is about how the transport across the interface
mation, ice formation and corrosion. The CO2 will have a significant separating the gas and liquid evolves over time. Theories for this are
solubility in the water phase, which changes its properties. In addi- currently being developed (Kjelstrup and Bedeaux, 2008), but these
tion, water and CO2 can form mixtures with more than two phases, theories have yet to be used in existing fluid-dynamical simulations
which necessitates more than two phases in the fluid-dynamical of CO2 transport.
model formulation. Extensive reviews have been presented in the The presence of free water is the principal influence on corrosion
literature on the mutual solubility of water, CO2 and other impuri- rate in pipes (see e.g. Cole et al., 2011). However, since the present
ties (Chapoy et al., 2004; Austegard et al., 2006; Hu et al., 2007). subject is transient effects, this will not be further discussed here.

3.4. Implementation in fluid-dynamic pipeline models

4. Flow through valves and cracks
Equations of state are usually not written in a form suitable for
Simulating transient events related to depressurization or crack
fluid-dynamic simulations. For example, a pressure–temperature
formation in CO2 pipelines requires modelling of multiphase crit-
state function cannot be directly employed in model formulations
ical flow through an orifice. For homogeneous flows, critical flow
of the form presented in Section 2. Rather, a density-energy func-
occurs at the sonic point. By assuming isentropic flow, we can inte-
tion is more appropriate. This necessitates the development of fast
grate the differential relations
and robust numerical algorithms for solution phase-equilibrium
equations with specification of energy and density (Michelsen and d(uA) = 0 (13)
Mollerup, 2007). Giljarhus et al. (2012) studied such a method for
 1 2

the Span–Wagner EOS for pure CO2 . With CO2 containing impuri-
d h+ u =0 (14)
ties, robust and time efficient solution of the phase equilibrium is 2
a considerable challenge (Wilhelmsen, et al., 2013).
ds = 0, (15)
3.5. Hydrate formation, solid CO2 and non-equilibrium effects
along a streamline going through the valve or crack. In the above,
A is the cross-section area, h is the specific enthalpy and s is the
For economic and safety reasons, it is of interest to predict
specific entropy.
the minimum water content where hydrates form at a specified
For multiphase flow, phase transfer needs to be taken into
pressure, temperature and composition (Sloan and Koh, 2008).
account when integrating (13)–(15). Herein, there are two different
The equilibrium of hydrate formation is a well investigated issue
assumption in common use, each representing an extreme case:
for natural gas mixtures, but few data are available for pure CO2
(Tohidi et al., 2010), and even fewer for CO2 mixtures. Song and
Kobayashi (1987) and Song and Kobayashi (1990) show that even Homogeneous equilibrium model The choke flow is assumed to
small amounts of impurities can change the equilibrium water remain in equilibrium. Eqs. (13)–(15) are integrated along a path
content at which hydrates are formed. Reliable prediction of the of chemical equilibrium.
hydrate equilibrium depends on equations of state which are able Frozen model The phase composition is assumed to remain con-
to provide accurate estimates of the chemical potential in CO2 mix- stant through the choke. Eqs. (13)–(15) are integrated along a path
tures with small water concentrations. This is not trivial, and often where the mass fractions are constant and where the chemical
requires tailored EOS’es and interaction parameters, such as the potentials of the phases are not equal.
180 P. Aursand et al. / International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control 15 (2013) 174–185

M the pressure difference through the crack, while the pressure

Frozen in the pipe depends on the rate of escaping mass flow which
again depends on the crack size. The arrest or continued prop-
Henry–Fauske agation of a crack will depend on the difference between the
speed of the depressurization wave in the fluid and the speed of
HEM the crack tip. If the depressurization propagates faster than the
crack, the driving forces maintaining the crack propagation will
vanish and the crack will arrest; if not, the crack might form
a running fracture. The crack arrest length will therefore also
depend on the fluid inside the pipe (Aihara and Misawa, 2010;
∆p Mahgerefteh et al., 2012). This is important because the existing
semi-empirical models for evaluating running fractures in pipes
Fig. 3. Illustration of the two-phase mass-flow rate M through an orifice as a function were mainly developed for natural gas transport. Such models will
of the pressure difference p, for different equilibrium assumptions. need costly recalibration before they can be applied to CO2 trans-
ported in pipes made of modern steel materials (Nordhagen et al.,
2012).
In addition to the two extreme cases described above, there exists a Running ductile fracture in gas-transport pipelines consists
number of empirical correlations in common use (Auria and Vigni, of three main phenomena, namely, the large-scale elasto-plastic
1980). One of the most cited is the Henry–Fauske model (Henry deformation of pipe walls, the three-dimensional nonsteady fluid
and Fauske, 1971), which can be seen as a correction to the frozen dynamics and the inelastic dynamic crack-extension process
approximation. (O’Donoghue et al., 1991). Due to the complexity of these factors,
In general, different assumptions of phase equilibrium will lead and their interaction, there exist relatively few fully coupled models
to different choke pressures, and consequently different mass-flow for the prediction running ductile fracture.
rates. A typical situation is illustrated in Fig. 3. A homogeneous equi- O’Donoghue et al. (1991, 1997) developed a fluid–structure
librium model will give choked flow at a lower pressure difference interaction model in which a three-dimensional finite-difference
than a non-equilibrium model. For many cases the resulting dif- fluid-dynamics code was linked with a shell finite-element code.
ference in predicted mass flow will be significant. The assumption O’Donoghue et al. (1997) considered crack arrestors, which are steel
of phase equilibrium in valves and cracks can therefore strongly rings employed to prevent long running axial cracks. The effect of
influence transient multiphase pipeline simulations. dissipation of plastic work for high-toughness steels was studied by
For multiphase flow, the assumption of homogeneous flow You et al. (2003). Greenshields et al. (2000) investigated fast brittle
though a valve or crack might not be valid. Depending on the flow fracture in plastic pipes, employing a finite-volume discretization
regime, the acceleration of the denser phases might be significantly both for the pipe and the fluid. Herein, the pipe material was rep-
lower than that of the less dense phases. resented in 3D, while the fluid flow was calculated in 1D.
Several authors have considered the behaviour of a gas escaping
4.1. Running ductile fractures in CO2 pipelines through a crack or nozzle, but few have coupled the structural fail-
ure with the fluid behaviour. In the work by Rabczuk et al. (2010), a
For CO2 transport, pipeline crack modelling represents a par- meshfree method for treating fluid–structure interaction of frac-
ticularly relevant example of an application of critical flow. CO2 is turing structures under impulsive loads was described. Terenzi
toxic at high concentrations; predicting the occurrence and evolu- (2005) emphasized that it is necessary to take care of real fluid
tion of cracks is therefore essential for designing and operating a behaviour when analyzing the decompression properties of dense
safe CCS pipeline. For high-pressure pipelines, including CO2 lines natural gas mixtures. It was found that friction hinders crack prop-
(Maxey, 1986), a concern is also the formation of running ductile agation, while condensation promotes it. Mahgerefteh et al. (2006)
fractures. In order to prevent hazardous situations and potentially simulated outflow after rupture in pipeline networks. It was found
significant costs, high-pressure pipelines must be designed both to that bends, branches and couplings could have significant effects on
avoid the formation of cracks and to ensure the quick arrest of any the fluid flow. Cumber (2007) described a methodology for predict-
cracks that might still form. ing outflow from a rupture in a pipeline transporting supercritical
Running ductile fracture is commonly assessed using semi- ethylene. The flow was modelled without solving a full two-phase
empirical methods like the Battelle method (Maxey, 1974). Herein, flow model, but phase change was accounted for.
the fluid decompression and the fracture propagation in the Berstad et al. (2011) and Nordhagen et al. (2012) used a cou-
pipeline are assumed to be uncoupled processes. The fracture veloc- pled material-fluid methodology in order to predict crack arrest
ity is correlated to the fracture energy (e.g. Charpy energy). As long for natural gas and hydrogen. Good agreement with full-scale tests
as the fracture velocity is smaller than the decompression wave (Aihara et al., 2008) was obtained. A similar modelling approach
velocity, crack arrest is assured. In the HLP approach (Sugie et al., was used by Misawa et al. (2010). In an experimental and compu-
1982), the final crack length is also predicted. There exists a large tational study, Yang et al. (2008) found that as the amount of heavier
body of work in the field, see e.g. Ives et al. (1974), Parks and Freund hydrocarbons increased in the natural gas, steels of higher tough-
(1978), Picard and Bishnoi (1988), Leis and Eiber (1998), Makino ness were required. Mahgerefteh et al. (2012) evaluated the effect
et al. (2001), and Hashemi (2009). Recalibration is needed for new of some stream impurities on ductile fractures in CO2 pipelines,
fluids and new material qualities. In particular, for modern steel while Aursand et al. (2012) took into account dry-ice formation in
types with high toughness, the relationship between fracture veloc- pure CO2 . Both of the two latter studies found that CO2 pipelines
ity and Charpy energy is less certain (Leis et al., 2005). Thus it is might be more susceptible to running ductile fracture than natu-
challenging to predict the pressure at which a running fracture will ral gas pipelines. Regarding the validation of these predictions, to
arrest. our knowledge, no experimental data for running fractures in CO2
Although the saturation pressure and arrest pressure are key pipelines have been published, but work is under way, see e.g. Lucci
parameters (Cosham and Eiber, 2008), the evolution of a pipeline et al. (2011). It can therefore be said that the development of cou-
crack is a coupled material-fluid problem (Mahgerefteh and Atti, pled fluid–structure models for crack behaviour in CO2 pipelines is
2006). The fracture speed depends on the forces caused by at an early stage.
 P. Aursand et al. / International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control 15 (2013) 174–185 181

12 depressurization of a 50 km onshore CO2 pipeline and compared

it to a simulation performed using OLGA® . The results showed
10 reasonable agreement for the pressure, while there were signifi-
cant discrepancies in the predicted cooling of the pipe. A similar
8 conclusion was reached by de Koeijer et al. (2011).
Pressure (MPa)

Mahgerefteh et al. (2012) simulated depressurizations of a pipe

6 employing the homogeneous equilibrium model and comparing
with experimental data. It was found that for depressurizations
from the gaseous phase, the addition of impurities lowered the
4
phase transition pressure plateau, as opposed to depressurizations
HEM CO2
Two-Fluid CO2 from the dense phase, where the effect was the opposite.
2
HEM NG
HEM 4% N2
0 5. Available simulation tools
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Decompression velocity (m/s) The industrial relevance of oil and gas transport has lead to the
development of commercial tools for the simulation of pipeline
Fig. 4. Fluid pressure versus decompression velocity for the homogeneous equi- transport. From the point of view of CCS, it is of interest to establish
librium model (HEM) and the two-fluid model with full chemical equilibrium. NG if some of these tools might be applicable and sufficiently accurate
denotes the natural gas from Table 1.
for simulating the transport of CO2 with impurities.
Detailed information on commercial simulation tools is usually
To illustrate the effect of fluid flow modelling and fluid prop- not public information. However, the underlying transport model
erties, we have plotted pressure versus decompression velocity in if often published and can be put in context with the technical top-
Fig. 4. The decompression velocity is the speed of sound minus the ics of this paper. In the following, we consider some of the most
flow velocity (c − u) as the decompression wave travels through a common commercial tools and briefly discuss their potential for
‘long’ pipe. simulating pipeline transport of CO2 .
In the figure, we have plotted the decompression velocity using
the homogeneous equilibrium model for pure CO2 (using the SW 5.1. OLGA
EOS), for CO2 with 4% N2 (using the EOS by Peng and Robinson
(1976) (PR)) and for a natural gas (using the PR EOS with the com- The development of the dynamic two-fluid model OLGA® was
position given in Table 1). The plots have been made for an initial started in the early 80s by Statoil in order to meet the two-phase
state of p = 12 MPa and T = 293 K. In e.g. the Battelle method, sim- modelling challenges specific to pipelines (Bendiksen et al., 1991).
ilar plots are generated, and a curve for the arrest pressure of the The tool has since then been under continuous development sup-
pipe is added. In the left region, the CO2 curves lie above the one ported by the oil industry, and is today considered an industry
for the natural gas. This indicates that CO2 gives a lower decom- standard for such applications.
pression speed in this region, which means that the pipe filled with Today, the standard OLGA tool solves for a three-phase mix-
CO2 may be more vulnerable to running ductile fracture, see e.g. ture of gas, oil and water (Håvelsrud, 2012b). The model contains
Cosham and Eiber (2008) and Aihara and Misawa (2010). It is clear nine conservation equations: Five equations describe conservation
from the figure that the addition of N2 to the CO2 stream aggravates of mass in the bulk of the phases as well as oil droplets immersed
the situation. in gas and gas bubbles immersed in oil. There are three momen-
Fig. 4 also shows a curve calculated using the two-fluid model tum equations and one mixture energy equation. Standard OLGA
with full chemical equilibrium. In contrast to the case in Fig. 2, here, can handle impurities through externally supplied thermodynamic
there is slip between the phases. Hence the decompression speed data tables. In this case, the phase envelope must be sufficiently
has been calculated numerically. For cases like the emptying of a wide.
pipe, it is quite clear that the assumption of slip or no slip has a A recent addition to OLGA which makes it more suitable for CO2
large influence. On the other hand, the present plot indicates that transport is the single-component two-phase module (Håvelsrud,
for the fast process of crack propagation, the slip modelling may 2012a). This model contains six conservation equations: Three
be of less importance. However, it is interesting to note that in this equations describe conservation of mass. There are two momen-
case, the homogeneous equilibrium model would prescribe a more tum equations and one mixture energy equation. For pure CO2 ,
conservative design than would the two-fluid model. the Span–Wagner equation of state is used. At present, single-
component OLGA cannot take the presence of impurities in CO2
4.2. Depressurization through valves into account. Future versions might, however, have this capability.
The formation of dry-ice is also not supported.
For planned maintenance, or in case of emergency shutdown, a
CO2 pipeline might need to be quickly depressurized through one 5.2. LedaFlow
or more valves. If this depressurization is performed too fast, the
pipeline might be cooled to the point where the material becomes LedaFlow® is a transient multiphase flow simulation tool devel-
brittle and cracks might occur. Moreover, if the CO2 reaches it triple oped in the early 2000s by Total, ConocoPhilips and SINTEF. Today,
point (518 kPa and −56.6 ◦ C) dry ice will be formed, potentially it is being further developed for the commercial market by Kongs-
causing blockages. berg Oil & Gas Technologies.
The development of reliable simulation tools requires vali- The LedaFlow model is mainly developed for three-phase
dation of models using experimental data. There is, however, a oil–gas–water mixtures, and the basic model solves 15 trans-
limited amount of publicly available experimental data for the port equations for nine fluids (Danielson et al., 2011; Johansen,
depressurization of CO2 pipelines. As a consequence, there is also 2012): Nine mass equations govern the conservation of the mass
a limited amount of work along the lines of validating standard in the bulk phases as well as immersed droplets and bubbles
models for such applications. Clausen et al. (2012) considered the in each. Also, three momentum and energy equations are used.
182 P. Aursand et al. / International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control 15 (2013) 174–185

For thermodynamics, the model uses the SRK and Peng–Robinson speed in the pipe material. In two- or multiphase flow, the wave-
equations of state. propagation speed (speed of sound) is not a purely thermodynamic
While the standard LedaFlow described above applies to function, but it is also a function of the flow topology. In particular,
oil–gas–water mixtures, the framework and formulation is gener- the predicted two-phase speed of sound is a function of the assump-
ally applicable for multiphase flow, and can in principle be applied tions regarding equilibrium in velocity, pressure, temperature and
to CO2 transport. This, however, requires the implementation of chemical potential. It should be noted that the common assumption
closure relations relevant to CO2 and the relevant impurities. of full equilibrium gives a discontinuous speed of sound in the limit
of single-phase flow. Experimental data for the two-phase wave-
5.3. TACITE/PIPEPHASE propagation speed of relevant CO2 mixtures would be useful not
only for model validation, but also to gain insight into the appli-
TACITE is a transient multicomponent, multiphase flow sim- cability of different mathematical formulations of two-phase flow
ulation tool developed by Elf Aquitaine/Total in the early 1990s. models, such as the homogeneous equilibrium model versus the
The tool has been developed mainly for simulating natural gas two-fluid model, etc.
transport. TACITE is currently licensed as an add-on module to The thermodynamic properties of pure CO2 at equilibrium are
PIPEPHASE (Cos, 2012). well described e.g. using the Span–Wagner reference EOS. Similar
The underlying multifluid model of TACITE is described by reference EOS’es for CCS-relevant impurities are under develop-
Pauchon et al. (1994). It is a drift-flux model with one mass- ment. Further insight into the proper modelling of departure from
conservation equation for each phase, one mixture momentum thermodynamic equilibrium is needed in order to avoid such non-
conservation equation and one mixture energy conservation equa- physical model features as a discontinuous speed of sound at phase
tion. In addition, the model contains a flow-regime dependent boundaries.
closure law governing the momentum exchange between phases. The gas and liquid in a CO2 mixture will in general have different
For thermodynamics, TACITE uses tabulated values for the fluid compositions. In addition, the gas and liquid are likely to have dif-
properties as a function of pressure and temperature. ferent velocities during a depressurization. Therefore, flow models
While the basic formulation of the model in TACITE is quite gen- intended to describe depressurization of CO2 mixtures will need to
eral, it uses closure relations and thermodynamics based of flow include component tracking.
regimes and tabulated properties. TACITE considers eight types In some cases, the amount of impurities will be small. There-
of flow regimes: Single-phase liquid, dispersed, slug, annular dis- fore, the flow models should also be able to handle the situation
persed, stratified smooth, stratified wavy, annular and single-phase when a phase envelope turns into a line for a vanishing fraction of
gas. The characterization of – and transition between – these flow impurities.
regimes is highly dependent on the fluid. The models of TACITE Due to the high triple-point pressure of CO2 (518 kPa), models
have been developed and validated for natural gas transport, and intended to accurately simulate depressurization down to atmo-
their validity to CO2 is not clear. spheric pressure will need to take into account the formation of
dry ice.
Some commonly used commercial tools for simulating tran-
5.4. PipeTech sient multiphase pipeline transport have been screened. The tools
available today have been developed for natural gas transport. The
PipeTech is a transient multicomponent simulation tool devel- multifluid transport models used in such tools can in principle be
oped and maintained by professor Haroun Mahgerefteh at generalized to model any liquid with impurities. However, the clo-
Interglobe ltd. The main focus of PipeTech is the simulation of sure terms that are employed are often based on empirical models
transient behaviour related to accidental depressurization and highly adapted to the original oil–gas–water application.
catastrophic failure of pipelines. The tool is used by the petroleum
industry for safety assessment.
Acknowledgements
The PipeTech model employs the homogeneous equilibrium
formulation of the transport equations (Mahgerefteh and Atti,
This publication has been produced with support from the
2006; Mahgerefteh et al., 2011). It solves one mass equation, one
NORDICCS Centre, performed under the Top-level Research Ini-
momentum equation and one energy equation for the homoge-
tiative CO2 Capture and Storage program, and Nordic Innovation.
neous mixture. A feature of this tool is the ability to model the
The authors acknowledge the following partners for their contrib-
evolution of pipeline cracks via a coupled fluid-fracture model. This
utions: Statoil, Gassco, Norcem, Reykjavik Energy, and the Top-level
enables the study of running ductile fractures.
Research Initiative (Project number 11029).
PipeTech has a thermodynamics module taking account of CO2
We thank Sigmund Clausen (Gassco), Gelein de Koeijer (Statoil)
with impurities (Mahgerefteh et al., 2012).
and our colleagues Michael Drescher, Tore Flåtten, Jana P. Jakob-
sen, Alexandre Morin, Geir Skaugen and Jacob Stang for fruitful
6. Conclusion discussions.

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