Computer Fundamental and Troubleshooting

Computer Fundamental and

Troubleshooting
Syllabus
Unit I

Introduction to Computer Hardware and Software: Introduction to hardware

peripherals like RAM, ROM, keyboard, Mouse, processors, etc. Generation of
processors.Introduction to software.Types of software (MS office, VLC media player,
Win rar) etc.Working of SMPS.Study of various ports. Steps and precautions to
assemble computer. Study of different types of Motherboards, Motherboard
Configuration, Identifying Internal and External connectors, Types of data cables,
Types of Processor

Unit II
Assembly of Computer, Diagnostic and Troubleshooting of PC: Steps and
precautions to assemble PC,POST (Power on Self-Test), identifying problems by
Beep codes errors, checking power supply using Multi-meter, Replacement of
components etc. CMOS, Study of BIOS Set-up- Advance set-up, Boot configuration,
Boot Menu, Test Sequence, Error Messages, Troubleshooting Procedures and
Preventative Maintenance, Troubleshooting Tools and Diagnostic software, device
drivers
Unit III
Introduction to computer network: Study of various networking devices. Study of
various topologies. Study of various computer networks and network configuration
commands

Unit IV
Operating System and Software Installations: Introduction to operating system.
Types of operating system (Windows and Linux).Window:- Evolution of operating
system. Linux: - Evolution of operating system. Introduction to software, Types of
software (open office, web browser, etc.) .Case study of Installations step for
operating system and application software. Formatting of Hard disk, Partitioning of
Hard disk in different logical drives. Disk structure: Cylinders, heads, platters, tracks
and sectors, Disk defragmentation, Disk clean up, Scan disk etc.

Unit- V
Internet & Cyber Security: Introduction and evolution of internet. Structure of
Internet. Different Internet Study of various internet-based services like Email, Social
network etc. Introduction to cyber Security and Cyber Laws

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UNIT-I
 Introduction to Computer Hardware
What is Computer Hardware?

Computer hardware is a physical device of computers that we can see and touch. For
e.g. Monitor, Central Processing Unit, Mouse, Joystick, etc. Using these devices, we
can control computer operations like input and output.
Computer Hardware Parts
These hardware components are further divided into the following categories, which
are:
1. Input Devices
2. Output Devices
3. Storage Devices
4. Internal Components

 Keyboard
It is the most common and main input device for computers. The data is inputted
by typing on the keyboard. It consists of 104 keys in total. It contains numeric
keys, alphabet keys, and different function keys as well. Earlier, it was connected
to the computer via cable, now as technology has advanced, you can connect a
keyboard using Bluetooth.
 Mouse

A mouse is a kind of pointing device which is rolled over to control the cursor on
the screen and it has functional keys like left, middle, and right buttons. Using these
functional keys, on by the click of which an object is selected or to open a file by
just a click of a mouse. It also consists of a sensor inside which notifies its speed to
the computer and according to which the cursor is moved on the screen
 RAM (Random Access Memory)

It is also known as temporary or volatile memory. It holds the program and data,
which are currently in process or processing. All the data is erased as soon as the
computer is turned off or in case of a power failure. Data stored in this memory can
be changed.
There are two types of RAM:-
1. SRAM (Static RAM): SRAM basically consists of a flip-flop using a transistor
or MOSFET (MOS). It is fast and has less access time. In this refreshing circuits
are not required. But it is costly and requires more space. For e.g. cache memory.
2. DRAM (Dynamic RAM): DRAM consists of capacitors and the data is stored in
the form of capacitors. Capacitors charge when data is 1 and don’t charge if data
is 0. It requires refreshing circuits, as leakage of current in the capacitor can

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occur, so they need to be refreshed to the data. It is slower and has a higher
access time. It is cheaper in comparison with SRAM. For e.g. Main memory.

 ROM (Read Only Memory)

ROM stands for Read-Only Memory. It is a non-volatile memory that is used to

store important information which is used to operate the system. As its name refers
to read-only memory, we can only read the programs and data stored on it. The
information stored in the ROM in binary format. It is also known as permanent
memory.
Features of ROM (Read-Only Memory)
 ROM is a non-volatile memory.
 Information stored in ROM is permanent.
 Information and programs stored on it, we can only read and cannot modified.
 Information and programs are stored on ROM in binary format.
 It is used in the start-up process of the computer.
Types of Read-Only Memory (ROM)
Now we will discuss the types of ROM one by one:
1. MROM (Masked read-only memory): We know that ROM is as old as
semiconductor technology. MROM was the very first ROM that consists of a grid
of word lines and bit lines joined together transistor switches. This type of ROM
data is physically encoded in the circuit and only be programmed during
fabrication. It was not so expensive.
2. PROM (Programmable read-only memory): PROM is a form of digital memory. In
this type of ROM, each bit is locked by a fuse or anti-fuse. The data stored in it
are permanently stored and can not be changed or erasable. It is used in low-level
programs such as firmware or microcode.
3. EPROM (Erasable programmable read-only memory): EPROM also called EROM, is
a type of PROM but it can be reprogrammed. The data stored in EPROM can be
erased and reprogrammed again by ultraviolet light. Reprogrammed of it is
limited. Before the era of EEPROM and flash memory, EPROM was used in
microcontrollers.
4. EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory): As its name refers,
it can be programmed and erased electrically. The data and program of this ROM
can be erased and programmed about ten thousand times. The duration of erasing
and programming of the EEPROM is near about 4ms to 10ms. It is used in
microcontrollers and remote keyless systems.
Advantages of ROM
 It is cheaper than RAM and it is non-volatile memory.
 It is more reliable as compared to RAM.
 Its circuit is simple as compared to RAM.
 It doesn’t need refreshing time because it is static.
 It is easy to test.
Disadvantages of ROM
 It is a read-only memory, so it cannot be modified.
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 It is slower as compared to RAM.

 Processor

The processor also known as CPU is a piece of hardware. It is often referred to as

the “Brain of a PC” because all the computations and processing are carried out
directly or indirectly by the processor containing millions of transistors. It is a single
chip that is capable of processing data. In fact, the performance, capability, and
pricing of a computer system are largely determined by the processor to present in it.
It controls all the components in a PC.
The primary functions of a processor are:
1. Fetch
Every instruction has its own address and is stored in the main memory. The
CPU fetches the address of the instruction which is to be executed from the
program counter in the memory and performs the instruction.

2. Decode
The instruction that is to be executed is converted into binary code so that the
computer can easily understand it and perform the required function. The process
of conversion is known as decoding.

3. Execute
The process of performing the required task specified in the instruction is known
as execution . The execution of the instruction takes place in the CPU.

4. Write back
After performing the instruction the CPU store the result in the memory that
process is known as a store or Write back.

Below is the diagram of the Processor

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 Generation of Processors

 First Generation
From 1971 to 1972 the era of the first generation came which brought
microprocessors like INTEL 4004 Rockwell international PPS-4 INTEL
8008 etc.

 Second Generation
The second generation marked the development of 8-bit microprocessors from
1973 to 1978. Processors like INTEL 8085 Motorola 6800 and 6801 etc came
into existence.

 Third Generation
The third generation brought forward the 16-bit processors like INTEL
8086/80186/80286 Motorola 68000 68010 etc. From 1979 to 1980 this
generation used the HMOS technology.

 Fourth Generation
The fourth-generation came into existence from 1981 to 1995. The 32-bit
processors using HMOS fabrication came into existence. INTEL 80386 and
Motorola 68020 are some of the popular processors of this generation.

 Fifth Generation
From 1995 till now we are in the fifth generation. 64-bit processors like
PENTIUM, Celeron, dual, quad, and octa-core processors came into
existence.

 Introduction to Software
What is Software?
In a computer system, the software is basically a set of instructions or commands
that tell a computer what to do. In other words, the software is a computer program
that provides a set of instructions to execute a user’s commands and tell the
computer what to do. For example like MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
 Types of Software

It is a collection of data that is given to the computer to complete a particular task.

The chart below describes the types of software:

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Above is the diagram of types of software. Now we will briefly describe each type
and its subtypes:
1. System Software
 Operating System
 Language Processor
 Device Driver
2. Application Software
 General Purpose Software
 Customize Software
 Utility Software
 System Software
System software is software that directly operates the computer hardware and
provides the basic functionality to the users as well as to the other software to
operate smoothly. Or in other words, system software basically controls a
computer’s internal functioning and also controls hardware devices such as
monitors, printers, and storage devices, etc. It is like an interface between hardware
and user applications, it helps them to communicate with each other because
hardware understands machine language(i.e. 1 or 0) whereas user applications are
work in human-readable languages like English, Hindi, German, etc. so system
software converts the human-readable language into machine language and vice
versa.
 Types of System Software
It has two subtypes which are:
1. Operating System: It is the main program of a computer system. When the
computer system ON it is the first software that loads into the computer’s
memory. Basically, it manages all the resources such as computer
memory, CPU, printer, hard disk, etc., and provides an interface to the user,
which helps the user to interact with the computer system. It also provides
various services to other computer software. Examples of operating systems
are Linux, Apple macOS, Microsoft Windows, etc.

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2. Language Processor: As we know that system software converts the human-
readable language into a machine language and vice versa. So, the conversion is
done by the language processor. It converts programs written in high-
level programming languages like Java, C, C++, Python, etc(known as source
code), into sets of instructions that are easily readable by machines(known as
object code or machine code).
3. Device Driver: A device driver is a program or software that controls a device and
helps that device to perform its functions. Every device like a printer,
mouse, modem, etc. needs a driver to connect with the computer system
eternally. So, when you connect a new device with your computer system, first
you need to install the driver of that device so that your operating system knows
how to control or manage that device.
Features of System Software
Let us discuss some of the features of System Software:
 System Software is closer to the computer system.
 System Software is written in a low-level language in general.
 System software is difficult to design and understand.
 System software is fast in speed(working speed).
 System software is less interactive for the users in comparison to application
software.
Application Software
Software that performs special functions or provides functions that are much more
than the basic operation of the computer is known as application software. Or in
other words, application software is designed to perform a specific task for end-
users. It is a product or a program that is designed only to fulfill end-users’
requirements. It includes word processors, spreadsheets, database management,
inventory, payroll programs, etc.

 Types of Application Software

There are different types of application software and those are:
1. General Purpose Software: This type of application software is used for a variety of
tasks and it is not limited to performing a specific task only. For example, MS-
Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
2. Customized Software: This type of application software is used or designed to
perform specific tasks or functions or designed for specific organizations. For
example, railway reservation system, airline reservation system, invoice
management system, etc.
3. Utility Software: This type of application software is used to support the computer
infrastructure. It is designed to analyze, configure, optimize and maintains the
system, and take care of its requirements as well. For example, antivirus, disk
fragmenter, memory tester, disk repair, disk cleaners, registry cleaners, disk
space analyzer, etc.

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Features of Application Software
Let us discuss some of the features of Application Software:
 An important feature of application software is it performs more specialized tasks
like word processing, spread sheets, email, etc.
 Mostly, the size of the software is big, so it requires more storage space.
 Application software is more interactive for the users, so it is easy to use and
design.
 The application software is easy to design and understand.
 Application software is written in a high-level language in general.

 MS-OFFICE
Microsoft Office is software which was developed by Microsoft in 1988. This Office
suite comprises various applications which form the core of computer usage in
today’s world.Currently, MS Office 2016 version is being used across the world and
all its applications are widely used for personal and professional purposes.
Discussed below are the applications of Microsoft Office along with each of their
functions.

1. MS Word

 First released on October 25, 1983

 Extension for Doc files is “.doc”
 It is useful in creating text documents
 Templates can be created for Professional use with the help of MS Word
 Work Art, colours, images, animations can be added along with the text in the same
file which is downloadable in the form of a document
 Authors can use for writing/ editing their work
To read in detail about Microsoft Word, its features, uses and to get some sample
questions based on this program of Office suite, visit the linked article.

2. MS Excel

 Majorly used for making spreadsheets

 A spreadsheet consists of grids in the form of rows and columns which is easy to
manage and can be used as a replacement for paper
 It is a data processing application
 Large data can easily be managed and saved in tabular format using MS Excel
 Calculations can be done based on the large amount of data entered into the cells of a
spreadsheet within seconds
 File extension, when saved in the computer, is “.xls”

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Also, visit the Microsoft Excel page to get more information regarding this
spreadsheet software and its components.

3. MS PowerPoint

 It was released on April 20, 1987

 Used to create audio visual presentations
 Each presentation is made up of various slides displaying data/ information
 Each slide may contain audio, video, graphics, text, bullet numbering, tables etc.
 The extension for PowerPoint presentations is “.ppt”
 Used majorly for professional usage
 Using PowerPoint, presentations can be made more interactive
In terms of Graphical user interface, using MS PowerPoint, interesting and appealing
presentation and documents can be created. To read more about its features and usage,
candidates can visit the linked article.

4. MS Access

 It was released on November 13, 1992

 It is Database Management Software (DBMS)
 Table, queries, forms and reports can be created on MS Access
 Import and export of data into other formats can be done
 The file extension is “.accdb”
5. MS Outlook

 It was released on January 16, 1997

 It is a personal information management system
 It can be used both as a single-user application or multi-user software
 Its functions also include task managing, calendaring, contact managing, journal
logging and web browsing
 It is the email client of the Office Suite
 The file extension for an Outlook file is “.pst”
6. MS OneNote

 It was released on November 19, 2003

 It is a note-taking application
 When introduced, it was a part of the Office suite only. Later, the developers made it
free, standalone and easily available at play store for android devices
 The notes may include images, text, tables, etc.
 The extension for OneNote files is “.one”

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 It can be used both online and offline and is a multi-user application

 VLC MEDIA PLAYER

VLC media player (previously the VideoLAN Client and commonly known as
simply VLC) is a free and open-source, portable, cross-platform media player
software and streaming media server developed by the VideoLAN project. VLC is
available for desktop operating systems and mobile platforms, such
as Android, iOS and iPadOS. VLC is also available on digital distribution
platforms such as Apple's App Store, Google Play, and Microsoft Store.VLC supports
many audio- and video-compression-methods and file-formats, including DVD-
Video, Video CD, and streaming-protocols. It is able to stream media over computer
networks and can transcode multimedia files.The default distribution of VLC includes
many free decoding and encoding libraries, avoiding the need for finding/calibrating
proprietary plugins.

 WIN RAR
With WinRAR, users can compress or archive multiple electronic files into single and
significantly smaller size folders. With this tool they will save valuable space on their
computer hard drive, USB drive or mobile device and manage their files more
efficiently. Users can also open, extract and manage archived files using WinRAR.
WinRAR is more than just a compressor – its many integrated additional functions
enable users to organize and protect their files from damage or unauthorized use.

 Working of SMPS
A switching regulator is included in an electronic power supply called a switched-
mode power supply (SMPS) to facilitate effective electrical power conversion. An
SMPS converts voltage and current while transferring power to DC loads via a DC
or AC source, just like other suppliers.
 Working Principle of SMPS
Switching regulators are employed in SMPS devices to maintain & regulate the
output voltage by turning on or off the load current. The mean value between on and
off is the appropriate power output for a system. The SMPS reduces depletion
strength because, in contrast to the linear power supply, it carries transistor switches
between low dissipation, full-on as well as full-off phases and spends significantly
fewer seconds in high dissipation cycles.

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 In the initial stage, a rectifier and filter are used to process the AC power that
comes in into DC.
 Because the SMPS operates at high frequencies, the DC signal is processed by a
high-frequency switch to produce a medium-frequency pulsating DC signal.
 A power transformer reduces the high-voltage DC output to the proper level of
DC signal.
 Reversing and filtering the stepped-down DC signal results in a constant steady
DV output.
 To guarantee a constant output stream of the intended voltage, the control
circuitry continuously monitors the generated voltage and modifies the high-
frequency switch.

 Study of Various Ports

A computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information. It processes
the input according to the set of instructions provided to it by the user and gives the
desired output. As we know that we can connect multiple external devices with the
computer system. Now, these devices are connected with the computer using Ports.
The ports are the physical docking points present in the computer through which the
external devices are connected using cables. Or in other words, a port is an interface
between the motherboard and an external device of the computer. There are different
types of ports available:
 Serial port
 Parallel port
 USB port
 PS/2 port
 VGA port
 Modem port
 FireWire Port
 Sockets
 Infrared Port
 Game Port
 Digital Video Interface(DVI) Port
 Ethernet Port

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Now let us discuss these ports one by one:
1. Serial port(COM Port):
A serial port is also called a communication port and they are used for connection of
external devices like a modem, mouse, or keyboard (basically in older PCs). Serial
cables are cheaper to make in comparison to parallel cables and they are easier to
shield from interference. There are two versions of it, which are 9 pin model and 25
pin model. It transmits data at 115 KB/sec.

2. Parallel Port (LPT ports):

Parallel ports are generally used for connecting scanners and printers. It can send
several bits at the same time as it uses parallel communication. Its data transfer
speed is much higher in comparison with the serial port. It is a 25 pin model. It is
also known as Printer Port or Line Printer Port.

3. USB (Universal Serial Bus):

In 1997 USB was first introduced. This can connect all kinds of external USB
devices, like external hard disk, printer, scanner, mouse, keyboard, etc. There are
minimum of two USB Ports provided in most of the computer systems. It is a kind
of new type serial connection Port that is much faster than the old serial Ports and
These USB Ports are much smarter and more versatile, as it allows the “daisy
chaining” of up to 127 USB peripherals connected to one port. The data transfer rate
in this is Data12 megabits per second. It also provides plug & plays communication

4. PS/2 Port:
PS/2 ports are special ports used for connecting old computer keyboard and mouse.
It was invented by IBM. In old computers, there are minimum of two PS/2 Ports,
each for the keyboard and the mouse. It is a 6 pin mini Din connector.

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5. VGA Port:
VGA ports also known as Video Graphic Array connector are those which connect
the monitor to a computer’s video card. VGA port has 15 holes and it is similar to
the serial port connector. But VGA Ports have holes in it and the serial port
connector has pins in it.

6. Sockets:
Microphones and speakers are connected with the help of Sockets to the sound card
of the computer.

7. FireWire Port:
The IEEE 1394 interface, which is developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s by
Apple as FireWire. It can transfer large amount of data at very high speed. It is used
to connect camcorders and video equipment to the computer. It comes up with three
variants which are 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector, and
9-Pin FireWire 800 connector.

8. Infrared Port:
An Infrared(IR) port is used to sends and receives infrared signals from other
devices. It is a kind of wireless type port with a limited range of 5-10ft.

9. Game Port:
These ports are used previously to connect a joystick to a PC. But nowadays it is
replaced by USB ports.
10. Modem Port:
As the name suggests, a Modem port is used to connects a PC’s modem to the
telephone network.

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11. Digital Video Interface(DVI) Port:

DVI Port is used to connects LCD(flat panel) monitor to the computer’s high-end
video graphic cards and it is very popular among video card manufacturers.

12. Ethernet Port:

Ethernet Port helps to connect to a network and high-speed Internet(provided by
LAN or other sources). It connects the network cable to a computer and resides in a
Ethernet card. It provides a data travel speed of 10 Mb to 1000 Mb(megabits) per
second.

 Steps and precautions to assemble computer

Procedure for Computer Assembling
1. Open the Case
The First Step In Assembling A Computer Is To Open The Computer Case. To
Open The Case, First Remove The Screws Of The Left Side Cover And Slide The
Side Cover

2. Install The Power Supply

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The Next Step Is To Install A Power Supply. There Are Usually Four Screws That
Attach The Power Supply To The Case.

3. Attach The Components To Motherboard

The Motherboard Has To Be Prepared Before Its Installation. To Prepare The
Motherboard, You First Need To Install The CPU, Then The Heat Sink On The CPU
And CPU Fan.

A CPU Socket Uses A Series Of Pins To Connect A CPU’s Processor To The Pc’s
Motherboard. If A CPU Is Connected Via A CPU Socket.

Heat sink and fan assembly A Heat Sink And Fan (HSF) Is An Active Cooling
Solution Used To Cool Down Integrated Circuits In Computer Systems, Commonly
The Central Processing Unit (CPU).

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Connect The Assembly Power Cable To The CPU Fan Connector On The
Motherboard.

To Install The RAM First On The Motherboard And Then Fix The Motherboard In
The Case. To Install RAM, First Ensure Its Compatibility With The Motherboard.

4. Install Motherboard
After Preparing The Motherboard, You Can Install In The Computer Case.

5. Install internal drives

The Hard Drive Is The Device Which Stores All The Data. Connect The Power Cable
Coming From The SMPS To The Power Socket Of Hard Disk Drive. Connect SATA
Data Cable From Hard Disk Drive Socket To The Motherboard Socket

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6. Connect all internal cables

Power Cables Are Used To Distribute Electricity From The Power Supply To The
Motherboard And Other Components. Data Cables Transmit Data Between The
Motherboard And Storage Devices, Such As Hard Drives.

7. Install motherboard power connections

The Advanced Technology Extended (ATX) Main Power Connector Will Have Either
20 Or 24 Pins.

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8. Connect external cables to the computer

Connecting Monitor The VGA Cable Is Used To Connect To Monitor.

Connecting Keyboard If It Uses A USB Connector, Plug It Into Any Of The

USB Ports On The Back Of The Computer.

Connecting Headphones Or Speakers, And Microphone Connect The External

Speakers Or Headphones, To Computer’s Audio Port (Either On The Front Or
Back Of The Computer Case).

Connect The Computer To A Power Supply Power Supply Cable Connect Into
The Back Of The Computer Case

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Connecting Printer, Scanner, Webcam

9. Starting the computer

Always Remember That The First Step is To push power Button Of The CPU
Than The Monitor’s. An Operating System Or System Software Like Window Or
Linux Will Start Loading, Now Your Computer Is Ready To Use

Precautions while Assemble the Computer

1. Take off any metal objects on your arms or fingers such as bracelets, rings or
watches. Even if your unit is unplugged, there may still be some remaining
electric charge.

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2. Make sure your hands are completely dry to avoid damaging any mechanical
parts as well as to avoid electrocution.
3. Work in a cool area to avoid perspiration for the same reason as seen in the
previous number
4. Before touching any part within the tower, put your hands against another metal
surface (such as the computer casing) to remove static charge, which may
damage sensitive devices.
5. Prepare a place to keep any screws you may remove. A container or piece of
paper with labels for each part (casing, motherboard, CD drive, etc.) is ideal to
avoid confusion between the similar-looking screws.
6. Handle all parts with care. Place each piece you remove carefully down onto a
stable surface.
7. If a component does not come out easily, do not forcefully remove it. Instead,
check that you are removing it correctly and that no wires or other parts are in
the way.
8. Be careful when holding the motherboard, its underside actually quite pointy
and able to hurt you.
9. Never attempt to remove the power source, a box attached to the side or bottom
of the unit to which all cables are connected.
10.When removing any cables, wires or ribbons, make sure to grasp the wire at the
base or head to keep it from breaking.
11.When removing any cables, wires or ribbons, make sure to grasp the wire at the
base or head to keep it from breaking.
12.Be careful not to drop any small parts (particularly screws) into unreachable
areas such as into the computer fan or disk drive.
13.Take note that the three of the most damaging things to a computer
are moisture (sweat, drinking water), shock (electric or from being dropped)
and dust (any debris from household dust to bits of food).

 Study of Different types of Motherboards

There are many types of motherboard as discussed below
1. Advanced Technology (AT) motherboard
These motherboards have sockets and connectors with six prongs apiece for the
power connections. Users frequently have difficulties when attempting to connect
and use these power connections because it might be challenging to recognise them.
Such motherboards were very popular in the 1980s, and production of them lasted
well into the 2000s.
2. Standard ATX motherboard

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This motherboard comes in 305*244mm (length*breadth) dimensions, these
dimensions can vary with different manufacturer. This motherboard offers more
expansion slots, up to four slots for RAM, Two or sometimes more than two PCIe
slots for dual graphics cards and more USB and other ports for connectivity, also its
size gives space in between components for airflow to keep heat in control.
3. Micro ATX motherboard
This motherboards come in 244*244 mm (length*breadth) dimensions (these
dimensions can vary with different manufacturer.). This Motherboard has less ports
and slots as compared to Standard ATX board. This type of motherboard is more
suitable for those who don’t want to much connectivity and later upgrades like
adding more ram and additional GPU or Graphics card and adding PCI cards.
4. eXtended ATX motherboard
This motherboard is 344*330 mm dimensions (these dimensions can vary with
different manufacturer). This motherboard is designed for both dual CPU and single
configuration and has up to 8 ram slots and has more PCIe and PCI slots for adding
PCI cards for different purposes.
5. Flex ATX motherboard
They are regarded as the most compact members of the ATX family. They had a
small price tag and were made to take up the least amount of space possible. Mini
ATX was modified into Flex ATX by Intel between 1999 and 2000.
6. Low-Profile EXtended (LPX) motherboard
In comparison to previous motherboard, this has two significant changes. The output
and input ports were relocated to the device’s back as the first change, In
comparison to previous iterations, and the second change was added a riser card,
which makes it simpler to attach components.
7. BTX motherboard
A method known as balanced technology extended, or BTX for short, was created to
meet the demands of developing technologies, which ask for higher power
consumption and, as a result, produce more heat. In order to focus on low-power
CPUs, Intel stopped making BTX boards in the middle of the 2000s.
8. Pico BTX motherboard
These boards are referred to as Pico due to their small size when compared to a
regular motherboard. Despite the fact that the top half of the BTX is shared, two
expansion slots are supported. It is made to satisfy the demands of digital
applications, and its distinguishing features include the half-height or riser cards.
9. Mini ITX motherboard
It is significant to note that the information technology extended (ITX) motherboard
does not exist in a standard size. The motherboard has been reduced in size and
made smaller than in previous generations in its place. It was created in the 2000s,
and it is 17 by 17 centimetres in size.
10. Mini STX motherboard
The motherboard presently known as the tiny-STX, which stands for tiny socket
technology extended, was originally given the designation “Intel 55”. Despite being
a 2015 invention, the motherboard is 147 millimetres by 140 millimetres in size.

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 Identifying Internal and External Connectors

 Internal Connectors

Internal connectors are found inside a computer case. There are two primary types of
connectors found internally: socket connectors and power connectors. Socket
connectors are designed for use with flat ribbon cable, and are generally used to
transfer data among devices. A socket connector mates with pins arranged into a
header. Usually a header is built onto a piece of circuit board, or integrated into an
electronic device. Socket connections are held in place by the friction of the pins.
Most socket/header interfaces are built to similar dimensions; header pins are 0.025
inches in width and spaced 0.10 inches apart. Power connectors are used to supply
and distribute power to internal devices inside the computer.

 10-Pin Socket
This connector has two rows of five pins and is normally used to connect an external port to
header pins on a motherboard. This connector is typically used for USB, or Serial (DB9)
ports.

 26-Pin Socket
This connector is typically used to add a DB25 Parallel Port interface. Most of today's
motherboards do not have this type of connection.

 34-Pin Socket
34-pin sockets are used for floppy drive cables. The floppy controller on a motherboard is a
34-pin header, as are the connections on 3.5 inch floppy drives. "Antique" 5.25 inch floppy
drives used a card-edge connection to interface to the floppy cable, so many floppy cables
will come with both socket and card-edge connectors. For many of today's computers,
floppy drives are no longer standard equipment.

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 40-Pin Socket
This interface is still in wide use. It is found on IDE/ATA hard drives, optical drives, and
tape drives. Many motherboards come with a pair of 40-pin controllers (described as
primary and secondary). Each controller can handle one or two drives, so most standard PCs
can have a maximum of four IDE drives. A few years ago, the IDE/ATA standard for hard
drives was improved, and a new cable was specified. This new standard is referenced by
many names—Ultra ATA, Ultra-DMA, Ultra-66/100/133, etc. Ultra ATA hard drive cables
use an 80-conductor ribbon cable, although the same 40-pin socket/header interface is still
used.

 50-Pin Socket
50-pin socket connectors are used for basic internal SCSI buses. The connector looks
identical to a 40-pin IDE interface, only with more pins. The 50-pin interface is used for
older, narrow SCSI buses.

 68-Pin Socket
The 68-pin socket internal connection is the same size and shape as the external MD68 pin
interface used for SCSI devices and cables. However, the internal flat ribbon version does
not use any thumbscrews or latch clips to hold the connector in place; it is held in solely by
the friction of the connector and pins. The 68-pin flat ribbon connector is unique in that the
connectors on the cable are male, and the interfaces on SCSI drives and host controllers are
female. This connector is very commonly used for wide SCSI buses.

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 4-Pin Power (3.5 inch)
A less common 4-pin power connector is the 3.5 inch plug. This connector is smaller in size
than the 5.25 inch, and it is not as widely used. It can be found mainly on 3.5-inch floppy
disk drives.

 Serial ATA (SATA)

The Serial ATA (SATA) Power connector has 15 pins and is slightly larger than the SATA
data connector. One main advantage the SATA power connector provides over the 4-pin
power connector is a pin that provides 3.3 V of power. Certain SATA drives have specific
power requirements.

 External Serial ATA (eSATA)

Similar to the standard SATA connector, the eSATA connector is shielded and designed to
connect external mass storage devices or optical drives to an eSATA port. This connector is
sometime referred to as the SATA "I" connector due to the shape of the connector.

 Serial ATA (SATA) Power

The Serial ATA (SATA) Power connector has 15 pins and is slightly larger than the SATA
data connector. One main advantage the SATA power connector provides over the 4-pin
power connector is a pin that provides 3.3 V of power. Certain SATA drives have specific
power requirements.

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 ATX 20-Pin Power

This is a 20-pin interface that supplies power to a computer's motherboard. It has two rows
of 10 pins, with a locking tab that holds it firmly in place after connection.

 ATX 24-Pin Power

Newer computers with ATX-form factor motherboards use a 24-pin power connector. The
newer, larger connector eliminates the -5V rail, and adds additional +3.3V and +12V rails.

 3-Pin Fan
The 3-pin Fan power connector is found on power supplies within a computer case. This
connector provides power to cooling fans.

 4-Pin Fan
The 4-pin Fan power connector is found on motherboards within a computer case. This
connector provides power to cooling fans and is typically used on the fan that cools the
CPU. This connector uses the same power arrangement as the 3-pin connector, therefore, a
3-pin connector can be used on a 4-pin fan. The 4th pin is a sensor that allows the fan to be
controlled for speed and may give the ability to turn the fan on or off. If you use a 3-pin
connector in a 4-pin slot, you will not be able to control the fan as it will always be powered
on.

 6-Pin PCI Express

The 6-pin PCI Express connector is found on some PCI Express graphics cards. This
connector is used for auxiliary power.

 4-Pin Pentium® 4 Power

The 4-pin Pentium 4 power connector is found on Pentium 4 motherboards. This connector
delivers dedicated power to the CPU.

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 External Connector

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 Types of Data Cables

1. HDMI Cable
HDMI (High definition Media Interface) is a type of computer cable used to transmit
high definition video and audio signals. Using the HDMI cables, the audio and video
signal can be easily transmitted without compromising the quality of images and can
send crystal clear images using this cable. The HDMI cables are used to connect cable
boxes, TVs, DVD players, media streamers and other electronic devices. All types of
Av devices can be connected to one standard cable, which is an HDMI cable. Also,
one HDMI cable is capable of transmitting both audio and video signals at the same
time.

2. VGA cable
VGA (Video Graphics Ray) cable is another type of computer cable which is used for
sending video signals and is used to link the monitor and the CPU of a computer. The
VGA cable can also be used in HD televisions. All the information displayed on the
monitor is coming from the VGA cable. There is a total of 15 pins in the plugin the
cable, which have three rows containing 5 pins each. And the cable is easily fitted in
the monitor and the other end is fixed in the CPU of a computer system.

3. DVI cable
DVI cables are used to connect the LCD monitor and the video card. Using this cable,
the user can see high image quality without having any disturbance. The DVI cable is
mostly used in CRT monitors, which have a VGA connection. This cable transmits

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the digital and analog signals to the computer system. The DVI cable is capable
enough of digital connections and analog connections. The DVI cable can be easily
distinguished, whether it is analog or digital, by looking if there is any flat pin present
on the cable. If the flat pin has four pins around, then it is a DVI analog, and there is
only a flat pin, then it is DVI digital.

4. Ethernet Cable
The Ethernet cable is a type of computer network cable which is used for a wired
network. The Ethernet cable is used to connect the switches, monitors, PCs to the
LAN (Local Area Network). The length and durability of the Ethernet cable describe
the quality of the connection. If the cable is too long and is not durable, it will contain
a poor quality of the signal. And due to this factor, there are different types of
Ethernet cables present in the market. The Ethernet cables are plugged into the
Ethernet port present on the motherboard. The Ethernet cable looks like a phone cable
but contains more wires than phone cables. There are eight wires in the Ethernet
cable, and they can be available in different colors in the market.

5. PS/2 Cable
The PS/2 cable is a standard cable to connect the mouse and keyboard to the computer
system. The length of the PS/2 cable is long enough so that the user can easily
connect the mouse and keyboard to the system and use the system. There are a total of
6 pins in PS/2 cables and have a round connector. There are majorly two sizes of PS/2
cable. The smaller size is the most common cable, but some adaptors can be used to
convert it into a larger size. This cable is now replaced with USB cables as they are
universal cables and can be easily plugged into any system.

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6. 5mm Audio Cable
The 3.5mm audio cables are a type of computer cables that are used in computer
audio applications. This cable can be used for connecting a mini-stereo audio device,
PC sound card or any portable CD player to any multimedia speaker. This cable can
also be used to connect earphones and headphones to the system.The green port is for
headphones and computer speakers. Blue port is for DVD player, MP3 player and
pink port Is used for connecting microphones.

7. USB cables
The USB (Universal Serial Bus) cable is a standard cable used to connect universal
devices or personal computers. It is mainly used for short-distance digital
communication. The digital data can be transferred using a USB cable. Nowadays, the
USB cable is used to charge devices like smartphones, Bluetooth speakers, trimmers
and many more. Sometimes, your USB flash drive doesn’t appear when connected to
the PC, but you can try a few simple methods to troubleshoot the issue. The USB
cables can be used to connect two devices directly. The USB cable is connected to the
USB port present in the computer system. The mouse and keyboard are also
connected to a USB port as they have USB cables. As the device is connected through
the USB cable, the unplugging of the USB cable when a device is running can cause
damage to a device, so whenever there is a need of removing the USB cable, first it
should be eject safely and then it should be removed from the system.

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 Types of Processors (CPU)

Types of CPU
There are different types of CPUs. Before discussing the types let us discuss the core
of CPU. The core is responsible for the execution of the instructions.
1. Single-Core CPU

This type of CPU was used in the early versions of computers. As the name
suggests, only one core is available. This once core is responsible for the execution
of the instructions. However it was a slow. This is because if the user loads more
than one application at a time, the core cannot process the new one unless and until
the execution of current application has been completed. Therefore the major
drawback was it was not capable of multitasking. Another problem was that it
couldn’t process high end applications. Example of Single Core CPU is Intel 4004

2. Dual Core CPU

As the name suggests, this type of CPU makes use of two cores. Each core is
responsible for the execution of instructions. Therefore they can execute more than
one operation at a time. The core can handle execution of two operations
simultaneously thereby overcoming the drawback of Single Core CPU. It has the
ability to do parallel tasks as each core has its own cache. However it is less robust
as compared to Quad Core. Example of Dual Core CPU is Core 2 Duo E6400.

3.Quad Core CPU

As the name suggests this CPU has 4 cores. Four cores do not mean that the speed is
increased by four times. It means that the execution becomes more enhanced. It has
the ability to execute the multiple tasks with enhanced speed. For instance if the user
has opened four applications, the CPU loads all the applications and simultaneously
executes them. The control jumps forth and back to process the instructions. These
CPUs should be used when users do Graphic designing, Video Editing etc. It can
handle single threaded jobs efficiently.

4. Hexa Core CPU

As the name suggests, this CPU has six cores. They can execute the tasks with much
more speed and efficiency. The speed, clock speed is much more as compared to the
previous processors. This CPU is capable for ideal tasks like video editing, scientific
simulations, gaming without lagging or freezing. Example of Hexa Core CPU is
Intel Core i3
5. Octa Core CPU

As the name suggests this CPU comprises eight cores. It basically comprises of two
Quad cores. This CPU is capable for advanced tasks. The speed is of another level

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and it is also known as dual quad processor. It can handle multi-threaded jobs
efficiently.

6. Deca Core CPU

The word Deca means ten. In this CPU there are 10 cores. This is the most fastest
CPU capable of doing multi-tasking and parallel computing at an advanced level.
Each core has the capacity to perform tasks simultaneously. This core is also
implemented in smartphones for enhanced video editing, gaming as this CPU does
not cause the device to lag.

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UNIT-II
 Assembly of Computer, Diagnostic and
Troubleshooting

 POST( Power of Self-Test)

A power-on self-test (POST) is a set of routines performed by firmware or software

immediately after a computer is powered on, to determine if the hardware is working
as expected. The process would proceed further only if the required hardware is
working correctly, else the BIOS (Basic Input Output Software) would issue an error
message. POST sequence is executed irrespective of the Operating System and is
handled by the system BIOS. Once the tests are passed the POST would generally
notify the OS with beeps while the number of beeps can vary from system to system.
When POST is successfully finalized, bootstrapping is enabled. Bootstrapping starts
the initialization of the OS.

 The Role of POST in the Boot Sequence

The boot sequence is the process of starting a computer/system. The boot process is
initiated when the power button is pressed; it sends power to the boot-loader in the
cache memory. The Boot loader performs POST as a preboot sequence and if
everything is working well without any errors the BIOS (Basic Input Output
System) is activated which finds and loads the operating system. Finally the
software has to interact with the hardware units to complete the process. To avoid
any hardware errors while executing a software program, the pre-boot sequence
would test the hardware and initiate the OS if and only if the basic hardware units
are functioning as expected. The principal duties of the main BIOS during POST are
as follows:
1. Find, size, and verify the system main memory.
2. Initialize BIOS.
3. Identify, organize, and select which devices are available for booting.
4. Verify CPU registers.
5. Verify the integrity of the BIOS code itself.
6. Verify some basic components like DMA, timer, interrupt controller.
7. Pass control to other specialized extensions BIOS (if installed).
The checks are performed majorly on:
 Hardware elements like processor, storage devices and memory.
 Basic System Devices like keyboard, and other peripheral devices.
 CPU Registers
 DMA (Direct Memory Access)
 Timer

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 Interrupt controller

Types of Errors encountered during POST

If there are any errors in the POST the system would fail to proceed towards the next
steps (boot process) as it would throw a fatal error. The POST sequence is executed
irrespective of the Operating System. However, how the POST is handled and the
types of errors thrown can be modified by the Vendor as per the system
requirements. The error message could consist of text messages on the console or
audio in the form of beeps. Irrespective of the vendor there would be a manual
describing the types of errors and the error message mappings to help us
troubleshoot. The error messages can vary from a parity error to a faulty
motherboard. Example beep codes for MAC are:

Beeps Meaning

1 No RAM installed/detected

2 Incompatible RAM types

3 No good banks

4 No good boot images in the boot ROM, or bad sys config block, or both

5 Processor is not usable

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 Beep Code Errors

Below are the AMI (American Megatrends Inc.) BIOS beep codes. However, because
of the wide variety of different computer manufacturers with this BIOS, the beep
codes for your computer may differ slightly from those listed below.

Beep Code Descriptions

1 short beep DRAM (dynamic random access memory)

refreshes failure.

2 short beep Parity circuit failure.

3 short beep Base 64 K RAM failures.

4 short beep System timer failure.

5 short beep Process failure.

6 short beep Keyboard controller Gate A20 error.

7 short beep Virtual mode exception error.

8 short beep Display memory Read/Write test failure.

9 short beep ROM BIOS checksum failure.

10 short beep How to replace the CMOS battery.

11 short beep Cache memory error.

1 long, 2 short beeps. Video card memory issue.

1 long, 3 short beeps. Conventional/Extended memory failure.

1 long, 8 short beeps. Display/Retrace test failed.

Two-tone siren Low CPU (central processing

unit) fan speed, voltage level issue.

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 Checking Power Supply Using Multi-meter

A multimeter is a handheld tool used to measure electrical forces like volts and amps.
Electricians use them constantly as a diagnostic tool, but they're also useful for
pinpointing electrical problems with your PC components. The array of options on a
multimeter seems complicated at first, but the process is actually pretty simple:
 Turn off and unplug your PSU.
 Choose the DC voltage option on your multimeter. Its symbol is a capital letter
V accompanied by one solid and one dotted line. Make sure the black and red
leads are connected to their corresponding slots on the multimeter.
 If you've already performed the paper clip test, keep the paper clip in place. If
you haven't, follow the above instructions to get it connected to the power-on
and ground pins.
 Connect the meter's black lead to any of the grounded pins on the connector.
(There will be several, and they should all be labeled COM and usually have
black wires.) Connect the meter's red lead to the pin you want to test.
 Check the voltage displayed on the multimeter's screen and then compare it to
the correct voltages from a standard ATX pinout chart. It's OK if some voltages
aren't exactly on the money, but if they're off by more than approximately five
percent, it's a sign that something is wrong with your PSU.
 Continue to compare voltages until you've tested all of the pins or found a
faulty one.
Below is the complete pinout table for the standard ATX 24-pin 12V power supply
connector as of Version 2.2 of the ATX Specification

Inout Reference
Pin Name Wire Colour Description
1 +3.3V Orange +3.3 VDC
2 +3.3V Orange +3.3 VDC
3 COM Black Ground
4 +5V Red +5 VDC
5 COM Black Ground
6 +5V Red +5 VDC
7 COM Black Ground
8 PWR_ON Gray Power Good
9 +5VSB Purple +5 VDC Standby
10 +12V1 Yellow +12 VDC
11 +12V1 Yellow +12 VDC
12 +3.3V Orange +3.3 VDC
13 +3.3V Orange +3.3 VDC
14 -12V Blue -12 VDC
15 COM Black Ground
16 PS_ON# Green Power Supply On
17 COM Black Ground

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Inout Reference
18 COM Black Ground
19 COM Black Ground
20 NC White -5 VDC (Optional - Removed in ATX12V v2.01)
21 +5V Red +5 VDC
22 +5V Red +5 VDC
23 +5V Red +5 VDC
24 COM Black Ground

 CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor)

Did you ever notice the computer keeping the accurate time records with utmost
precision, and that too without any external interaction, when we turn the system
off? And when you do turn it on back, it shows the same time. There are quite many
systems that are present in computers, laptops, mobiles, etc. that keeps on running
on. Their power consumption is very less, even when we turn off the system. But the
Clock system is one of those systems that will consume significant power. The
iteration for the clock system will happen through when the system (computer,
laptop, mobile, etc.) is switched off. The reason for this is CMOS, which is an
abbreviation for Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor. It is also many times
referred to as CMOS RAM, NVRAM (known as Non-Volatile RAM) and RTC
(Real-Time Clock). It is a specialized semiconductor chip, which is battery-powered,
used to store various information and is situated inside the system. In layman terms,
it can be referred to as a special kind of battery that is present inside the computer.
The information that is stored can vary from simple time and date of the system to
the hardware settings for the system. The most commonly used CMOS coin-cell
battery that is used to get the CMOS memory powered up is Panasonic CR 2032 3V.
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Usually, these CMOS batteries have an average life expectancy of around five years,
although it highly depends on its usage and in what environment the computer
resides. The depletion rate of the CMOS battery charge is linearly dependent on the
power-off stage duration of the system. When the computer is shut down, the RAM,
HDD, motherboard, processor, etc. are entirely turned off. It is this CMOS battery
that keeps on running. So until this CMOS battery dies down, the computer will
show the correct time, even when it is shut down for months and when it is without
any internet access. But in practical use, the CMOS battery stores much more
information than just date or time. Everything that the BIOS needs, is practically
stored by the CMOS battery. But if the CMOS battery fails, the computer would not
be able to keep up with the correct date and date on the computer after it is shut
down. For example, if you turn off the computer when the CMOS battery has died
down, the date will be automatically set to January 1, 1990, and time will be set to
12:00 pm.

 Study of BIOS Set-up

The BIOS setup program is stored in the system ROM chip. It varies greatly from
computer to computer. Today's BIOS setup programs include many options. To
organize them, they are often grouped together. Most BIOS setup programs are menu
based, including standard CMOS setup, advanced chipset setup, power management,
PCI configuration, and peripheral configuration.
The standard CMOS setup includes the information for the date, time, floppy drives,
hard drives, keyboard, and video card. The advanced chipset is used to fine-tune the
hardware setup of the system, such as fine-tuning the processor (including enabling or
disabling Hyper-Threading), cache system, memory system, or I/O system. The
peripherals setup options include onboard floppy disk drives, parallel ports, and serial
ports that can be disabled or configured using the BIOS setup program. Power
management includes several options to extend the battery life of notebook computers
and to conserve power on desktop computers.

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 Advance BIOS Setup

The BIOS Advanced screens provide detailed configuration information for the CPU,
memory, IDE, Super IO, trusted computing, USB, PCI, MPS and other system
information. The Sun Fire X4170, X4270, and X4275 Servers have the following
BIOS Advanced screens.

 Boot Configuration

The BIOS Boot screens enable you to configure the boot device priority (storage
drives and the DVD-ROM drive).The Sun Fire X4170, X4270, and X4275 Servers
have the following BIOS Boot screens.

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 Troubleshooting procedure and Preventative

Maintenance
Preventive maintenance is a regular and systematic inspection, cleaning, and
replacement of worn parts, materials, and systems. Preventive maintenance helps to
prevent failure of parts, materials, and systems by ensuring that they are in good
working order.

Troubleshooting is a systematic approach to locating the cause of a fault in a

computer system. A good preventive maintenance program helps minimize failures.
With fewer failures, there is less troubleshooting to do, thus saving an organization
time and money. Preventive maintenance can also include upgrading certain hardware
or software such as a hard drive that is making noise, upgrading memory that is
insufficient, or installing software updates for security or reliability

 Purpose of Preventive Maintenance

Preventive maintenance reduces the probability of hardware or software problems by

systematically and periodically checking hardware and software to ensure proper
operation. Hardware Check the condition of cables, components, and peripherals.
Clean components to reduce the likelihood of overheating. Repair or replace any
components that show signs of damage or excessive wear.

Hardware

Use the following tasks as a guide to create a hardware maintenance program:

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 Remove dust from fan intakes.
 Remove dust from the power supply.
 Remove dust from components inside the computer.
 Clean the mouse and keyboard.
 Check and secure loose cables

Software

Verify that installed software is current. Follow the policies of the organization when
installing security updates, operating system updates, and program updates. Many
organizations do not allow updates until extensive testing has been completed. This
testing is done to confirm that the update will not cause problems with the operating
system and software.

Use the tasks listed as a guide to create a software maintenance schedule that fits the
needs of your computer equipment:

 Review security updates.

 Review software updates.
 Review driver updates.
 Update virus definition files.
 Scan for viruses and spyware.
 Remove unwanted programs
 Scan hard drives for errors.
 Defragment hard drives.

Steps of the Troubleshooting Process

Troubleshooting requires an organized and logical approach to problems with

computers and other components. A logical approach to troubleshooting allows you to
eliminate variables in a systematic order. Asking the right questions, testing the right
hardware, and examining the right data helps you understand the problem. This helps
you form a proposed solution to try. Troubleshooting is a skill that you will refine
over time. Each time you solve another problem, you will increase your
troubleshooting skills by gaining more experience. You will learn how and when to
combine, as well as skip, steps to reach a solution quickly.

The following troubleshooting process is a guideline that you can modify to fit your
needs.

 Explain the purpose of data protection.

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 Identify the problem.
 Establish a theory of probable causes.
 Test the theory to determine an exact cause.
 Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and implement the solution.
 Verify full system functionality, and if applicable, implement preventive
measures.
 Document findings, actions, and outcomes

 Troubleshooting Tools and Diagnostic Software

 Hardware Troubleshooting Tools

The following are some tools that are used for troubleshooting hardware problems.
These tools are as follows.

 Cable Testers
 Crimpers
 Butt Set
 Toner Probe
 Punch-Down Tool
 Protocol Analyzers
 Loopback Plug
 TDR/OTDR
 Multimeters
 Environmental Monitors

Cable Tester

Cable testers and certifiers are dedicated hardware devices that can be connected to an
end of a cable or to both ends in order to provide diagnostic functions. It consist of

 A source of electric current

 A volt meter

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 A switching matrix used to connect the current source and the volt meter to all
of the contact points in a cable

The Cable Tester identifies the following problems

 Proper wiring of the cable

 End-to-end signal quality and signal loss
 Crosstalk effects
 Short circuits
 Open circuits

Crimpers
Crimpers are tools used to insert wires into the proper connectors at the end of the
cable.

 Twisted-pair
 Fiber optics
 Telephone cable
 Coaxial cable

Butt Set
A butt set (also called a lineman’s handset), is a tool used to tap into the middle of a
connection during a troubleshooting process. It is used mainly for voice signal
troubleshooting, which can happen at multiple points in the infrastructure:

 MDF
 IDF
 Wiring closed

A butt set can plug into different connection types because it has a lot of available
connectors, such as RJ11, RJ45, or alligator clips. Alligator clips are very useful in
situations in which you want to connect to a simple insulated wire because they have
sharp edges that reach the copper wire to establish the electrical circuit.

Some of the butt set functionalities includes the following:

 Ability to dial into the connection

 Ability to listen to existing signals (voice calls)
 Diagnostic operations

Toner Probe
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A toner probe is a tool that can track where a wire is going. This is useful in large
environments to identify both ends of a wire and track cables (usually from a bundle
of wires). The toner probe consists of two different pieces:

 A tone generator: a battery-powered device that taps into the connection and
sends a signal on the wire
 An inductive probe: allows you to hear the generated tone without even
touching the wire

Punch-Down Tool
When building the network infrastructure in large environments using wiring blocks,
you need to punch wires down into them. Such punch-down blocks are usually placed
inside the MDF or IDF to aggregate the wires coming from different network
locations. Punch-down tools are usually very sharp and achieve two purposes:

 Inserting the wire into the proper connector

 Cutting down excess wiring

Protocol Analyzers
A protocol analyzer is a powerful tool that gathers packets directly from the network
and presents them for analysis. Protocol analyzers are generally used to troubleshoot
application problems that require in-depth packet analysis. They can come in two
forms:

 Hardware appliances
 Software tools

One of the most common software protocol analyzers is Wireshark, which is an open
source application. Although working with such analyzers may be difficult at the
beginning, they can provide a lot of information about the specific packet contents on
the connection. Hardware protocol analyzers can come in multiple forms, including
stackable appliances that provide functionality similar to software analyzers but on a
larger scale.

Loopback Plug
When engaging in some type of lower-level troubleshooting, a loopback plug can be
very useful for testing physical ports. Loopback plugs can work with diagnostic tools
that are specifically built to work this way or they can be used to trick the application
into sending data out just to see its response to data that comes back through the
loopback. They are also used when trying to troubleshoot hardware components (e.g.,
ports) to make sure that the data is going out and coming back in without problems.

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Loopback plugs function by sending data out of a connection and then looping it right
back in. The amount and type of data received matches exactly the amount and type
of data sent. Loopback plugs can be used for any type of connection, for example:

 Ethernet
 Fiber optic
 T1/E1
 Serial connections

TDR/OTDR
When you need to perform detailed troubleshooting of copper and fiber connections,
you can use specialized equipment, such as:

 Time Domain Reflectometer (TDR) for copper connections

 Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) for optical fiber connections

Some of the functionalities offered by such devices include:

 Signal quality
 Estimating cable lengths
 Splice locations
 Cable impedance information
 Signal loss

Multimeters
A multimeter is an electrical meter that has multiple functions. Also called a volt-ohm
meter (VOM), it can measure the following parameters:

 Voltage
 Current
 Resistance

Environmental Monitors
When working with critical equipment and data centers, you should install an
environmental monitoring system that measures different parameters in the room,
such as:

 Temperature
 Humidity
 Water level
 Power voltages

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 Diagnostic Software

 HWiNFO

HWiNFO is the most comprehensive system summary tool by a long shot. It displays
all information about your computer—from the CPU temperatures to fan voltages. In
fact, if you're using a Ryzen processor, this should be your go-to PC checker as
alternatives such as CPU-Z have been known to show incorrect readings.

 Performance Monitor
As with older versions of the operating system, Windows 10 and 11 have a
Performance Monitor. However, unlike the older versions, this is now a standalone
PC diagnostic tool. Check out how to open the Performance Monitor if you're not
familiar with it. By default, the Monitor only shows Processor Time, which displays
how much of your CPU is being used at any given time. However, you can add more
counters such as disk usage, energy used, paging file size, search index size, and
more.

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 Reliability Monitor
Here you'll see a history of your system and a timeline of events and errors that
occurred during a given period. The blue line is an estimate (from 1 to 10) of how
stable your system is over time. At the bottom, you can see which troublemakers are
throwing errors, which you can look into to improve your system stability score.

 Wi-Fi Analyzer
WiFi Analyzer is a free tool that does exactly what its name says: it analyzes your Wi-
Fi network's setup to see whether your wireless channel is interfering with other
nearby Wi-Fi networks. After the analysis, it will recommend a channel setting for
you. It's not perfect, especially in crowded apartments and dense cities. However, it
can boost your Wi-Fi speed and reliability significantly, so it's worth trying.

 Soft-Perfect Network Scanner

SoftPerfect Network Scanner is an easy-to-use tool that detects any devices connected
to your network. This utility supports both IPv4 and IPv6 discovery. You can use it at

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home to see how many devices are connected to your network (to check if anyone is
mooching off your connection) or find the IP address of a specific device (such as
your smartphone). It allows you to initiate remote shutdowns as well.

 CrystalDiskInfo
CrystalDiskInfo is the best PC diagnostic software for your storage drives. It gives
you a complete overview of the state of your data drives, including HDDs, SSDs, and
USB drives. You can use the app to monitor the temperature, spin-up time, uptime,
and error rates of your drives. All these factor into an overall "health score" that lets
you know how your drive is doing.

 WinDirStat
WinDirStat scans your data drives and tells you how much space is used up by
various folders and files, all displayed in a neat tree-based hierarchy and a detailed
graph view. The bigger the file or folder is, the larger the square is on the graph. Not
only is WinDirStat perfect for visualizing where your data is stored, but it's also
fantastic for cleaning up lost files and recovering disk space.

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 Windows Disk Management

Windows Disk Management is a built-in disk utility to manage disk partitions. The
tool also allows you the check the health of your SSD or HDD and create new
partitions. Through this utility, you can also scan any partition for potential errors on
your disks.

 Resource Monitor
The Resource Monitor is a Windows diagnostic tool that offers a full overview of
your system. Traditionally, you'd have to launch it through the Task Manager, but
now you can open the Resource Manager as a standalone tool.

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 AdwCleaner
Not many people know about AdwCleaner, which is a shame because it's fantastic and
deserves more recognition. It's a simple malware scanner, but it's fast, efficient, and
free, which is all anyone can ask for. It's mainly designed to target malware that
comes bundled with installer files, so it detects adware, toolbars, unwanted programs,
browser hijackers, etc. Scan results are sorted as services, files, DLLs, scheduled
tasks, registry entries, and more.

 Device Driver
Device Driver in computing refers to a special kind of software program or a
specific type of software application that controls a specific hardware device that
enables different hardware devices to communicate with the computer’s Operating
System. A device driver communicates with the computer hardware by computer
subsystem or computer bus connected to the hardware.
Device Drivers are essential for a computer system to work properly because
without a device driver the particular hardware fails to work accordingly, which
means it fails in doing the function/action it was created to do. Most use the

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term Driver, but some may say Hardware Driver, which also refers to the Device
Driver.

Working of Device Driver:

Device Drivers depend upon the Operating System’s instruction to access the device
and perform any particular action. After the action, they also show their reactions by
delivering output or status/message from the hardware device to the Operating
system. For example, a printer driver tells the printer in which format to print after
getting instruction from OS, similarly, A sound card driver is there due to which 1’s
and 0’s data of the MP3 file is converted to audio signals and you enjoy the music.
Card reader, controller, modem, network card, sound card, printer, video card, USB
devices, RAM, Speakers, etc need Device Drivers to operate.
The following figure illustrates the interaction between the user, OS, Device driver,
and the devices:

Types of Device Driver:

For almost every device associated with the computer system there exist a Device
Driver for the particular hardware. But it can be broadly classified into two types
i.e.,
1. Kernel-mode Device Driver: This Kernel-mode device driver includes some
generic hardware that loads with the operating system as part of the OS these are
BIOS, motherboard, processor, and some other hardware that are part of kernel
software. These include the minimum system requirement device drivers for each
operating system.
2. User-mode Device Driver: Other than the devices which are brought by the
kernel for working the system the user also brings some devices for use during
the using of a system that devices need device drivers to function those drivers
fall under User mode device driver. For example, the user needs any plug-and-
play action that comes under this.

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Virtual Device Driver:
There are also virtual device drivers(VxD), which manage the virtual device.
Sometimes we use the same hardware virtually at that time virtual driver
controls/manages the data flow from the different applications used by different
users to the same hardware.
It is essential for a computer to have the required device drivers for all its parts to
keep the system running efficiently. Many device drivers are provided by
manufacturers from the beginning and also we can later include any required device
driver for our system.

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UNIT-III
 Introduction to Computer Network

What is Computer Network?

A computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems that are linked
together. A network connection can be established using either cable or wireless
media. Hardware and software are used to connect computers and tools in any
network.
A computer network consists of various kinds of nodes. Servers, networking
hardware, personal computers, and other specialized or general-purpose hosts can all
be nodes in a computer network. Host names and network addresses are used to
identify them.
Types of Computer Networks
Division Based on the Communication Medium
 Wired Network: Communication done in a wired medium. Copper wire, twisted
pair, or fiber optic cables are all options. A wired network employs wires to link
devices to the Internet or another network, such as laptops or desktop PCs.
 Wireless Network: “Wireless” means without wire, media that is made up of
electromagnetic waves (EM Waves) or infrared waves. Antennas or sensors will
be present on all wireless devices. For data or voice communication, a wireless
network uses radio frequency waves rather than wires.
Division Based on Area Covered
 Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN is a network that covers an area of around
10 kilometers. For example, a college network or an office network. Depending
upon the needs of the organization, a LAN can be a single office, building, or
Campus. We can have two PCs and one printer in-home office or it can extend
throughout the company and include audio and video devices. Each host in LAN
has an identifier, an address that defines hosts in LAN. A packet sent by the host
to another host carries both the source host’s and the destination host’s address.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): MAN refers to a network that covers an
entire city. For example: consider the cable television network.
 Wide Area Network (WAN): WAN refers to a network that connects countries
or continents. For example, the Internet allows users to access a distributed
system called www from anywhere around the globe.WAN interconnects
connecting devices such as switches, routers, or modems. A LAN is normally
privately owned by an organization that uses it. We see two distinct examples of
WANs today: point-to-point WANs and Switched WANs
 Point To Point: Connects two connecting devices through transmission
media.

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 Switched: A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends.
Based on Types of Communication
 Point To Point networks: Point-to-Point networking is a type of data
networking that establishes a direct link between two networking nodes.
A direct link between two devices, such as a computer and a printer, is known as
a point-to-point connection.
 Multipoint: is the one in which more than two specific devices share links. In the
multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or
temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially
shared connection.
 Broadcast networks: In broadcast networks, a signal method in which numerous
parties can hear a single sender. Radio stations are an excellent illustration of the
“Broadcast Network” in everyday life. The radio station is a sender of data/signal
in this scenario, and data is only intended to travel in one direction. Away from
the radio transmission tower, to be precise.
Based on the Type of Architecture
 P2P Networks: Computers with similar capabilities and configurations are
referred to as peers.
The “peers” in a peer-to-peer network are computer systems that are connected to
each other over the Internet. Without the use of a central server, files can be
shared directly between systems on the network.
 Client-Server Networks: Each computer or process on the network is either a
client or a server in a client-server architecture (client/server). The client asks for
services from the server, which the server provides. Servers are high-
performance computers or processes that manage disc drives (file servers),
printers (print servers), or network traffic (network servers)
 Hybrid Networks: The hybrid model uses a combination of client-server and
peer-to-peer architecture. Eg: Torrent.
Types of Computer Network Architecture
Computer Network Architecture is of two types. These types are mentioned below.
1. Client-Server Architecture: Client-Server Architecture is basically the
architecture where the clients and the server are connected as two clients can
communicate with each other and the devices present work as servers in the
network.
2. Peer-to-Peer Architecture: Peer-to-Peer Architecture, computers are connected
to each other and each computer is equally capable of working as there is no central
server here. Each device present here can be used as a client or server.
Types of Enterprise Computer Networks
There are three main types of Enterprise Computer Networks which are mentioned
below.
1. Local Area Network (LAN): Local Area Networks are small-scale networks
used in small companies or as test networks. It has a limited size.
2. Wide Area Networks (WAN): Wide Area Networks are networks that are used
for a larger area than local area networks and are used for long-distance
communication.

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 Network Topologies:

Network Topology
The structure of the network and how each component is connected to the others are
defined by the network topology. Topology comes in two flavours: logical topology
and physical topology.
 Bus Topology
Every computer and network device is connected to a single cable in a bus
topology network. Linear Bus topology is defined as having exactly two terminals.
Advantages
 Installation is simple.
 Compared to mesh, star, and tree topologies, the bus utilizes less cabling.
Disadvantages
 Difficulty in reconfiguring and isolating faults.
 A bus cable malfunction or break interrupts all communication.

 Ring Topology
The topology is named ring topology because one computer is connected to another,
with the final one being connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each
device. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction. Each ring incorporates a
repeater.
Advantages
 Data transmission is relatively straightforward because packets only move in one
direction.
 There is no requirement for a central controller to manage communication
between nodes.
 Easy installation & Reconfiguration
 Simplified Faulty connections
Disadvantages
 In a Unidirectional Ring, a data packet must traverse through all nodes.
 All computers must be turned on in order for them to connect with one another.

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 Star Topology
Each device in a star topology has a dedicated point-to-point link to a central
controller, which is commonly referred to as the HUB. There is no direct connection
between the devices. Traffic between the devices is not allowed in this topology. As
an exchange, the controller is used.
Advantages
 When attaching or disconnecting devices, there are no network interruptions.
 It’s simple to set up and configure.
 Identifying and isolating faults is simple.
 Less Expensive than mesh
 Easy to install & configure
Disadvantages
 Nodes attached to the hub, switch, or concentrator is failed if they fail.
 Because of the expense of the hubs, it is more expensive than linear bus
topologies.
 More cable is required compared to a bus or ring
 Too much dependency on Hub

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 Mesh Topology
Every device in a mesh topology has dedicated point-to-point connectivity to every
other device. The term “dedicated” refers to the fact that the link exclusively
transports data between the two devices it links. To connect n devices, a fully
connected mesh network contains n *(n-1)/2 physical channels.
Advantages
 Data can be sent from multiple devices at the same time. This topology can
handle a lot of traffic.
 Even if one of the connections fails, a backup is always available. As a result,
data transit is unaffected.
 Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to messages
 Point to Point links make fault transmission & fault isolation easy
Disadvantages
 The amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports that are necessary.
 The sheer bulk of wiring can be greater than the available space can
accommodate.
 It is difficult to install and reconfigure.

 Tree Topology
The topology of a tree is similar to that of a star. Nodes in a tree, like those in a star,
are connected to a central hub that manages network traffic. It has a root node,
which is connected to all other nodes, producing a hierarchy. Hierarchical topology
is another name for it. The number of Star networks is connected via Bus in Tree
Topology.
Advantages
 Network expansion is both possible and simple.
 We partition the entire network into pieces (star networks) that are easier to
manage and maintain.
 Other segments are unaffected if one segment is damaged.
Disadvantages

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 Tree topology relies largely on the main bus cable because of its basic structure,
and if it fails, the entire network is handicapped.
 Maintenance becomes more challenging when more nodes and segments are
added.

 Study of Various Networking Devices

Network Devices: Network devices, also known as networking hardware, are
physical devices that allow hardware on a computer network to communicate and
interact with one another. For example Repeater, Hub, Bridge, Switch, Routers,
Gateway, Brouter, and NIC, etc.

1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the
signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to
extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An
important point to be noted about repeaters is that they not only amplify the signal
but also regenerate it. When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit and
regenerate it at its star topology connectors connecting following the original
strength. It is a 2-port device.
2. Hub – A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires
coming from different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which
connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all
connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts connected
through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the
best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.

3. Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater; with add
on the functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the source
and destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same
protocol. It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.

4. Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost
its efficiency (a large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch
is a data link layer device. The switch can perform error checking before forwarding

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data, which makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors
and forward good packets selectively to the correct port only. In other words, the
switch divides the collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast domain remains the
same.

5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their
IP addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally
connect LANs and WANs and have a dynamically updating routing table based on
which they make decisions on routing the data packets. The router divides the
broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.

6. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two

networks that may work upon different networking models. They work as messenger
agents that take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system.
Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer.
Gateways are generally more complex than switches or routers. A gateway is also
called a protocol converter.

7. Brouter – It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines

features of both bridge and router. It can work either at the data link layer or a
network layer. Working as a router, it is capable of routing packets across networks
and working as the bridge, it is capable of filtering local area network traffic.

8. NIC – NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect
the computer to the network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It
has a unique id that is written on the chip, and it has a connector to connect the cable
to it. The cable acts as an interface between the computer and the router or modem.
NIC card is a layer 2 device which means that it works on both the physical and data
link layers of the network model.

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 Network Configuration Commands

The below mentioned commands are some of the most useful commands required to
troubleshoot network problems and configure network settings.

1. IPCONFIG

The IPCONFIG network command provides a comprehensive view of information

regarding the IP address configuration of the device we are currently working on.
The IPConfig command also provides us with some variation in the primary
command that targets specific system settings or data, which are:

 IPConfig/all - Provides primary output with additional information about network

adapters.
 IPConfig/renew - Used to renew the system’s IP address.
 IPConfig/release - Removes the system’s current IP address.

Command to enter in Prompt - ipconfig

2. NSLOOKUP

The NSLOOKUP command is used to troubleshoot network connectivity issues in the

system. Using the nslookup command, we can access the information related to our
system’s DNS server, i.e., domain name and IP address.

Command to enter in Prompt – nslookup

3. HOSTNAME

The HOSTNAME command displays the hostname of the system. The hostname
command is much easier to use than going into the system settings to search for it.

Command to enter in Prompt - hostname

4. PING

The Ping command is one of the most widely used commands in the prompt tool, as it
allows the user to check the connectivity of our system to another host.

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This command sends four experimental packets to the destination host to check
whether it receives them successfully, if so, then, we can communicate with the
destination host. But in case the packets have not been received, that means, no
communication can be established with the destination host.

Command to enter in Prompt - ping www.destination_host_name.com

5. TRACERT

The TRACERT command is used to trace the route during the transmission of the
data packet over to the destination host and also provides us with the “hop” count
during transmission. Using the number of hops and the hop IP address, we can
troubleshoot network issues and identify the point of the problem during the
transmission of the data packet.

Command to enter in Prompt- tracert IP-address OR tracert

www.destination_host_name.com

6. NETSTAT

The Netstat command as the name suggests displays an overview of all the network
connections in the device. The table shows detail about the connection protocol,
address, and the current state of the network.

Command to enter in Prompt - netstat

7. ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)

The ARP command is used to access the mapping structure of IP addresses to the
MAC address. This provides us with a better understanding of the transmission of
packets in the network channel.

Command to enter in Prompt – arp

8. SYSTEMINFO

Using the SYSTEMINFO command, we can access the system’s hardware and
software details, such as processor data, booting data, Windows version, etc.

Command to enter in Prompt – systeminfo

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Unit- IV

What is Operating system?

Operating System lies in the category of system software. It basically manages all
the resources of the computer. An operating system acts as an interface between the
software and different parts of the computer or the computer hardware. The
operating system is designed in such a way that it can manage the overall resources
and operations of the computer.
Operating System is a fully integrated set of specialized programs that handle all the
operations of the computer. It controls and monitors the execution of all other
programs that reside in the computer, which also includes application programs and
other system software of the computer. Examples of Operating Systems are
Windows, Linux, Mac OS, etc.

Objectives of Operating Systems

Let us now see some of the objectives of the operating system, which are mentioned
below.
 Convenient to use: One of the objectives is to make the computer system more
convenient to use in an efficient manner.
 User Friendly: To make the computer system more interactive with a more
convenient interface for the users.

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 Easy Access: To provide easy access to users for using resources by acting as an
intermediary between the hardware and its users.
 Management of Resources: For managing the resources of a computer in a
better and faster way.
 Controls and Monitoring: By keeping track of who is using which resource,
granting resource requests, and mediating conflicting requests from different
programs and users.
 Fair Sharing of Resources: Providing efficient and fair sharing of resources
between the users and programs.

There are several types of Operating Systems which are mentioned below.
 Batch Operating System
 Multi-Programming System
 Multi-Processing System
 Multi-Tasking Operating System
 Time-Sharing Operating System
 Distributed Operating System
 Network Operating System
 Real-Time Operating System

Windows
Generally referred to as Microsoft Windows, these OS are manufactured and
developed by the tech-giant Microsoft and are the most commonly used OS for
personal computers and to some extent in mobile phones or the Windows phone.
Microsoft Windows is a collection of many graphics-oriented operating systems, first
developed and launched in 1985 by the name Windows 1.0. When it started it had the
aim to provide a graphical shell to the then-famous MS-DOS which had a character
user interface, but it didn’t gain much popularity then. Slowly with the
implementation of innovative features, the OS gained popularity and soon dominated
the market of the Computer Industry, owing to its freedom of use and user-friendly
environment. Let’s look at the advantages and disadvantages of using Microsoft
Windows.
Advantages of Windows
1. Hardware compatibility: Almost every computer hardware manufacturing
industry supports Microsoft Windows. This makes the users buy any random
computer manufacturing brand and get the latest version of pre-loaded Microsoft
Windows 11 in it.
2. Pre-loaded and available Software: Windows comes with much more user-
friendly software to make everyday task easier and if the software is not available
then one can easily get it from the Internet and run it.
3. Ease of Use: Microsoft Windows has developed by far the most user-friendly OS
in the market, keeping in mind that it serves the purpose of most types of markets
in the world. It’s the most preferred OS for personal computers.
4. Game Runner: Windows supports a plethora of games manufactured till date and
comes with all the supporting base software to drive the game engine. So it’s the
most popular OS among the game lovers.

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Disadvantages of Windows
 Expensive: Microsoft is a closed-source OS and the license cost is really high. It’s
not possible for every class of society to buy a new license every time one is
expired. The latest Windows 11 costs around 8000 to 12000 INR.
 Poor Security: Windows is much more prone to viruses and malware in
comparison to other OS like Linux or Mac in the market (microsoft defender
antivirus is also introduced in the nwe version).
 Not reliable: Windows starts to lag with time and eventually needs booting every
time and now to get back the initial speed.
There are many versions of Windows that have been developed since 1985, but few
that revolutionized the industry of Operating Systems are:
1. Windows 95
2. Windows 98
3. Windows NT
4. Windows XP
5. Windows Vista
6. Windows 7
7. Windows 8
8. Windows 8.1
9. Windows 10
10.Windows 11(latest version)
According to Net Applications, which tracks use based on web use, Windows is the
most-used operating system family for personal computers as of July 2017 with close
to 90% usage share and rising.

Linux
Primarily derived from the concept of Unix, Linux became the most-prominent free
and open-source OS available to everyone in the world. It is built around the Linux
kernel and served for both desktop and server use. Linux was originally developed
for personal computers based on the Intel x86 architecture but since then it was
ported to more platforms than any other operating system. Linux has the largest
installed base of all general-purpose operating systems. It is also the leading
operating system on servers and other big iron systems such as mainframe
computers, and the only OS used on TOP500 Supercomputers. The top Linux OS
are Ubuntu, Fedora, OpenSUSE, RedHat, and many more.
Advantages of LINUX
 The OS is open-source and available free of cost to every computer user. There
are large repositories from which anyone can freely download high-quality
software for almost any task.
 Linux provides high performance for a longer time and does not require a
periodic reboot to maintain the system.
 It is one of the most secure OS and does not permit any unwanted malware and
virus into the system.
 It is designed to multitask and can perform multiple processes at the same time,
without hampering the performance of the OS.
 The OS is highly compatible and flexible to run on all modern PCs and networks.
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Disadvantages of LINUX
 It is not as user-friendly as Windows and users need to struggle for a few days
before adapting to the behavior of OS.
 It is not meant for gamers since it does not support any high graphics game.
 Since there are no standard editions available for Linux, it comes with many
versions, confusing the users about what to adapt and what not.

Evolution of Windows
Windows 1

Windows 1 was the first version of the Windows operating system released by
Microsoft. It was released on November 20, 1985 and needed only 1 MB of memory
and it was a 16 bits operating system. This OS was designed using the Graphical User
Interface (GUI) and was able to run only one program at a time and did not support
overlapping windows. Windows 1 was designed such that it has great dependency on
the mouse, the users can click, drop, drag, move and do a lot of activities with the
mouse.

Windows 2

Windows 2 was released by Microsoft on December 9, 1987. It was also a 16 bits

operating system and was designed using the Graphical User Interface (GUI). It
allowed the applications to overlap with each other. Microsoft introduced the Control
panel and the first versions of Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel. The exchange of
the dynamic data in this version improved the speed and application communication
capabilities. It also introduced the option of Minimizing and Maximizing the window.

Windows 3

Windows 3 was released by Microsoft on May 22, 1990, with a major upgrade of
windows history. This version improved the user interface with improved icons and
also introduced the 256 colors palette which made the user interface colorful.
Multitasking was also supported in this version which was a major advancement. It
generally ran on less expensive hardware and also supports the tasks such as Program
Manager, Control Panel, Print Manager, etc games like Hearts, Minesweeper, and
Solitaire.

Windows 95

Windows 95 was released by Microsoft on August 15, 1995. It was the first complete
operating system. Windows 95 had sold over 1 million copies within 4 days of its
launch. This version introduced the Taskbar and the Start Menu and advanced from
a 16-bit graphical user interface to a 32-bit graphical user interface and also
provided 4 MB of system RAM and 50 MB of hard disk space. Windows 95

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supported the previous versions of the Microsoft operating system and featured
preemptive multitasking of applications. It also simplified the plug-and-play features.

Windows 98

Windows 98 was released by Microsoft on June 25, 1998. It was released as an

upgraded version of Windows 95 and it supported the DVD and USB drives. This
version has a 16-bit and a 32-bit edition. It provided additional protection for
important files and folders on the computer. It supported multiple monitors on one
computer and internet sharing. It showed a drastic increase in stability and allowed
full user customization in desktop windows, cursors, and sounds. The quick launch
was also added as an additional feature of the taskbar.

Windows 2000

The Windows 2000 was released by Microsoft on February 17, 2000. It was
considered a business-oriented operating system and was released for professionals. It
supports preemptive multitasking and has a new capability design to protect critical
systems files known as Windows file protection. Plug and Play, hardware support
improvements and features like automatic system updates were introduced.
Windows 2000 was a reliable operating system because the level of security was very
high. It required 5 GB Hard disk space and 256 MB RAM memory for Server.

Windows XP

Windows XP was released by Microsoft on October 25, 2001. Windows XP had come
with a major Operating System security facelift for the Windows OS. It has advanced
portable PC support. It comes with AutoPlay and improved security by using the
SHA1 hash of the master key password. The new automatic wireless connection
support has improved the encryption capabilities. The fast start-up and the better
Graphical user Interface with the support center played a great role in its success.

Windows Vista

Windows Vista was released by Microsoft on January 30, 2007. The security has been
improved by introducing the new OS security capabilities. It was the first Operating
system that used the DVD-ROM for installations. It comes with the upgraded version
of the Graphical User Interface. The security control feature known as the User
Account Control (UAC) was responsible for blocking unauthorized OS changes
without the approval of the administrator. It has also introduced the new Windows
Defender which is the inbuilt anti-spyware solution and protects the Operating System
from unwanted or rogue software by blocking unauthorized functions. The BitLocker
was also introduced in this version which is for windows encryption.

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Windows 7

Windows 7 was released by Microsoft on October 22, 2009. It was the most used
operating system ever in the world and it was one of the best versions of the Windows
operating system. Windows 7 was faster, more stable, and easier to use as compared
to the previous Microsoft OS. Data Execution Prevention was the security technique
introduced in the OS which marks the data pages as non-executable, which protects it
from attackers injecting the malicious code. The encryption has been improved due to
which the capabilities of the BitLocker are enhanced. The extended hardware support
has made this OS reliable in terms of security. It has also improved the Taskbar,
Parental Controls, Media player, Date and Time feature, etc.

Windows 8

Windows 8 was released by Microsoft on October 26, 2012. The security changes
done for this version were mostly hardware-based. The AppContainer environment
introduced in Windows 8 provides the secure sandboxing of the applications. This OS
was built for touchscreen devices with increased integration of cloud services. This
OS works faster and more conveniently for graphic pad users providing integration
with different platforms like smartphones and Graphic pads. It also has advanced
security features such as antivirus capabilities and supports secure boot.

Windows 10

Windows 10 was released by Microsoft on July 29, 2015. It was designed to unify all
Windows platforms across multiple devices, including Windows Phones and tablets.
It also provides the universal apps that were downloaded from the Windows Store and
run on all Windows devices. The new Windows Defender capability i.e. the Windows
Defender Credential Guard was introduced in the OS which isolates the credentials
and only allows the authenticated users to access the software system which made it
harder for hackers to attack the Operating System. Windows 10 automatically
compresses the file size if the file is too big to reduce storage shortcomings. Windows
10 has provided support for Software companies to implement solutions related to
Mobile device management which made it much quicker and easier for the software
support to increase its reach. It also introduced the subscription-based pricing model.
Cortana - The virtual assistant which ac perform tasks such as setting alarms and
reminders and answering questions for the users was also a new feature in the
Windows 10 OS.

History and Evolution of Linux Operating System

In this article, we will discuss the history and evolution of the Linux Operating
System. But before jumping into the history of Linux we must pass through UNIX.

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History of UNIX:
It started in 1964 in New Jersey when some people of Bell Labs tried to create a
multiuser operating system (OS), they worked on it till 1969, after facing lots of
failures they withdraw the project. Then a group of five people including Dennis
Ritchie and Ken Thompson successfully created an operating system called
UNICS(Uniplexed Information and Computing Service), better known as UNIX.
They publish this OS as open-source(free to use and edit the codebase).
In 1975 a version of UNIX was released labeled “UNIX v6”, it became very
popular. Some companies tried to make a profit from it, so they made their own
commercial version or flavor of UNIX :
 IBM – AIX
 Sun Solaris
 Mac OS
 UP UX
Why Linux was created?
Linus Torvalds is the creator of the Linux kernel. In simple words, Linus Torvald
created Linux because he didn’t have money to buy UNIX. He was a student at the
*University of Helsinki*. In early 1991 he decided to do a project on UNIX, but free
versions of UNIX were too old and other commercials are too costly ($5000). So he
thought of creating his own OS.
Now one question may arise that is Linux an exact copy of UNIX? Actually not, let
us clear this for you. For idea purpose, Linus did research on UNIX, but more than
UNIX he did research on MINIX OS. And no, Linux is not an exact copy of UNIX.

What is MINIX?

MINIX was created by Andrew S. Tanenbaum on 1987. MINIX is a Unix-like

operating system based on microkernel architecture.

Minix OS

The main reason behind creating MINIX is to teach his students and the book he was
writing Operating Systems Design and Implementation.
Fact: MINIX is a text-oriented operating system with a kernel of fewer than 6,000
lines of code.
After Linux developed!
So finally Linux was released on September 17, 1991. Linus made it open source.
Between 1991 to 1995, Richard Stallman started a movement called the “Free
Software Movement“, and created the GNU project (collection of free software).
Linux is a kernel and not an operating system and GNU is a collection of free
software, these two project collabs give us “Linux” or “GNU/Linux” operating

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system. Some companies and open source communities adopt GNU/Linux codebase,
did some modifications, and created their own version or distributions, Example:
 RHEL (Red hat)
 Fedora
 Debian
 Ubuntu
 CentOS
 Kali Linux

Point to be Noted:

 Linux is a kernel, not OS.

 Linux is not a UNIX clone, it was written from scratch.
 A Linux distribution is the Linux kernel and a collection of software that together
creates an OS.
Features or Linux or Why Linux is so popular?
Linux is so much popular that most IT companies ask their candidates that “Do they
have knowledge or experience of Linux-based OS?”. Some points are mentioned
below of the reason behind why it’s so popular / Features :
 Open Source
 Lightweight
 Secure
 Multiuser – Multitask
 Simplified update for all installed software
 Multiple distributions ( RedHat, Debian, etc)

What is a Software?
In a computer system, the software is basically a set of instructions or commands
that tell a computer what to do. In other words, the software is a computer program
that provides a set of instructions to execute a user’s commands and tell the
computer what to do. For example like MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
Types of Software
It is a collection of data that is given to the computer to complete a particular task.
The chart below describes the types of software:

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Above is the diagram of types of software. Now we will briefly describe each
type and its subtypes:
1. System Software
 Operating System
 Language Processor
 Device Driver
2. Application Software
 General Purpose Software
 Customize Software
 Utility Software
System Software
System software is software that directly operates the computer hardware and
provides the basic functionality to the users as well as to the other software to
operate smoothly. Or in other words, system software basically controls a
computer’s internal functioning and also controls hardware devices such as
monitors, printers, and storage devices, etc. It is like an interface between hardware
and user applications, it helps them to communicate with each other because
hardware understands machine language(i.e. 1 or 0) whereas user applications are
work in human-readable languages like English, Hindi, German, etc. so system
software converts the human-readable language into machine language and vice
versa.
Types of System Software
It has two subtypes which are:

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1. Operating System: It is the main program of a computer system. When the
computer system ON it is the first software that loads into the computer’s
memory. Basically, it manages all the resources such as computer
memory, CPU, printer, hard disk, etc., and provides an interface to the user,
which helps the user to interact with the computer system. It also provides
various services to other computer software. Examples of operating systems
are Linux, Apple macOS, Microsoft Windows, etc.
2. Language Processor: As we know that system software converts the human-
readable language into a machine language and vice versa. So, the conversion is
done by the language processor. It converts programs written in high-
level programming languages like Java, C, C++, Python, etc(known as source
code), into sets of instructions that are easily readable by machines(known as
object code or machine code).
3. Device Driver: A device driver is a program or software that controls a device
and helps that device to perform its functions. Every device like a printer,
mouse, modem, etc. needs a driver to connect with the computer system
eternally. So, when you connect a new device with your computer system, first
you need to install the driver of that device so that your operating system knows
how to control or manage that device.
Features of System Software
Let us discuss some of the features of System Software:
 System Software is closer to the computer system.
 System Software is written in a low-level language in general.
 System software is difficult to design and understand.
 System software is fast in speed(working speed).
 System software is less interactive for the users in comparison to application
software.
Application Software
Software that performs special functions or provides functions that are much more
than the basic operation of the computer is known as application software. Or in
other words, application software is designed to perform a specific task for end-
users. It is a product or a program that is designed only to fulfill end-users’
requirements. It includes word processors, spreadsheets, database management,
inventory, payroll programs, etc.
Types of Application Software
There are different types of application software and those are:
1. General Purpose Software: This type of application software is used for a
variety of tasks and it is not limited to performing a specific task only. For
example, MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
2. Customized Software: This type of application software is used or designed to
perform specific tasks or functions or designed for specific organizations. For
example, railway reservation system, airline reservation system, invoice
management system, etc.
3. Utility Software: This type of application software is used to support the
computer infrastructure. It is designed to analyze, configure, optimize and
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maintains the system, and take care of its requirements as well. For
example, antivirus, disk fragmenter, memory tester, disk repair, disk cleaners,
registry cleaners, disk space analyzer, etc.
Features of Application Software
Let us discuss some of the features of Application Software:
 An important feature of application software is it performs more specialized tasks
like word processing, spreadsheets, email, etc.
 Mostly, the size of the software is big, so it requires more storage space.
 Application software is more interactive for the users, so it is easy to use and
design.
 The application software is easy to design and understand.
 Application software is written in a high-level language in general.

Open Office

Apache Open Office is the leading open-source office software suite for word
processing, spread sheets, presentations, graphics, databases and more. It is available
in many languages and works on all common computers. It stores all your data in
an international open standard format and can also read and write files from other
common office software packages. It can be downloaded and used completely free of
charge for any purpose.

 Great software

Apache Open Office is the result of over twenty years’ software engineering.
Designed from the start as a single piece of software, it has a consistency other
products cannot match. A completely open development process means that
anyone can report bugs, request new features, or enhance the software. The
result: Apache Open Office does everything you want your office software to
do, the way you want it to.

 Easy to use

Apache Open Office is easy to learn, and if you’re already using another office
software package, you’ll take to Open Office straight away. Our world-wide
native-language community means that Open Office is probably available and
supported in your own language. And if you already have files from another
office package – Open Office will probably read them with no difficulty.

 and it’s free

Best of all, Apache Open Office can be downloaded and used entirely free of
any license fees. Like all Apache Software Foundation software, Apache Open
Office is free to use. Apache Open Office is released under the Apache 2.0
License. This means you may use it for any purpose - domestic, commercial,

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educational, public administration. You may install it on as many computers as
you like. You may make copies and give them away to family, friends,
students, and employees - anyone you like.

Where is Apache Open Office currently used?

 Governments
 Education
 Businesses
 Not for profits
 IT Businesses
 F/OSS advocates
Web Browser
What is a Web Browser?
The web browser is application software to explore www (World Wide Web). It
provides an interface between the server and the client and it requests to the server
for web documents and services. It works as a compiler to render HTML which is
used to design a webpage. Whenever we search for anything on the internet, the
browser loads a web page written in HTML, including text, links, images, and other
items such as style sheets and JavaScript functions. Google Chrome, Microsoft
Edge, Mozilla Firefox, and Safari are examples of web browsers.
History of the Web Browsers
The first web browser World Wide Web was invented in the year of 1990 by Tim
Berners-Lee. Later, it becomes Nexus. In the year of 1993, a new browser Mosaic
was invented by Mark Andreessen and their team. It was the first browser to display
text and images at a time on the device screen. He also invents another browser
Netscape in 1994. Next year Microsoft launched a web browser Internet Explorer
which was already installed in the Windows operating system. After this many
browsers were invented with various features like Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome,
Safari, Opera, etc.
Some Popular Web Browsers
Here is a list of 7 popular web browsers:
1. Google Chrome:
Developed by Google, Chrome is one of the most widely-used web browsers in the
world, known for its speed and simplicity.
2. Mozilla Firefox:
Developed by the Mozilla Foundation, Firefox is an open-source browser that is
known for its privacy features and customization options.
3. Apple Safari:
Developed by Apple, Safari is the default browser on Mac and iOS devices and is
known for its speed and integration with other Apple products.
4. Microsoft Edge:

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Developed by Microsoft, Edge is the default browser on Windows 10 and is known
for its integration with other Microsoft products and services.

Case study of installation steps for operating system and application

Software.
 Choose your OS

The first step is to decide which OS you want to install on your computer. There are
many factors to consider, such as compatibility, performance, security, features, and
personal preference. You can research the pros and cons of different OS options
online or ask for recommendations from other users. Some of the most popular OS
choices are Windows 10, Ubuntu Linux, and Mac OS Catalina. You can also choose
to dual-boot or run multiple OS on the same computer, but this requires more
advanced skills and configuration.

 Backup your data

The second step is to back up your data before installing a new OS. This is very
important, as you may lose some or all of your files during the installation process,
depending on the type and method of installation. You can back up your data to an
external hard drive, a cloud service, or a flash drive, depending on the size and
location of your files. You should also make a list of the programs and settings that
you want to keep or restore after the installation.

 Prepare your installation media

The third step is to prepare your installation media, which is the source of the OS files
that you will use to install the new OS. There are two main types of installation
media: optical discs and USB drives. Optical discs, such as CDs or DVDs, are more
traditional and reliable, but they may not be compatible with newer computers that do
not have a disc drive. USB drives, such as flash drives or external hard drives, are
more convenient and faster, but they may require some formatting and booting
settings. You can download the OS files from the official website of the OS provider
or buy a pre-made installation media from a store or online.

 Install the new OS

The fourth step is to install the new OS on your computer. This is the most critical and
complex step, as it involves several steps and options that vary depending on the OS
and the installation media. Generally, you will need to insert or connect your
installation media to your computer, restart your computer, and follow the instructions
on the screen. You may need to change some settings in your BIOS or boot menu to
boot from the installation media. You may also need to choose between different
types of installation, such as clean install, upgrade install, or custom install. A clean

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install will erase everything on your hard drive and install the new OS from scratch.
An upgrade install will keep your files and settings and install the new OS over the
old one. A custom install will let you choose which partitions and drives to use and
format for the new OS.

 Configure your new OS

The fifth step is to configure your new OS after the installation is complete. This is
where you can customize your new OS to suit your needs and preferences. You can
change the language, time zone, keyboard layout, display settings, network settings,
security settings, and other options. You can also activate your OS with a product key
or a license if required. You can also install the drivers and updates for your hardware
and software to ensure optimal performance and compatibility.

 Restore your data and programs

The final step is to restore your data and programs that you backed up before the
installation. You can copy your files from your backup media to your new OS or use
backup software or service to restore them. You can also reinstall your programs from
their original sources or download them from the internet. You may need to re-enter
your passwords, licenses, or settings for some programs. You can also test your new
OS and make sure everything works properly and smoothly.

Steps below to install an application from an .exe file.

 Locate and download an .exe file.
 Locate and double-click the .exe file. (It will usually be in your Downloads folder.)
 A dialog box will appear. Follow the instructions to install the software.
 The software will be installed.

Formatting of Hard Disk

Formatting a hard drive in Windows is a process of erasing all the data on the drive and setting
it up for use. Formatting a hard drive in Windows is a way to prepare it for use. It’s like
clearing a whiteboard, so you can start writing or drawing something new. This process erases
everything on the drive, so it’s crucial to back up any important files before you begin.

Steps to Format a Hard Drive in Windows

Step 1: Open Disk Management Settings
Go to the search bar and type Disk Management then Click on Create and format hard disk
partitions.

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That will open Disk Management settings.

Step 2: Select the Drive you want to Format

In the Disk Management window, you’ll see a list of all the drives connected to your
computer. Right click on the drive you want to format in the Disk Management window and
then select Format from the context menu.

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Step 3: Rename the Hard Drive Name

After clicking on format option Format window will open then in the Volume label textbox
enter whatever name you’d like to give to the drive.
Next up is the file system choice. In the File system textbox, choose NTFS.
In the Allocation unit size textbox, choose Default. The best allocation size based on the
size of the hard drive will be chosen.
The next step is to uncheck Perform a quick format checkbox. Windows will check this
box by default. This option will erase the drive faster but may not thoroughly check for
errors. If you want to be more thorough, leave this option unchecked.
The final format option is the Enable file and folder compression setting that is unchecked
by default, which we recommend sticking with.
Step 4: Confirm your Choice

Click the “OK” button to confirm your choices.

A warning will pop up, reminding you that all data on the drive will be deleted. Make sure
you have backed up any essential data and then click “OK” to proceed.
The formatting process will begin, and it may take a few minutes, depending on the size of
the drive. When it’s finished, you’ll see a message indicating that the formatting is
complete.

Partitioning of Hard disk in different logical drives

Windows Computers and Laptops come with a specific Hard Drive Space that none can be
increased as needed. However, there is a way to create a Hard Drive Partition based on the user’s
needs. Making Partition in Windows is like creating a new folder on any device. Windows Drive
Partitioning is very important to utilize device space more efficiently. Windows allows its users
to Create Disk Partitions as per their requirements with the use of the Disk Management Service.
From any Windows Hard Drive Disk, you can Divide New Partition with ease.

Steps to Create Partition of Hard Drive on Windows 10

Step 1: On your Search Bar search for This PC. Right-click on it and tap Manage.

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Step 2: Now click on the Disc Management button under the storage option. Select the Hard
Drive from where the partition should be created. Click on the Shrink Volume option.

Step 3: As you can see the unallocated partition right-click on it and select the option New Simple
Volume. After tapping on the button a window will appear New Simple Volume
Wizard. Now, click Next and enter the Volume you wish to allocate to the new partition in MB
Size.

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Step 4: After that, you can choose the letter of your choice to give a name to the new partition.
Click Next leave the settings as Default and click on Finish.

Step 5: That’s it your partition has been created successfully.

Disk Structure
Hard Disk is a secondary storage device. It is a type of electro mechanical device. A
hard disk stores and retrieves digital data using magnetic storage. Disk is rigid rapidly
rotating platters coated with magnetic material.
Hard Disk Pack consists of more than one disk.
How Data is Stored in a Hard Disk?
Data is stored in Disk in form of tracks and sectors.
● Disk surface is divided in to tracks.

● Track is further dived in to sectors.

● Sector is the addressable unit in disk

Basic picture for disk storage concept is given below

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Disk structure is as shown in following figure

Step wise description of Disk Structure is given below

● Disk surface divided into tracks

● A rеad/writе hеad positionеd just abovе thе disk surfacе

● Information storеd by magnеtic rеcording on thе track undеr rеad/writе hеad

● Fixеd hеad disk

● Moving hеad disk

● Designed for large amount of storage

● Primary design consideration cost, sizе, and spееd

Hardware for disk systеm

● Disk drivе, Dеvicе motor, Rеad/writе hеad, Associatеd logic

Disk controller

● Dеtеrminеs thе logical intеraction with thе computеr

● Can sеrvicе morе than onе drivе (ovеrlappеd sееks)

Cylinder

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● Thе samе numbеrеd tracks on all thе disk surfacеs

● Еach track contains bеtwееn 8 to 32 sеctors

Sector

● Smallеst unit of information that can bе rеad from/writtеn into disk

● Rangе from 32 bytеs to 4096 bytеs

Disk Defragmentation

Disk Defragmentation: In this process, all scattered fragments (data) rearrange in such that they
come in sequence form with further utility program available in Windows. In this process program
first, check percentage of the fragment available in disk then Defragment all disk as can as
possible.
Working of Defragmentation
 Analysis: The defragmentation system starts with an evaluation section, where the disk
defragmentation software examines the record machine and identifies fragmented documents
and free area at the disk.
 Defragmentation: Once the evaluation is done, the defragmentation application starts
rearranging the fragmented information on the disk. It actions report fragments closer
collectively and consolidates them into contiguous blocks every time possible.
 Optimization: In addition to defragmenting documents, a few defragmentation utilities also
optimize the position of regularly accessed files and system documents to enhance disk get
entry to instances in addition.
 Consolidation: As part of the defragmentation manner, the application may additionally
consolidate free space on the disk by shifting data and freeing up contiguous blocks of space,
which can help prevent future fragmentation.
 Completion: Once the defragmentation system is entire, the disk defragmentation application
gives a summary of the modifications made and the upgrades carried out in phrases of disk
fragmentation and system performance.
Disk Cleanup

It’s a maintenance tool provided by the Microsoft Windows operating system. This
tool is designed to free up unnecessary space from your disk like temporary files,
junk files, and other unwanted files that come into the disk after every Windows
operating system update. In other words, Microsoft designed its Disk maintenance
application utility tool to free up disc space.
Disk Cleanup Terminologies
 Disk Space: The term disk space refers to the total amount of storage or the total
storage capacity of a storage device it is measured in units like gigabytes,
terabytes, and petabytes.
 System Files: System files are important files that play an important role in the
operating system to operate properly or to function properly their files are also
called system reserved files.These files are mostly located in the DiskC reserved
for the operating system in the computer or desktop.
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 Cleanup: This process includes removing unwanted files available on the disk:
temporary, junk, and delivery optimization files to free up disk space and
improve functionality.
 Temporary Files types: The files that are created by the programs running on
your machine for temporary use, these types of files are not important they can be
deleted later once they are no longer needed.
 Recycle Bin: Recycle Bin is a folder/directory in the Windows operating system
that temporarily stores the deleted files, from where you can also restore them
within a given time.
 Deletion of files (Permanently or Temporarily): Press Shift + Del for
Permanently (files get deleted permanently from the computer). Press Delete or
Del for Temporarily (files go to the recycle bin).
Function of Disk Cleanup
The primary function of disk cleanup is to identify and delete unnecessary files such
as temporary files, system files, and cached files.
Below are some functions of disk cleanup.
 Temporary file cleanup: It removes temporary files generated by various
applications and programs, these files can be deleted later after being used if
these files are not removed they can acquire a lot of space in the disk.
 System files cleanup: It can also identify and delete system files such as old
Windows files that are no longer needed.
 Recycle bin cleanup: It can also delete the files presented in the recycle bin by
permanently deleting them.
 Cleanup of temporary Internet files: It deleted temporary files stored by web
browsers, such as cache web pages and memory.

Scan Disk
Scandisk PC tool can verify the file and directory structure of your data and perform
repairs when problems are found. It can also run a surface scan on your hard drive to
determine whether any physical damage is present and attempt to move and affected
data to another section of the hard drive. If your hear noise from the hard drive (tick
tick sound), use Scandisk immediately. It is recommended to use scan disk once in
every two months. However, increase the frequency if you are a regular PC user.

To access Scandisk in Windows:

 Open Windows Explorer.

 Right click on C: drive and then select Properties.
 Go to Tools and select Check button for disk Error checking.
Features of Scandisk Utility
 Scandisk program are used to check the logical structure of the hard disk drive.
It also check the physical surface of the drive for any bad areas,
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 It check the directory entries, the size of the file and verify that the number of
clusters allocated hi FAT chain is enough to save the file.
 It checks the directory structure to verify that the sub-directory entries are in
correct format.
 It checks the FAT chains to look for any lost clusters, cross linked cluster etc.
 It also totals the used clusters, available clusters, the bad clusters as specified in
the FAT and displays this information on screen.
 The scan disk utility checks media surface and remove bad block. It also finds
lost file fragments.

Unit-V

What is Internet?
The Internet is a widespread interconnected network of computers and electronic
devices (that support Internet). It creates a communication medium to share and get
information online. If your device is connected to the Internet then only you will be
able to access all the applications, websites, social media apps, and many more
services. The Internet nowadays is considered the fastest medium for sending and
receiving information.
Evolution of Internet

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Initially in the 1960s, the Internet was started as a medium for sharing information
with government researchers. During the time computers were larger in size and
were immovable. In case anyone had to access the information stored in any
computer, they had to travel to the location of the computer or the other way to have
magnetic computer tapes that could be transported through the postal system of that
time.
Alongside, Escalated Cold War played a major role in the creation of the internet.
The Soviet Union had deployed the Sputnik satellite which led the Defence
Department of the United States to examine the possibilities of communicating
information despite nuclear. The situation resulted in the development
of ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network), which, later
on, evolved into the Internet. In the initial days, ARPANET became a huge success
with restricted participation where it was accessible to academic and research
institutions that had contracts with the US Defence Department. The scenario led to
the formation of new networks in order to facilitate the need for information sharing
with other people.
Earlier there wasn’t any standard mechanism for the computer networks that would
enable them to communicate with each other. Transfer Control Protocol (TCP/IP)
which was developed in 1970, was adopted as a new communication protocol for
ARPANET in 1983. The technology enabled various computers on different
networks to communicate with each other and this is how the Internet was
officially born on January 1, 1983.

An Overview From 1985 to 1995

The invention of DNS, the widespread usage of TCP/IP, and the popularity of
email all contributed to an increase in internet activity. Between 1986 and 1987, the
network expanded from 2,000 to 30,000 hosts. People were increasingly using the
internet to send messages, read news, and exchange files. However, sophisticated
computing knowledge was still required to dial into the system and use it efficiently,
and there was still no agreement on how documents on the network should be
formatted.
The internet needed to be more user-friendly. In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee, a British
computer scientist, proposed a solution to his employer, CERN, the international
particle-research facility in Geneva, Switzerland. He proposed a new method for
organizing and connecting all of the information available on CERN’s computer
network, making it quick and easy to access. His idea for a “network of information”
evolved into the World Wide Web.
The release of the Mosaic browser in 1993 introduced the web to a new non-
academic audience, and people began to learn how simple it was to make their own
HTML websites. As a result, the number of websites increased from 130 in 1993 to
over 100,000 at the beginning of 1996.
By 1995, the internet and the World Wide Web had become an established
phenomenon, with over 10 million global users using the Netscape Navigator. The
Netscape Navigator was the most popular browser at that point in time.

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Structure of Internet

The internet is a global computer network that connects various devices and sends a
lot of information and media. It uses an Internet Protocol (IP) and Transport Control
Protocol (TCP)-based packet routing network. TCP and IP work together to ensure
that data transmission across the internet is consistent and reliable, regardless of the
device or location. Data is delivered across the internet in the form of messages and
packets. A message is a piece of data delivered over the internet, but before it is
sent, it is broken down into smaller pieces known as packets.
IP is a set of rules that control how data is transmitted from one computer to another
via the internet. The IP system receives further instructions on how the data should
be transferred using a numerical address (IP Address). The TCP is used with IP to
ensure that data is transferred in a secure and reliable manner. This ensures that no
packets are lost, that packets are reassembled in the correct order, and that there is
no delay that degrades data quality.

E-mail

Electronic mail, commonly known as email, is a method of exchanging messages

over the internet. Here are the basics of email:

1. An email address: This is a unique identifier for each user, typically in the format
of [email protected].
2. An email client: This is a software program used to send, receive and manage
emails, such as Gmail, Outlook, or Apple Mail.
3. An email server: This is a computer system responsible for storing and
forwarding emails to their intended recipients.

To send an email:

1. Compose a new message in your email client.

2. Enter the recipient’s email address in the “To” field.
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3. Add a subject line to summarize the content of the message.
4. Write the body of the message.
5. Attach any relevant files if needed.
6. Click “Send” to deliver the message to the recipient’s email server.
7. Emails can also include features such as cc (carbon copy) and bcc (blind carbon
copy) to send copies of the message to multiple recipients, and reply, reply all,
and forward options to manage the conversation.
Electronic Mail (e-mail) is one of most widely used services of Internet. This service
allows an Internet user to send a message in formatted manner (mail) to the other
Internet user in any part of world. Message in mail not only contain text, but it also
contains images, audio and videos data. The person who is sending mail is
called sender and person who receives mail is called recipient. It is just like postal
mail service. Components of E-Mail System : The basic components of an email
system are : User Agent (UA), Message Transfer Agent (MTA), Mail Box, and
Spool file. These are explained as following below.
1. User Agent (UA) : The UA is normally a program which is used to send and
receive mail. Sometimes, it is called as mail reader. It accepts variety of
commands for composing, receiving and replying to messages as well as for
manipulation of the mailboxes.
2. Message Transfer Agent (MTA) : MTA is actually responsible for transfer of
mail from one system to another. To send a mail, a system must have client MTA
and system MTA. It transfers mail to mailboxes of recipients if they are
connected in the same machine. It delivers mail to peer MTA if destination
mailbox is in another machine. The delivery from one MTA to another MTA is
done by Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.

Social Network
This type of social media deals with the exchange of thoughts, ideas, and content
with other users. The best example of social network is Facebook and Twitter.
LinkedIn is also an example of a social network, but it is more professional.
Social Media
Social media is a network of people through which people connect with each other
online and share information. People access these types of services from mobile
devices, laptops, desktop applications, and websites. There are millions of social
media users worldwide. People use social media services for different reasons like
connecting with new contacts, reconnecting with former friends, maintaining current
relationships, promoting their business or project, to taking part in discussions on
different topics. Some common social media sites are Facebook, Twitter, Snapchat,
Instagram,WhatsApp, etc. On these social media sites, there are millions of users
who sign in every day.
Examples of Social Media:
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Below are the most popular Social Media Networks across the globe,
Facebook (2.74 billion users)
YouTube (2.29 billion users)
WhatsApp (2 billion users)

Cyber Security
Cyber Security is the body of technologies, processes, and practices designed to
protect networks, devices, programs, and data from attack, theft, damage,
modification or unauthorized access. It’s also known as Information
Security (INFOSEC), Information Assurance (IA), or System Security.
Types of Cyber security:
o Network Security

o Application Security

o Information or Data Security

o Cloud Security

o Mobile Security

o Endpoint Security:

o Critical Infrastructure Security

o Internet of Things (IoT) Security

Why is Cyber security Important?

Cyber security is essential for protecting our digital assets, including sensitive
personal and financial information, intellectual property, and critical infrastructure.
Cyber-attacks can have serious consequences, including financial loss, reputational
damage, and even physical harm.

Cyber Laws

Cyber Law also called IT Law is the law regarding Information-technology

including computers and the internet. It is related to legal informatics and supervises
the digital circulation of information, software, information security, and e-
commerce.

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Cyber Laws yields legal recognition to electronic documents and a structure to
support e-filing and e-commerce transactions and also provides a legal structure to
reduce, check cyber crimes.

Importance of Cyber Law:

1. It covers all transactions over the internet.
2. It keeps eye on all activities over the internet.
3. It touches every action and every reaction in cyberspace.

Area of Cyber Law:

Cyber laws contain different types of purposes. Some laws create rules for how
individuals and companies may use computers and the internet while some laws
protect people from becoming the victims of crime through unscrupulous activities
on the internet. The major areas of cyber law include:
1. Fraud:
Consumers depend on cyber laws to protect them from online fraud. Laws are
made to prevent identity theft, credit card theft, and other financial crimes that
happen online. A person who commits identity theft may face confederate or
state criminal charges. They might also encounter a civil action brought by a
victim. Cyber lawyers work to both defend and prosecute against allegations of
fraud using the internet.

2. Copyright:
The internet has made copyright violations easier. In the early days of online
communication, copyright violations were too easy. Both companies and
individuals need lawyers to bring an action to impose copyright protections.
Copyright violation is an area of cyber law that protects the rights of individuals
and companies to profit from their creative works.

3. Defamation:
Several personnel uses the internet to speak their mind. When people use the
internet to say things that are not true, it can cross the line into defamation.
Defamation laws are civil laws that save individuals from fake public statements
that can harm a business or someone’s reputation. When people use the internet
to make statements that violate civil laws that is called Defamation law.

4. Harassment and Stalking:

Sometimes online statements can violate criminal laws that forbid harassment
and stalking. When a person makes threatening statements again and again about
someone else online, there is a violation of both civil and criminal laws. Cyber
lawyers both prosecute and defend people when stalking occurs using the internet
and other forms of electronic communication.

5. Freedom of Speech:
Freedom of speech is an important area of cyber law. Even though cyber laws
forbid certain behaviours online, freedom of speech laws also allows people to
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speak their minds. Cyber lawyers must advise their clients on the limits of free
speech including laws that prohibit obscenity. Cyber lawyers may also defend
their clients when there is a debate about whether their actions consist of
permissible free speech.

6. Trade Secrets:
Companies doing business online often depend on cyber laws to protect their
trade secrets. For example, Google and other online search engines spend lots of
time developing the algorithms that produce search results. They also spend a
great deal of time developing other features like maps, intelligent assistance, and
flight search services to name a few. Cyber laws help these companies to take
legal action as necessary to protect their trade secrets.

7. Contracts and Employment Law:

Every time you click a button that says you agree to the terms and conditions of
using a website, you have used cyber law. There are terms and conditions for
every website that are somehow related to privacy concerns.

Advantages of Cyber Law:

 Organizations are now able to carry out e-commerce using the legal infrastructure
provided by the Act.

 Digital signatures have been given legal validity and sanction in the Act.

 It has opened the doors for the entry of corporate companies for issuing Digital
Signatures Certificates in the business of being Certifying Authorities.

 It allows Government to issue notifications on the web thus heralding e-

governance.

 It gives authority to the companies or organizations to file any form, application,

or any other document with any office, authority, body, or agency owned or
controlled by the suitable Government in e-form using such e-form as may be
prescribed by the suitable Government.

 The IT Act also addresses the important issues of security, which are so critical
to the success of electronic transactions.

 Cyber Law provides both hardware and software security.

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