Chapter 5: Computer Networks

Computer Network
A computer network is a set of nodes like computers and networking devices that are connected through
communication for the purpose of communication and sharing resources(hardware/software) among the
users.
Networks are used to:
(Benefits of computer network)
• Facilitate communication through email / video conferencing / instant messaging or any other mode.
• Share hardware devices like a printer or scanner
• Enable file sharing
• Share software or operating programs
• Share information
Disadvantages of computer network
Lack of robustness, security issue, cost of network

Evolution of networking
ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency NETwork): In 1969, The US govt. formed an agency named
ARPANET to connect computers at various universities and defense agencies. The main objective of ARPANET
was to develop a network that could continue to function efficiently even in the event of a nuclear attack.
Internet (INTERconnection NETwork): The Internet is a worldwide network of computer networks. It is not
owned by anybody. The internet has evolved from ARPANET. The internet is a globally connected network
system that utilizes TCP/IP to transmit information. following services are instantly available through
internet : Email, Web-enabled audio/video conferencing services, Online movies and gaming , Data
transfer/file-sharing, Instant messaging , Internet forums , Social networking , Online shopping ,Financial
services
Interspace: is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to communicate online with real –
time audio, video and text chat in dynamic.

Data Communication Terminologies (Not part of syllabus)

Communication Channel (Transmission media): A communication channel is either a physical
transmission medium such as a wire, or to a logical connection over a multiplexed medium such as a radio
channel in telecommunications and computer networking.
Bandwidth: The amount of data that can be transferred from one point to another.it is a measure of the range
of frequencies a transmitted signal occupies. In digital systems, bandwidth is the data speed in bits per second.
In analog systems, bandwidth is measured in terms of the difference between the highest-frequency signal
component and the lowest-frequency signal component. Bandwidth is expressed in Hz, KHz, and MHz. The
hertz (symbol: Hz) is the derived unit of frequency in the International System of Units (SI) and is defined as
one cycle per second. It is named after Heinrich Rudolf Hertz. Hertz are commonly expressed in multiples:
kilohertz (103 Hz, kHz), megahertz (106 Hz, MHz), gigahertz (109 Hz, GHz)
Data transfer rate: DTR is the amount of data in digital form that is moved from one place to another in a given
time on a network. Data rates are often measured in megabits (million bits) or megabytes (millionbytes) per
second.
bps bits per second Bps bytes per second
Kbps kilobits per second KBps kilo bytes per second
Mbps megabits per second MBps megabytes per second
Gbps giga bits per second GBps giga bytes per second
Tbps tera bits per second TBps tera bytes per second

Wired Networks - It is also known as Ethernet networks, that is most common type of LAN technology. A
wired network is simply a collection of two or more computers, printers, and other devices linked by Ethernet
cables/ any form of wired media. Ethernet is the fastest wired network protocol, with connection speeds of
10 megabits per second (Mbps) to 100 Mbps or higher. Computer must have an Ethernet adapter (sometimes
called a network interface card, or NIC) to connect with wire. Most of the network topology uses wired
networks.
Wireless Networks – It uses high-frequency radio waves rather than wires to communicate. Wireless allows
for devices to be shared without networking cable which increases mobility but decreases range.
Infrared Wave Transmission - Short Range Communication: Infrared waves can travel from a few centimetres
to several meters. (Approx. 5m ). Line of Sight Propagation: Infrared uses point to point communication, both
transmitter and receiver should be placed in line of sight of each other and there should not be any obstacle
in between. Cannot Penetrate Solid object. It is Inexpensive mode of Communication. Secure: At a time only
two devices can communicate therefore information passed to one device is not leaked to another device.
Radio Wave Transmission: - Long Range Communication: Radio waves can cover distances ranging from a
few meters (in walkie-talkies) up to covering an entire city. Omnidirectional: Radio waves are propagated in
all directions.
Therefore, sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. Penetrates Solid Objects. Inexpensive
mode of communication.
Microwave radio, a form of radio transmission that use. Ultra-high frequencies. It is a point-to-point, rather
than a broadcast, transmission system. Additionally, each antenna must be within line of sight of the next
antenna. Frequency Bands Maximum Antenna Separation Analog/Digital 4-6 GHz 32-48 km Analog 10-12
GHz 16-24 km Digital 18-23 GHz 8-11 km Digital.
Satellite Communication It provide worldwide coverage independent to population density. Satellite
communication Systems offer telecommunication (Satellite Phones), positioning and navigation (GPS),
broadcasting, internet, Mobile, TV, etc.

It supports Very Long-Range Communication with Line-of-Sight Propagation. It Cannot Penetrate Solid
Objects. It is Very Expensive communication mode.

Microwave link vs Optical fiber

Microwave which is also known as Radio links have been used by many companies for decades. Most of the
Mobile (Cellular) networks use microwave to connect their cell towers to their backhaul networks. For mobile
operators, a reason using microwave is not the speed which microwave provides. It is used to connect their
remote sites (Rural areas) , because microwave is a faster and cheaper deployment option compare to fiber.
When more capacity (bandwidth) is required, fiber becomes more economical. Actual cost of fiber
deployments is labouring cost. Digging a trench and laying the fiber, getting the required permissions from
the land owners and from the municipalities. We have to dig a trench that’s hundreds (or thousands) of
kilometres long, or lease access to ducts that have already been laid by infrastructure companies. Geography
of the land is very important for the fiber deployments. For example, when faced with a mountain or river, do
we go straight across at great expense, or do you make a diversion to the nearest bridge or tunnel? Combine
all of these factors and you’ll understand why most of the world’s terrestrial fibre networks are deployed
alongside existing roads and railways.

Network devices
Computer hardware devices which are used to connect computers, printers, or any other electronic device to
a computer network are called network devices. These devices transfer data in a fast, secure and correct way
with some specific functionality over same or different networks.
Some devices are installed on the computer, like Internal modem, NIC card or RJ45 connector, whereas some
are part of the network, like router, switch, etc.

Repeater – In a network signal travels a long distance in transmission media. Due to resistance of media signal
becomes weak. Repeater is a networking device which regenerates the signal and forwards these signal with
more power.

Modem – Modem is short for Modulator Demodulator. It’s an electronic device used to access the Internet
that modulates carrier waves to encode information to be transmitted and also demodulates incoming carrier
waves to decode the information they carry. Modulation means digital to analog signal conversion and its vice
versa is known as demodulation.

HUB – HUB is used to connect multiple computers in a single LAN network of one workgroup. Generally, HUBs
are available with 4,8,12,24,48 ports.
When a hub receives signal on its port, it repeats the signal and forwards that signal from all ports except the
port on which the signal arrived. In below diagram leftmost node try to send signal to rightmost node, but
signals are distributed to all ports(nodes).
There are two types of HUB
Passive HUB:- It only forwards the signal on all ports without amplifying the signal.
Active HUB:- it forwards the signal with improvement in the quality of data signal by amplifying it. That why
such hubs need additional power supply.
Based on port type, there are two types of HUB: Ethernet
HUB :- All ports have RJ-45 connectors.
Combo HUB :- Several different types of connectors such RJ-45, BNC, and AUI available as ports in such HUB.
SWITCH –Switch is also used to connect multiple computers together in a LAN workgroup,just like hub.
Switches are available with 4,8,12,24,48,64 ports. Switch makes their switching decisions by using
application specific integrated circuits (ASICs). Due to switching decision capability, switch sends signal to
recipient only and that’s why switches are called as intelligent hub. In below diagram leftmost node sending
signal to rightmost node.

Router – Routers operate in the physical, data link and network layers. Router is a networking device which
chooses the best optimal path from available pats to send the signals. It interconnects different networks. The
simplest function of a router is to received packets from one connected network and pass them to second
connected network.
Gateway – A networking device capable to convert protocols so that two different network architecture
based system can communicate with each other. It works as protocol convertor.
Hub Vs. Switch
A hub works on the physical layer (Layer 1) of OSI model while Switch works on the data link layer (Layer 2).
Switch is more efficient than the hub. A switch can join multiple computers within one LAN, and a hub just
connects multiple Ethernet devices together as a single segment. Switch is smarter than hub to determine the
target of the forwarding data. Since switch has a higher performance, its cost will also become more
expensive.
Switch Vs. Router
In the OSI model, router is working on a higher level of network layer (Layer 3) than switch. Router is very
different from the switch because it is for routing packet to other networks. It is also more intelligent and
sophisticated to serve as an intermediate destination to connect multiple area networks together. A switch is
only used for wired network, yet a router can also link with the wireless network. With much more functions,
a router definitely costs higher than a switch.

Router vs Gateway
Gateway regulates traffic between two dissimilar networks, while router regulator traffic between similar
networks. A router is a hardware device that forwards data packets between computer networks. Routers
perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet.
Connection In One Network With Router - For example, there are 30 computers connected inside Network
A. All these computers communicate with each other. In this situation, no gateway is needed. Because a router
with a routing table that defines the hops within those 30 computers is enough.
Connection Between Different Networks With Gateway - In another hand, we suppose that there are two
networks, that are Network A and Network B. Computer X from Network A wants to send data to Computer
Y from Network B, then there need to have both a Gateway A and a Gateway B so that the two networks will
be able to Communicate.

Structure of a network- The geometrical arrangement of computer resources, network devices along with
communication channel is known as Network structure or Network topology.
Topology can be physical or logical
• Physical Topology-physical layout of nodes and cables in the network.
• Logical topology - the way information f lows between different components.
Types of Physical Network Topologies
• Bus Topology
• Star Topology
• Ring Topology
• Mesh Topology
• Tree Topology
• Hybrid Topology
Bus Topology
Nodes are connected through a common communication media like diagram given below.

Advantages of a Bus topology

• Easy to install
• Minimal Cable
Disadvantages of a Bus topology
• Difficult reconnection
• Difficult to find the problem
• Difficult to add new devices
• Break stops all transmission of data

Star Topology
The star topology uses a separate cable for each node/workstation. The cable connects the node to a central
device typically a HUB.

Advantages of a Star topology

• Less expensive than mesh
• Easy to install, easy to configure
• If one link fails the network can still function
Disadvantages of a Star topology
• Everything depends on the hub

Ring Topology
In ring topology every computer is connected to the next computer in the ring and each transmit the signal
,what it receives from the previous computer. The messages flow around the ring in one direction.

Advantages of a Ring topology

• Easy to install
• Easy to reconfigure
• Easy to detect a problem
Disadvantages of a Ring topology
• Break means the whole system is dead

Mesh Topology
In mesh topology , separate cable is used to connect each device to every other device on the network,
providing a straight communication path.
Advantages of a Mesh topology
• Avoid traffic since each link can carry its own data and none are being shared
• If one link breaks, the rest of the network is still functional
• Easy to detect a problem in the network by discovering which device is having problems and examining the
link that connects to it.
Disadvantages of a Mesh topology
• A lot of cables are needed
• Too many cables means too much cost
• Too many cables means complex network

Tree Topology
In which a central root node (the top level of the hierarchy) is connected to one or more other nodes that are
one level lower in the hierarchy.

Advantages of a Mesh topology

• It is scalable.
• Easier fault identification and isolation.
Disadvantages of a Mesh topology
• Maintenance of the network may be an issue when the network spans a great area.
• if the backbone fails, the entire network is crippled.

Hybrid Topology
use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way that the resulting network does not exhibit
one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.).

Types of network
1. Personal Area Network (PAN) – communication between two-three mobile devices or PC for personal
purpose.
2. Local Area Network (LAN) – limited area (within building)
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) – within city
4. Wide Area Network (WAN) – within multiple city/state/countries

1. Personal Area Network(PAN) –

Spread in the proximity of an individual. Cover an area of a few meters radius. Set up using guided media(USB
cable) or unguided media (Bluetooth, Infrared). Owned, controlled, and managed by a single person.
Examples: A network of devices such as computer, Phone, MP3/MP4 Player, Camera etc. Transferring songs
from one cell phone to another is a PAN of two phones. Transferring files from a PC to an MP3 playeris a PAN
between the two.
2. Local Area Network (LAN) –
LANs are the most frequently used/discussed networks.It is one of the most common one of the simplest
types of network.It is designed for small physical areas such as an office, group of buildings.Any of different
types of topologies can be used to design LAN like Star, Ring, Bus, Tree etc.
Characteristics of LAN
• private networks means no need of regulatory control.
• Operate at relatively high speed.
• Ethernet, Token ring etc type media access controls are used
• Connects computers in a single building, block or campus.
Advantages of LAN
• Resource Sharing
• Software Applications Sharing
• Easy and Cheap Communication
• Centralized Data
• Data Security
• Internet Sharing
Disadvantages of LAN
• High Setup Cost
• Privacy Violations
• Data Security Threat
• LAN Maintenance Job
• Covers Limited Area
Examples: A networked office building, school or home. Sometimes one building can contain a few small LANs
(Like some schools have independent LANs in each computer lab.).
3. Metropolitan Area Network(MAN):–
Spread within a city . Cover an area of a few kilometres to a few hundred kilometres radius. Set up using all
types of all guided and unguided media. Owned and operated by a government body or a large corporation.
Examples: A network of schools, or banks, or Government offices etc. within a city. A MAN is usually formed
by interconnecting a number of LANs and individual computers.
4. Wide Area Network (WAN) –
Slightly more complex than a LAN, a WAN connects computers across longer physical distances. The Internet
is the most basic example of a WAN, connecting all computers together around the world. Because of a WAN’s
vast reach, it is typically owned and maintained by any single person or owner.
Characteristics of WAN
• Covers large distances(states, countries, continents).
• Communication medium like satellite, public telephone networks etc and routers are used establish
connection.
Examples: A network of ATMs, BANKs, National Government Offices, International Organizations' Offices
etc., spread over a country, continent, or covering many continents.
Advantages of WAN
• Long distance business can connect on the one network.
• Shares software and resources
• Messages can be sent very quickly to wide range of nodes
• Hardware devices can be shared.
Disadvantages of WAN
• Need a good firewall to restrict unauthorized access
• Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and complicated.
• Maintaining a network is a full-time job
• Security is a major issue when many different people have the ability to use information
Network Layout –
The plan or design or arrangement of network wings and nodes to be laid out is known as network layout.
A good network layout provides the following features
❖ Communication speed
❖ File sharing
❖ Back up and Roll back is easy
❖ Software and Hardware sharing
❖ Security
❖ Scalability
❖ Reliability

How to decide Network Layout –

The network layout can be best which provide less installation and maintenance cost as well as easy
installation and maintenance. It is only possible when it is properly designed, design with shortest cable
length and fulfil our network requirements.

How to decide Network Layout – Example

Freya Tech Corporation (FTC) is a professional consultancy company. The company is planning to set up their
new offices in India with its hub at Udaipur. As a network adviser, you have to understand their requirement
and suggest them the best network layout.
Server location can be decided by seeing the number of computers/nodes required in each block of network.
Server must be installed at the wing/block with Maximum number of Computers due to maximum
load/requirement of services in that block in whole network .So in above example Server can be installed at
Finance block.

How to decide Repeater location

❖ We need a repeater when the total length of a single span of network cable(Twisted pair) exceeds 100
meters (328 feet).
❖ We need a repeater when the total length of a single span of network cable(Coaxial cable) exceeds 500
meters.
❖ maximum distance of a fiber optic link can be 80-100 km but it depends on varying factors like the bit rate
and the quality of the splices and the total attenuation of distance. It also depends on the power of the
transmitter and receiver quality.
Satellite link is required when network blocks/wings are too much far from each other or where
installation of cable is hard.
For data security firewall can be installed in network.
For economic internet connection – dialup internet connection would be preferred but for faster
internet broadband internet connection would be preferred.

How to decide hub/switch location

The answer is always switch when we can afford it. A Hub is always half-duplex, and simply acts as a repeater.
The resulting packet collisions, even with only 2 devices, will make it slower than simply using a cable,
whereas a switch intelligently directs traffic based on the Ethernet address(MAC address), and is full duplex,
resulting in full speed between any devices on the network at the same time.
In general sense Hub or switch any device can be installed when there are more than one computer in a
wing/block.