What is SQL?

SQL is Structured Query Language, which is a computer language for

storing, manipulating and retrieving data stored in relational database.
SQL is the standard language for Relation Database System. All relational
database management systems like MySQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase,
Informix, postgres and SQL Server use SQL as standard database language.
Also, they are using different dialects, such as:
 MS SQL Server using T-SQL,
 Oracle using PL/SQL,
 MS Access version of SQL is called JET SQL (native format) etc.

Why SQL?
 Allows users to access data in relational database management systems.
 Allows users to describe the data.
 Allows users to define the data in database and manipulate that data.
 Allows to embedding within other languages using SQL modules, libraries & pre-
compilers.
 Allows users to create and drop databases and tables.
 Allows users to create view, stored procedure, functions in a database.
 Allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

SQL Commands:
The standard SQL commands to interact with relational databases are
CREATE, SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE and DROP. These commands
can be classified into groups based on their nature:

DDL - Data Definition Language:

Command Description

CREATE Creates a new table, a view of a table, or other object in database

ALTER Modifies an existing database object, such as a table.

DROP Deletes an entire table, a view of a table or other object in the database.

DML - Data Manipulation Language:

Command Description

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 SELECT Retrieves certain records from one or more tables

INSERT Creates a record

UPDATE Modifies records

DELETE Deletes records

DCL - Data Control Language:

Command Description

GRANT Gives a privilege to user

REVOKE Takes back privileges granted from user

SQL - RDBMS Concepts

What is RDBMS?
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System. RDBMS is the
basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems like MS SQL Server, IBM
DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access.
A Relational database management system (RDBMS) is a database
management system (DBMS) that is based on the relational model as
introduced by E. F. Codd.
What is table?
The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables. The table is
a collection of related data entries and it consists of columns and rows.
Remember, a table is the most common and simplest form of data storage
in a relational database. Following is the example of a CUSTOMERS table:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|
|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|
|4|Chaitali|25|Mumbai|6500.00|
|5|Hardik|27|Bhopal|8500.00|
|6|Komal|22| MP |4500.00|
|7|Muffy|24|Indore|10000.00|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

What is field?
Every table is broken up into smaller entities called fields. The fields in the
CUSTOMERS table consist of ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS and SALARY.

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A field is a column in a table that is designed to maintain specific
information about every record in the table.
What is record or row?
A record, also called a row of data, is each individual entry that exists in a
table. For example there are 7 records in the above CUSTOMERS table.
Following is a single row of data or record in the CUSTOMERS table:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

A record is a horizontal entity in a table.

What is column?
A column is a vertical entity in a table that contains all information
associated with a specific field in a table.
For example, a column in the CUSTOMERS table is ADDRESS, which
represents location description and would consist of the following:
+-----------+
| ADDRESS |
+-----------+
|Ahmedabad|
|Delhi|
|Kota|
|Mumbai|
|Bhopal|
| MP |
|Indore|
+----+------+

What is NULL value?

A NULL value in a table is a value in a field that appears to be blank, which
means a field with a NULL value is a field with no value.It is very important
to understand that a NULL value is different than a zero value or a field that
contains spaces. A field with a NULL value is one that has been left blank
during record creation.

SQL - CREATE Database

The SQL CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create new SQL
database.

Syntax:
Basic syntax of CREATE DATABASE statement is as follows:
CREATE DATABASE DatabaseName;

Always database name should be unique within the RDBMS.

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Example:
If you want to create new database <testDB>, then CREATE DATABASE
statement would be as follows:
SQL> CREATE DATABASE testDB;

Make sure you have admin privilege before creating any database. Once a
database is created, you can check it in the list of databases as follows:
SQL> SHOW DATABASES;
+--------------------+
|Database|
+--------------------+
|information_schema|
| AMROOD |
| TUTORIALSPOINT |
|mysql|
|orig|
|test|
|testDB|
+--------------------+
7 rows inset(0.00 sec)

SQL - DROP or DELETE Database

The SQL DROP DATABASE statement is used to drop an existing database
in SQL schema.

Syntax:
Basic syntax of DROP DATABASE statement is as follows:
DROP DATABASE DatabaseName;

Always database name should be unique within the RDBMS.

Example:
If you want to delete an existing database <testDB>, then DROP DATABASE
statement would be as follows:
SQL> DROP DATABASE testDB;

NOTE: Be careful before using this operation because by deleting an

existing database would result in loss of complete information stored in the
database.
Make sure you have admin privilege before dropping any database. Once a
database is dropped, you can check it in the list of databases as follows:
SQL> SHOW DATABASES;
+--------------------+

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|Database|
+--------------------+
|information_schema|
| AMROOD |
| TUTORIALSPOINT |
|mysql|
|orig|
|test|
+--------------------+
6 rows inset(0.00 sec)

SQL Constraints:
Constraints are the rules enforced on data columns on table. These are used
to limit the type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy
and reliability of the data in the database.
Constraints could be column level or table level. Column level constraints
are applied only to one column where as table level constraints are applied
to the whole table.
Following are commonly used constraints available in SQL:
 NOT NULL Constraint: Ensures that a column cannot have NULL value.
 DEFAULT Constraint: Provides a default value for a column when none is
specified.
 UNIQUE Constraint: Ensures that all values in a column are different.
 PRIMARY Key: Uniquely identified each rows/records in a database table.
 FOREIGN Key: Uniquely identified a rows/records in any another database table.
 CHECK Constraint: The CHECK constraint ensures that all values in a column
satisfy certain conditions.
 INDEX: Use to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly.

SQL - CREATE Table

Creating a basic table involves naming the table and defining its columns
and each column's data type.
The SQL CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new table.

Syntax:
Basic syntax of CREATE TABLE statement is as follows:
CREATE TABLE table_name(
column1datatype,
column2datatype,
column3datatype,
.....
columnNdatatype,
PRIMARY KEY( one or more columns )

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);

CREATE TABLE is the keyword telling the database system what you want to
do. In this case, you want to create a new table. The unique name or
identifier for the table follows the CREATE TABLE statement.
Then in brackets comes the list defining each column in the table and what
sort of data type it is. The syntax becomes clearer with an example below.
A copy of an existing table can be created using a combination of the
CREATE TABLE statement and the SELECT statement. You can check
complete details at Create Table Using another Table.

Example:
Following is an example, which creates a CUSTOMERS table with ID as
primary key and NOT NULL are the constraints showing that these fields can
not be NULL while creating records in this table:
SQL> CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(
ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR(25),
SALARY DECIMAL (18,2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

You can verify if your table has been created successfully by looking at the
message displayed by the SQL server, otherwise you can
use DESC command as follows:
SQL> DESC CUSTOMERS;
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
|Field|Type|Null|Key|Default|Extra|
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| ID |int(11)| NO | PRI |||
| NAME |varchar(20)| NO ||||
| AGE |int(11)| NO ||||
| ADDRESS |char(25)| YES || NULL ||
|SALARY |decimal(18,2)| YES || NULL ||
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
5 rows inset(0.00 sec)

Now, you have CUSTOMERS table available in your database which you can
use to store required information related to customers.

SQL - DROP or DELETE Table

The SQL DROP TABLE statement is used to remove a table definition and
all data, indexes, triggers, constraints, and permission specifications for that
table.

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NOTE: You have to be careful while using this command because once a
table is deleted then all the information available in the table would also be
lost forever.

Syntax:
Basic syntax of DROP TABLE statement is as follows:
DROP TABLE table_name;

Example:
Let us first verify CUSTOMERS table and then we would delete it from the
database:
SQL> DESC CUSTOMERS;
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
|Field|Type|Null|Key|Default|Extra|
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| ID |int(11)| NO | PRI |||
| NAME |varchar(20)| NO ||||
| AGE |int(11)| NO ||||
| ADDRESS |char(25)| YES || NULL ||
|SALARY |decimal(18,2)| YES || NULL ||
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
5 rows inset(0.00 sec)

This means CUSTOMERS table is available in the database, so let us drop it

as follows:
SQL> DROP TABLE CUSTOMERS;
Query OK,0 rows affected (0.01 sec)

Now, if you would try DESC command, then you would get error as follows:
SQL> DESC CUSTOMERS;
ERROR 1146(42S02):Table'TEST.CUSTOMERS' doesn't exist

Here, TEST is database name which we are using for our examples.

SQL - INSERT Query

The SQL INSERT INTO Statement is used to add new rows of data to a table
in the database.

Syntax:
There are two basic syntaxes of INSERT INTO statement as follows:
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME (column1, column2, column3,...columnN)]
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...valueN);

Here, column1, column2,...columnN are the names of the columns in the

table into which you want to insert data.

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You may not need to specify the column(s) name in the SQL query if you are
adding values for all the columns of the table. But make sure the order of
the values is in the same order as the columns in the table. The SQL INSERT
INTO syntax would be as follows:
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME VALUES (value1,value2,value3,...valueN);

Example:
Following statements would create six records in CUSTOMERS table:
INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)
VALUES (1,'Ramesh',32,'Ahmedabad',2000.00);

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (2,'Khilan',25,'Delhi',1500.00);

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (3,'kaushik',23,'Kota',2000.00);

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (4,'Chaitali',25,'Mumbai',6500.00);

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (5,'Hardik',27,'Bhopal',8500.00);

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (6,'Komal',22,'MP',4500.00);

You can create a record in CUSTOMERS table using second syntax as

follows:
INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS
VALUES (7,'Muffy',24,'Indore',10000.00);

All the above statements would produce the following records in

CUSTOMERS table:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|
|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|
|4|Chaitali|25|Mumbai|6500.00|
|5|Hardik|27|Bhopal|8500.00|
|6|Komal|22| MP |4500.00|
|7|Muffy|24|Indore|10000.00|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Populate one table using another table:

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You can populate data into a table through select statement over another
table provided another table has a set of fields, which are required to
populate first table. Here is the syntax:
INSERT INTO first_table_name[(column1,column2,...columnN)]
SELECT column1,column2,...columnN
FROM second_table_name
[WHERE condition];

SQL - SELECT Database, USE Statement

When you have multiple databases in your SQL Schema, then before
starting your operation, you would need to select a database where all the
operations would be performed.
The SQL USE statement is used to select any existing database in SQL
schema.

Syntax:
Basic syntax of USE statement is as follows:
USE DatabaseName;

Always database name should be unique within the RDBMS.

Example:
You can check available databases as follows:
SQL> SHOW DATABASES;
+--------------------+
|Database|
+--------------------+
|information_schema|
| AMROOD |
| TUTORIALSPOINT |
|mysql|
|orig|
|test|
+--------------------+
6 rows inset(0.00 sec)

Now, if you want to work with AMROOD database, then you can execute the
following SQL command and start working with AMROOD database:

SQL - WHERE Clause

The SQL WHERE clause is used to specify a condition while fetching the
data from single table or joining with multiple tables.

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If the given condition is satisfied then only it returns specific value from the
table. You would use WHERE clause to filter the records and fetching only
necessary records.
The WHERE clause is not only used in SELECT statement, but it is also used
in UPDATE, DELETE statement, etc., which we would examine in subsequent
chapters.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of SELECT statement with WHERE clause is as follows:
SELECT column1, column2,columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition]

You can specify a condition using comparison or logical operators like >, <,
=, LIKE, NOT, etc. Below examples would make this concept clear.

Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|
|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|
|4|Chaitali|25|Mumbai|6500.00|
|5|Hardik|27|Bhopal|8500.00|
|6|Komal|22| MP |4500.00|
|7|Muffy|24|Indore|10000.00|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example which would fetch ID, Name and Salary fields from
the CUSTOMERS table where salary is greater than 2000:
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY >2000;

This would produce the following result:

+----+----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+----------+----------+
|4|Chaitali|6500.00|
|5|Hardik|8500.00|
|6|Komal|4500.00|
|7|Muffy|10000.00|
+----+----------+----------+

Following is an example, which would fetch ID, Name and Salary fields from
the CUSTOMERS table for a customer with name Hardik. Here, it is
important to note that all the strings should be given inside single quotes ('')

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where as numeric values should be given without any quote as in above
example:
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE NAME ='Hardik';

This would produce the following result:

+----+----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+----------+----------+
|5|Hardik|8500.00|
+----+----------+----------+

Data Integrity:
The following categories of the data integrity exist with each RDBMS:
 Entity Integrity: There are no duplicate rows in a table.
 Domain Integrity: Enforces valid entries for a given column by restricting the
type, the format, or the range of values.
 Referential integrity: Rows cannot be deleted, which are used by other
records.
 User-Defined Integrity: Enforces some specific business rules that do not fall
into entity, domain or referential integrity.

Database Normalization
Database normalization is the process of efficiently organizing data in a
database. There are two reasons of the normalization process:
 Eliminating redundant data, for example, storing the same data in more than
one tables.
 Ensuring data dependencies make sense.
Both of these are worthy goals as they reduce the amount of space a
database consumes and ensure that data is logically stored. Normalization
consists of a series of guidelines that help guide you in creating a good
database structure.
Normalization guidelines are divided into normal forms; think of form as the
format or the way a database structure is laid out. The aim of normal forms
is to organize the database structure so that it complies with the rules of
first normal form, then second normal form, and finally third normal form.
It's your choice to take it further and go to fourth normal form, fifth normal
form, and so on, but generally speaking, third normal form is enough.
 First Normal Form (1NF)
 Second Normal Form (2NF)

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  Third Normal Form (3NF)

SQL - Operators
What is an Operator in SQL?
An operator is a reserved word or a character used primarily in an SQL
statement's WHERE clause to perform operation(s), such as comparisons
and arithmetic operations.
Operators are used to specify conditions in an SQL statement and to serve
as conjunctions for multiple conditions in a statement.
 Arithmetic operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 Operators used to negate conditions

SQL Arithmetic Operators:

Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then:
Show Examples
Operator Description Example

+ Addition - Adds values on either side of the operator a + b will

give 30

- Subtraction - Subtracts right hand operand from left hand operand a - b will
give -10

* Multiplication - Multiplies values on either side of the operator a * b will

give 200

/ Division - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand b / a will

give 2

% Modulus - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand and b%a
returns remainder will give
0

SQL Comparison Operators:

Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then:

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Operator Description Example

= Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if yes then (a = b) is
condition becomes true. not true.

!= Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are not (a != b)
equal then condition becomes true. is true.

<> Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are not (a <> b)
equal then condition becomes true. is true.

> Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of right (a > b) is
operand, if yes then condition becomes true. not true.

< Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of right (a < b) is
operand, if yes then condition becomes true. true.

>= Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the value (a >= b)
of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. is not
true.

<= Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of (a <= b)
right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. is true.

!< Checks if the value of left operand is not less than the value of right (a !< b)
operand, if yes then condition becomes true. is false.

!> Checks if the value of left operand is not greater than the value of right (a !> b)
operand, if yes then condition becomes true. is true.

Show Examples

SQL Logical Operators:

Here is a list of all the logical operators available in SQL.
Show Examples
Operator Description

ALL The ALL operator is used to compare a value to all values in another value set.

AND The AND operator allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL statement's
WHERE clause.

ANY The ANY operator is used to compare a value to any applicable value in the list
according to the condition.

BETWEEN The BETWEEN operator is used to search for values that are within a set of values,
given the minimum value and the maximum value.

EXISTS The EXISTS operator is used to search for the presence of a row in a specified table
that meets certain criteria.

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IN The IN operator is used to compare a value to a list of literal values that have been
specified.

LIKE The LIKE operator is used to compare a value to similar values using wildcard
operators.

NOT The NOT operator reverses the meaning of the logical operator with which it is used.
Eg: NOT EXISTS, NOT BETWEEN, NOT IN, etc. This is a negate operator.

OR The OR operator is used to combine multiple conditions in an SQL statement's

WHERE clause.

IS NULL The NULL operator is used to compare a value with a NULL value.

UNIQUE The UNIQUE operator searches every row of a specified table for uniqueness (no
duplicates).

SQL - AND and OR Conjunctive Operators

The SQL AND and OR operators are used to combine multiple conditions to
narrow data in an SQL statement. These two operators are called
conjunctive operators.
These operators provide a means to make multiple comparisons with
different operators in the same SQL statement.

The AND Operator:

The AND operator allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL
statement's WHERE clause.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of AND operator with WHERE clause is as follows:
SELECT column1, column2,columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition1] AND [condition2]...AND [conditionN];

You can combine N number of conditions using AND operator. For an action
to be taken by the SQL statement, whether it be a transaction or query, all
conditions separated by the AND must be TRUE.

Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|
|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|

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|4|Chaitali|25|Mumbai|6500.00|
|5|Hardik|27|Bhopal|8500.00|
|6|Komal|22| MP |4500.00|
|7|Muffy|24|Indore|10000.00|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example, which would fetch ID, Name and Salary fields from
the CUSTOMERS table where salary is greater than 2000 AND age is less tan
25 years:
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY >2000 AND age <25;

This would produce the following result:

+----+-------+----------+
| ID |NAME | SALARY |
+----+-------+----------+
|6|Komal|4500.00|
|7|Muffy|10000.00|
+----+-------+----------+

The OR Operator:
The OR operator is used to combine multiple conditions in an SQL
statement's WHERE clause.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of OR operator with WHERE clause is as follows:
SELECT column1, column2,columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition1] OR [condition2]...OR [conditionN]

You can combine N number of conditions using OR operator. For an action to

be taken by the SQL statement, whether it be a transaction or query, only
any ONE of the conditions separated by the OR must be TRUE.

Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|
|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|
|4|Chaitali|25|Mumbai|6500.00|
|5|Hardik|27|Bhopal|8500.00|
|6|Komal|22| MP |4500.00|
|7|Muffy|24|Indore|10000.00|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

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Following is an example, which would fetch ID, Name and Salary fields from
the CUSTOMERS table where salary is greater than 2000 OR age is less tan
25 years:
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY >2000 OR age <25;

This would produce the following result:

+----+----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+----------+----------+
|3|kaushik|2000.00|
|4|Chaitali|6500.00|
|5|Hardik|8500.00|
|6|Komal|4500.00|
|7|Muffy|10000.00|
+----+----------+----------+

SQL - Expressions
An expression is a combination of one or more values, operators, and SQL
functions that evaluate to a value.
SQL EXPRESSIONs are like formulas and they are written in query language.
You can also use them to query the database for specific set of data.

Syntax:
Consider the basic syntax of the SELECT statement as follows:
SELECT column1, column2,columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE [CONDITION|EXPRESSION];

There are different types of SQL expressions, which are mentioned below:

SQL - Boolean Expressions:

SQL Boolean Expressions fetch the data on the basis of matching single
value. Following is the syntax:
SELECT column1, column2,columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE SINGLE VALUE MATCHTING EXPRESSION;

Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|
|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|

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|4|Chaitali|25|Mumbai|6500.00|
|5|Hardik|27|Bhopal|8500.00|
|6|Komal|22| MP |4500.00|
|7|Muffy|24|Indore|10000.00|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
7 rows inset(0.00 sec)

Here is simple example showing usage of SQL Boolean Expressions:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY =10000;
+----+-------+-----+---------+----------+
| ID |NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+-------+-----+---------+----------+
|7|Muffy|24|Indore|10000.00|
+----+-------+-----+---------+----------+
1 row inset(0.00 sec)

SQL - Numeric Expression:

This expression is used to perform any mathematical operation in any
query. Following is the syntax:
SELECT numerical_expressionas OPERATION_NAME
[FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION];

Here numerical_expression is used for mathematical expression or any

formula. Following is a simple examples showing usage of SQL Numeric
Expressions:
SQL> SELECT (15+6) AS ADDITION
+----------+
| ADDITION |
+----------+
|21|
+----------+
1 row inset(0.00 sec)

There are several built-in functions like avg(), sum(), count(), etc., to
perform what is known as aggregate data calculations against a table or a
specific table column.
SQL> SELECT COUNT(*) AS "RECORDS" FROM CUSTOMERS;
+---------+
| RECORDS |
+---------+
|7|
+---------+
1 row inset(0.00 sec)

SQL - Date Expressions:

Date Expressions return current system date and time values:
SQL> SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP;
+---------------------+
|Current_Timestamp|

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+---------------------+
|2009-11-1206:40:23|
+---------------------+
1 row inset(0.00 sec)

Another date expression is as follows:

SQL> SELECT GETDATE();;
+-------------------------+
| GETDATE |
+-------------------------+
|2009-10-2212:07:18.140|
+-------------------------+
1 row inset(0.00 sec)

SQL - UPDATE Query

The SQL UPDATE Query is used to modify the existing records in a table.
You can use WHERE clause with UPDATE query to update selected rows
otherwise all the rows would be affected.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of UPDATE query with WHERE clause is as follows:
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2....,columnN=valueN
WHERE [condition];

You can combine N number of conditions using AND or OR operators.

Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|
|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|
|4|Chaitali|25|Mumbai|6500.00|
|5|Hardik|27|Bhopal|8500.00|
|6|Komal|22| MP |4500.00|
|7|Muffy|24|Indore|10000.00|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example, which would update ADDRESS for a customer

whose ID is 6:
SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS
SET ADDRESS ='Pune'
WHERE ID =6;

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Now, CUSTOMERS table would have the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|
|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|
|4|Chaitali|25|Mumbai|6500.00|
|5|Hardik|27|Bhopal|8500.00|
|6|Komal|22|Pune|4500.00|
|7|Muffy|24|Indore|10000.00|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

If you want to modify all ADDRESS and SALARY column values in

CUSTOMERS table, you do not need to use WHERE clause and UPDATE
query would be as follows:
SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS
SET ADDRESS ='Pune', SALARY =1000.00;

Now, CUSTOMERS table would have the following records:

+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS |SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Pune|1000.00|
|2|Khilan|25|Pune|1000.00|
|3|kaushik|23|Pune|1000.00|
|4|Chaitali|25|Pune|1000.00|
|5|Hardik|27|Pune|1000.00|
|6|Komal|22|Pune|1000.00|
|7|Muffy|24|Pune|1000.00|
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+

SQL - DELETE Query

The SQL DELETE Query is used to delete the existing records from a table.
You can use WHERE clause with DELETE query to delete selected rows,
otherwise all the records would be deleted.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of DELETE query with WHERE clause is as follows:
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE [condition];

You can combine N number of conditions using AND or OR operators.

Example:

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Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|
|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|
|4|Chaitali|25|Mumbai|6500.00|
|5|Hardik|27|Bhopal|8500.00|
|6|Komal|22| MP |4500.00|
|7|Muffy|24|Indore|10000.00|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example, which would DELETE a customer, whose ID is 6:

SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE ID =6;

Now, CUSTOMERS table would have the following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|
|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|
|4|Chaitali|25|Mumbai|6500.00|
|5|Hardik|27|Bhopal|8500.00|
|7|Muffy|24|Indore|10000.00|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

If you want to DELETE all the records from CUSTOMERS table, you do not
need to use WHERE clause and DELETE query would be as follows:
SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS;

Now, CUSTOMERS table would not have any record.

SQL - LIKE Clause

The SQL LIKE clause is used to compare a value to similar values using
wildcard operators. There are two wildcards used in conjunction with the
LIKE operator:
 The percent sign (%)
 The underscore (_)
The percent sign represents zero, one, or multiple characters. The
underscore represents a single number or character. The symbols can be
used in combinations.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of % and _ is as follows:
SELECT FROM table_name

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WHERE column LIKE 'XXXX%'

or

SELECT FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE '%XXXX%'

or

SELECT FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE 'XXXX_'

or

SELECT FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE '_XXXX'

or

SELECT FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE '_XXXX_'

You can combine N number of conditions using AND or OR operators. Here,

XXXX could be any numeric or string value.

Example:
Here are number of examples showing WHERE part having different LIKE
clause with '%' and '_' operators:
Statement Description

WHERE SALARY LIKE '200%' Finds any values that start with 200

WHERE SALARY LIKE Finds any values that have 200 in any position
'%200%'

WHERE SALARY LIKE '_00%' Finds any values that have 00 in the second and third positions

WHERE SALARY LIKE '2_%_ Finds any values that start with 2 and are at least 3 characters in
%' length

WHERE SALARY LIKE '%2' Finds any values that end with 2

WHERE SALARY LIKE '_2%3' Finds any values that have a 2 in the second position and end with
a3

WHERE SALARY LIKE '2___3' Finds any values in a five-digit number that start with 2 and end
with 3

Let us take a real example, consider the CUSTOMERS table having the
following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

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| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|
|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|
|4|Chaitali|25|Mumbai|6500.00|
|5|Hardik|27|Bhopal|8500.00|
|6|Komal|22| MP |4500.00|
|7|Muffy|24|Indore|10000.00|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example, which would display all the records from

CUSTOMERS table where SALARY starts with 200:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY LIKE '200%';

This would produce the following result:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

SQL - TOP, LIMIT or ROWNUM Clause

The SQL TOP clause is used to fetch a TOP N number or X percent records
from a table.
Note: All the databases do not support TOP clause. For example MySQL
supports LIMITclause to fetch limited number of records and Oracle
uses ROWNUM to fetch limited number of records.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of TOP clause with SELECT statement would be as follows:
SELECT TOP number|percentcolumn_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition]

Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:

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+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|
|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|
|4|Chaitali|25|Mumbai|6500.00|
|5|Hardik|27|Bhopal|8500.00|
|6|Komal|22| MP |4500.00|
|7|Muffy|24|Indore|10000.00|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example on SQL server, which would fetch top 3 records

from CUSTOMERS table:
SQL> SELECT TOP 3* FROM CUSTOMERS;

This would produce the following result:

+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS |SALARY |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|
|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+

If you are using MySQL server, then here is an equivalent example:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
LIMIT 3;

This would produce the following result:

+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS |SALARY |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|
|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+

If you are using Oracle server, then here is an equivalent example:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE ROWNUM <=3;

This would produce the following result:

+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS |SALARY |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|
|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+

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SQL - ORDER BY Clause
The SQL ORDER BY clause is used to sort the data in ascending or
descending order, based on one or more columns. Some database sorts
query results in ascending order by default.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of ORDER BY clause is as follows:

SELECT column-list

FROM table_name

[WHERE condition]

[ORDER BY column1, column2,..columnN][ASC | DESC];

You can use more than one column in the ORDER BY clause. Make sure
whatever column you are using to sort, that column should be in column-
list.

Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|

|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|

|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|

|4|Chaitali|25|Mumbai|6500.00|

|5|Hardik|27|Bhopal|8500.00|

|6|Komal|22| MP |4500.00|

|7|Muffy|24|Indore|10000.00|

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example, which would sort the result in ascending order by

NAME and SALARY:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY NAME, SALARY;

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This would produce the following result:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

|4|Chaitali|25|Mumbai|6500.00|

|5|Hardik|27|Bhopal|8500.00|

|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|

|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|

|6|Komal|22| MP |4500.00|

|7|Muffy|24|Indore|10000.00|

|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is an example, which would sort the result in descending order by

NAME:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY NAME DESC;

This would produce the following result:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|

|7|Muffy|24|Indore|10000.00|

|6|Komal|22| MP |4500.00|

|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|

|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|

|5|Hardik|27|Bhopal|8500.00|

|4|Chaitali|25|Mumbai|6500.00|

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

SQL - Group By

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The SQL GROUP BY clause is used in collaboration with the SELECT
statement to arrange identical data into groups.
The GROUP BY clause follows the WHERE clause in a SELECT statement and
precedes the ORDER BY clause.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of GROUP BY clause is given below. The GROUP BY clause
must follow the conditions in the WHERE clause and must precede the
ORDER BY clause if one is used.
SELECT column1, column2
FROM table_name
WHERE [ conditions]
GROUP BY column1, column2
ORDER BY column1, column2

Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table is having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|
|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|
|4|Chaitali|25|Mumbai|6500.00|
|5|Hardik|27|Bhopal|8500.00|
|6|Komal|22| MP |4500.00|
|7|Muffy|24|Indore|10000.00|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

If you want to know the total amount of salary on each customer, then
GROUP BY query would be as follows:
SQL> SELECT NAME,SUM(SALARY) FROM CUSTOMERS
GROUP BY NAME;

This would produce the following result:

+----------+-------------+
| NAME |SUM(SALARY)|
+----------+-------------+
|Chaitali|6500.00|
|Hardik|8500.00|
|kaushik|2000.00|
|Khilan|1500.00|
|Komal|4500.00|
|Muffy|10000.00|
|Ramesh|2000.00|
+----------+-------------+

Now, let us have following table where CUSTOMERS table has the following
records with duplicate names:

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+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
|2|Ramesh|25|Delhi|1500.00|
|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|
|4|kaushik|25|Mumbai|6500.00|
|5|Hardik|27|Bhopal|8500.00|
|6|Komal|22| MP |4500.00|
|7|Muffy|24|Indore|10000.00|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Now again, if you want to know the total amount of salary on each
customer, then GROUP BY query would be as follows:
SQL> SELECT NAME,SUM(SALARY) FROM CUSTOMERS
GROUP BY NAME;

This would produce the following result:

+---------+-------------+
| NAME |SUM(SALARY)|
+---------+-------------+
|Hardik|8500.00|
|kaushik|8500.00|
|Komal|4500.00|
|Muffy|10000.00|
|Ramesh|3500.00|
+---------+-------------+

SQL - Distinct Keyword

The SQL DISTINCT keyword is used in conjunction with SELECT statement

to eliminate all the duplicate records and fetching only unique records.
There may be a situation when you have multiple duplicate records in a
table. While fetching such records, it makes more sense to fetch only unique
records instead of fetching duplicate records.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of DISTINCT keyword to eliminate duplicate records is as
follows:
SELECT DISTINCT column1,column2,.....columnN

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FROM table_name
WHERE [condition]

Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|
|3|kaushik|23|Kota|2000.00|
|4|Chaitali|25|Mumbai|6500.00|
|5|Hardik|27|Bhopal|8500.00|
|6|Komal|22| MP |4500.00|
|7|Muffy|24|Indore|10000.00|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

First, let us see how the following SELECT query returns duplicate salary
records:
SQL> SELECT SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS
ORDER BY SALARY;

This would produce the following result where salary 2000 is coming twice
which is a duplicate record from the original table.
+----------+
| SALARY |
+----------+
|1500.00|
|2000.00|
|2000.00|
|4500.00|
|6500.00|
|8500.00|
|10000.00|
+----------+

Now, let us use DISTINCT keyword with the above SELECT query and see the
result:
SQL> SELECT DISTINCT SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS
ORDER BY SALARY;

This would produce the following result where we do not have any duplicate
entry:
+----------+
| SALARY |
+----------+
|1500.00|
|2000.00|
|4500.00|
|6500.00|
|8500.00|

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|10000.00|
+----------

SQL Syntax
SQL SELECT Statement:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name;
SQL DISTINCT Clause:
SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name;
SQL WHERE Clause:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION;
SQL AND/OR Clause:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION-1{AND|OR} CONDITION-2;
SQL IN Clause:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (val-1, val-2,...val-N);
SQL BETWEEN Clause:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN val-1 AND val-2;
SQL LIKE Clause:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE { PATTERN };
SQL ORDER BY Clause:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
ORDER BY column_name{ASC|DESC};
SQL GROUP BY Clause:
SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name

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WHERE CONDITION
GROUP BY column_name;
SQL COUNT Clause:
SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION;
SQL HAVING Clause:
SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING (arithematicfunction condition);
SQL CREATE TABLE Statement:
CREATE TABLE table_name(
column1datatype,
column2datatype,
column3datatype,
.....
columnNdatatype,
PRIMARY KEY( one or more columns )
);
SQL DROP TABLE Statement:
DROP TABLE table_name;
SQL CREATE INDEX Statement:
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name
ON table_name( column1, column2,...columnN);
SQL DROP INDEX Statement:
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP INDEX index_name;
SQL DESC Statement:
DESC table_name;
SQL TRUNCATE TABLE Statement:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement:
ALTER TABLE table_name{ADD|DROP|MODIFY}column_name{data_ype};
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement (Rename) :
ALTER TABLE table_name RENAME TO new_table_name;
SQL INSERT INTO Statement:

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INSERT INTO table_name( column1, column2....columnN)
VALUES ( value1, value2....valueN);
SQL UPDATE Statement:
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2....columnN=valueN
[ WHERE CONDITION ];
SQL DELETE Statement:
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE {CONDITION};
SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement:
CREATE DATABASE database_name;
SQL DROP DATABASE Statement:
DROP DATABASE database_name;
SQL USE Statement:
USE database_name;
SQL COMMIT Statement:
COMMIT;
SQL ROLLBACK Statement:
ROLLBACK;

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