Operating System unit 1:

1. What are the different types of operating systems? Explain them in detail.
Ans: Types of Operating Systems There are several types of Operating Systems which are mentioned
below.

 Batch Operating System

 Multi-Programming System

 Multi-Processing System

 Multi-Tasking Operating System

 Time-Sharing Operating System

 Personal Computers

 Parallel Operating System

 Distributed Operating System

 Network Operating System

 Real-Time Operating System

2. What are the main characteristics of real time operating system?
Real-time System is a system that is put through real time which means response is obtained within
a specified timing constraint or system meets the specified deadline.Real time system is of two types
- Hard and Soft. Both are used in different cases. Hard real time systems are used where even the
delay of some nano or micro seconds are not allowed. Soft real time systems provide some relaxation
in time expression.

Characteristics of Real-time System:

Following are the some of the characteristics of Real-time System:

1. Time Constraints: Time constraints related with real-time systems simply means that time
interval allotted for the response of the ongoing program. This deadline means that the task
should be completed within this time interval. Real-time system is responsible for the
completion of all tasks within their time intervals.

2. Correctness: Correctness is one of the prominent part of real-time systems. Real-time

systems produce correct result within the given time interval. If the result is not obtained
within the given time interval then also result is not considered correct. In real-time systems,
correctness of result is to obtain correct result in time constraint.

3. Deterministic Behavior:
RTOS provides predictable and consistent response times to external events. The system
must respond within a known and guaranteed time limit, known as a deadline.

4. Priority-Based Scheduling:
Tasks are assigned priorities, and the scheduler always runs the highest-priority ready task.
This allows urgent tasks to be serviced quickly.

5. Low Latency:
RTOS minimizes the time taken to respond to an interrupt or event. This is important for
applications where immediate reaction is required.

6. Reliable and Robust:

RTOS is designed to be highly reliable and stable, especially for long-running and mission-
critical systems. It often includes fault-tolerance features such as watchdog timers.
7. Memory Management:
It offers efficient memory management, often using static allocation to avoid fragmentation
and delays associated with dynamic memory allocation.

8. Support for Timers and Clocks:

RTOS provides accurate timing services and clock management, essential for scheduling tasks
and measuring time intervals.

3. What is the operating system? Explain structures of os.

An Operating System (OS) is system software that acts as an interface between the user and the
hardware. It manages hardware resources such as CPU, memory, and I/O devices and provides
services for computer programs. It enables the execution of application software and manages
system operations like file handling, process control, and device management.

Structure of Os:

a. Monolithic Structure:

In this structure, the entire OS works in kernel space and is a single large program.

All functionalities like file system, memory management, and device drivers are included in the
kernel.

Communication between components is done through system calls.

b. Layered Structure:

The OS is divided into layers, each built on top of lower layers.

Each layer performs a specific function and interacts only with adjacent layers.

The bottom layer is hardware, and the top is the user interface.

c. Microkernel Structure:

Only the essential parts of the OS (like process and memory management) run in kernel mode.

Other services (e.g., device drivers, file systems) run in user mode.

D. Modular Structure:

OS is divided into modules that can be loaded or removed at runtime.

Combines benefits of monolithic and microkernel structures.

Each module is independent and interacts with a well-defined interface.

d. Hybrid Structure:

Combines aspects of monolithic and microkernel systems.

Core OS services run in kernel mode; less critical services may run in user mode.
4. Discuss the advantages and challenges of building and managing
distributed operating system.
A Distributed Operating System (DOS) is a type of operating system that manages a group of
independent computers and makes them appear to the users as a single coherent system. It
allows multiple computers to work together and share resources efficiently.

Advantages of Distributed Operating System:

1. Resource Sharing:

o Users can access and share hardware and software resources (e.g., files, printers,
databases) across the network.

2. Improved Performance:

o Workload is divided among several machines, which increases overall system

throughput and performance.

3. Reliability and Fault Tolerance:

o If one node fails, others can continue to function, increasing system reliability and
availability.

4. Scalability:

o Easy to expand the system by adding more nodes without affecting the existing
system significantly.

5. Concurrency:

o Multiple processes can be executed simultaneously on different machines, leading to

better utilization of resources.

6. Transparency:

o The system provides various forms of transparency (location, access, replication,

concurrency, failure) so users don’t need to know where resources are physically
located.

Challenges of Distributed Operating System:

1. Complexity:

o Designing and managing a DOS is complex due to the need for coordination,
synchronization, and communication between nodes.

2. Security Issues:

o More difficult to secure data and resources in a distributed environment due to the
involvement of multiple systems and communication over a network.

3. Network Dependency:

o The performance of a DOS heavily depends on the speed and reliability of the
network. Network failure can disrupt the entire system.
 4. Data Consistency:

o Maintaining consistency of data across all nodes is challenging, especially in the case
of replication.

5. Fault Detection and Recovery:

o Detecting failures and recovering from them in a distributed system is much harder
compared to centralized systems.

6. Resource Management:

o Efficiently managing resources such as CPU, memory, and storage across different
nodes requires complex algorithms.

5. What is need of for system calls? Explain the types of system calls provided
by an operating system with respect to memory management.
A system call is a mechanism that allows a user-level program to request a service from the
operating system's kernel. Since user programs cannot directly access hardware or critical resources,
system calls act as a controlled interface between the user space and the kernel space.

There are various situations where we must require system calls in the operating system. Following
of the situations are as follows:

1. It is must require when a file system wants to create or delete a file.

2. Network connections require the system calls to sending and receiving data packets.

3. If you want to read or write a file, you need to system calls.

4. If you want to access hardware devices, including a printer, scanner, you need a system call.

5. System calls are used to create and manage new processes.

Types of System Calls Related to Memory Management:

Memory management system calls are used by processes to allocate, deallocate, and manage
memory dynamically during execution. The following are some common types:

1. malloc() (Allocate Memory):

 These system calls (or their kernel-level equivalents) are used to allocate memory to a
process dynamically.

2.mmap():

This system call maps a file or device into memory, allowing programs to
access the file's contents as if it were a memory region. It's often used for
memory-mapped I/O.
3.munmap():
This system call unmaps a memory region previously mapped using mmap(), freeing up the
memory.
4.shmat():
This system call attaches a shared memory segment to the address space of the calling
process.

 shmdt(): This system call detaches a shared memory segment from the address space of a
process.

6. free() (Deallocate Memory):

 While free() is a user-level library call, internally it triggers system-level memory deallocation
mechanisms to return memory to the system.

6.Explain about the services of operating system.