Equine Science

Student Reference
10-4610-S

In cooperation with the Agricultural Education Department and

the College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources
University of Missouri-Columbia
 Introduction
Lesson 1: Introduction him to the West Indies in 1493, while Cortez brought
horses from Spain to Mexico in 1519. The Spanish
Fossil remains of the horse family have been found on the explorer, de Soto, was the first to bring horses to what is
Great Plains. These fossils date back to approximately 58 now the United Sates when he traveled from the Florida
million years ago. When Columbus came to America, the Everglades to the Missouri Ozarks. Missionaries also
horse had vanished.There are several theories about why brought horses into the U.S. as they traveled to set up
the horse vanished, but the exact reason is still unknown. missions with the various Indian tribes.
Horses of prehistoric times were quite small—only
about a foot in height—as compared to today’s horse Changing Roles for the Horse
that can be more than 18 hands. (A hand is equal to
4".) Unlike the modern horse of today, the first horse, The horse played an important role in early American
eohippus, had four functional toes and one nonfunctional development. On the second voyage to the New World,
toe on the front feet. On the hind feet, there were only Christopher Columbus brought 25 horses with him. The
three functional toes and one nonfunctional toe. Spaniards brought more horses with them in the 1500s
to Central America. By the 1600s the colonists were
Influence of the Horse Throughout History settling in the eastern United States bringing their horses
as well. The horse was a valuable commodity used for
In prehistoric times, the horse was sought after as a food working in the fields, clearing trees, transporting people
source. The first to domesticate the horse is thought to and goods, and riding in battles.
have been a group of nomads who roamed the central
plains of Asia. The Scythians used the horse as a food In the mid-1800s, thousands of people traveled west by
source and to wage war on their enemies. It is thought horse-drawn and mule-drawn wagons. The horse’s use
that the Chinese were the first to keep horses in herds
for power and transportation. Table 1.1 - Horses on Farms
Year In Missouri In U.S.
During the great migration west in the U.S., thousands of
people depended on the horse to transport them. Many 1890 946,401 15,266,244
times, their very survival depended on the horse. The 1900 908,860 18,267,020
horse was and still is a companion animal, as well. For 1910 1,035,884 19,833,113
the American Indians, the reintroduction of the horse 1920 906,220 19,767,161
meant great changes in their lives. The Indians quickly 1925 708,122 16,400,623
discovered that horses were a great partner for hunting 1930 597,090 13,510,839
and in war, and they soon became very skilled in working 1935 523,648 11,857,850
with horses.
1940 505,073 10,086,971
1945 476,187 8,499,204
As mentioned earlier, horses were very important in the
great migration west. Wagons containing everything the 1950 326,473 5,409,417
travelers owned were pulled through mountain passes, 1954 129,495 2,962,220
across rivers and streams, and across desserts.The horse Horses and Ponies on Farms
was a vital part of making our country what it is today. Year In Missouri In U.S.
1974 58,712 1,595,640
Return of the Horse to the Americas
1978 73,283 1,957,028
Horses have populated the earth almost since the beginning 1982 76,977 2,260,791
of time, but they had vanished from the North American 1987 79,436 2,456,951
continent. It wasn’t until the late 1400s that explorers 1992 64,628 2,049,522
such as the Spanish Conquistadors reintroduced them Source: 1992 Census of Agriculture, U.S. Department of
to North America. Columbus first brought horses with Commerce, Bureau of the Census.

1
Equine Science
and popularity steadily increased until the early 1920s. In less than 14 hands tall and weigh 500-900 pounds. They
1908, Henry Ford started making automobiles that were are often used to pull small carts. Light horses stand 14-
economical to produce and affordable to drive. Soon 17 hands high, weigh 900-1,400 pounds, and are used for
after, trucks and tractors started to replace the horse. riding, driving, racing, or as general-purpose farm workers.
The numbers of horses stopped declining in the early The draft horse stands 14-17+ hands and weighs at least
1960s, and they have increased steadily since then. (See 1,400 pounds. Draft horses are much stockier and are
Table 1.1.) used primarily to pull heavy loads.

Today, the popularity of the horse has made a strong Table 1.2 shows the annual registration and total
comeback, mostly as a source of recreation. In addition, registration for the various breeds of light horses.
some people still use the horse as a power source to pull
wagons and plows or to herd cattle. Color – Colors vary a great deal, and certain breeds have
special coloring characteristics. Common coat colors in
Horse Classification horses are black, brown, bay, and chestnut. From these
four, all other combinations are derived, such as white,
Horses are classified by size, build, and weight into three grey, cream, dun, roan, and pied.
types: ponies, light horses, and draft horses. Ponies are

Table 1.2 - Various Breed Registrations (1988-1993)

Breed 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
Anglo and Half Arab 6,500 4,775 4,276 4,251 3,834 3,668
Appaloosa 12,317 10,746 10,669 9,902 10,033 9,079
Arabian 24,569 21,723 17,676 12,993 12,544 12,349
Hackney 866 779 809 731 464 701
Miniature Horses 3,986 4,636 5,760 5,278 6,500 6,500
Missouri Fox Trotting Horse 1,649 1,737 1,769 1,867 2,250 2,821
Morgan Horse 3,526 3,732 3,618 3,392 2,408 3,120
National Show Horse 978 919 733 624 557 473
Paint 14,929 14,390 16,153 18,648 22,396 24,220
Palomino 1,747 2,080 1,598 1,564 1,358 1,671
Paso Fino 1,464 1,453 1,550 1,483 1,859 1,640
Quarter Horse 128,352 123,294 110,597 101,390 102,843 104,876
Racking Horse 4,475 3,500 4,500 4,500 4,500 4,500
Saddlebred 3,811 3,708 3,569 3,570 3,048 3,353
Standardbred 17,393 16,896 16,576 13,617 13,029 12,086
Tennessee Walker 8,983 8,850 7,972 7,852 8,123 7,510
Thoroughbred 49,219 48,218 43,571 37,442 37,915 35,405
Total 283,115 269,699 249,627 227,237 231,411 231,151
Source: 1995 Horse Industry Directory, Washington, DC: American Horse Council, Inc., 1995, p. 20.

2
 Introduction
Figure 1.1 - Face Markings

Chestnuts range from light golden-red to a very dark red white areas that alternate with one of the four common
that is often called a liver chestnut. Bays can be described colors, such as pied black, pied brown, pied chestnut, or
as chestnuts with black points (mane, tail, and legs). pied bay. See a chart of breeds and coloring for further
Browns have brown bodies and very dark manes, tails, identification.
and legs. Black horses are black all over. White horses
are white all over and may have blue eyes. Most white Markings – Along with coat coloring, horses have face
horses are born grey and become whiter with age. Greys and leg markings. On the face, these markings are stars,
are usually one of the common colors at birth and turn stripes, snips, lips, blazes, and bald faces. (See Figure 1.1.)
grey with age. A roan horse is a combination of the four The star is a star-shaped area of white hair that is located
common colors, resulting in black (blue) roans, bay (red) on the forehead. A stripe is a band of white that runs
roans, brown roans, and chestnut (strawberry) roans. A down the face to the nostrils. A white marking on the
dun horse is a bay with a dark stripe down its back and nose’s end only is a snip. A lip is a white mark on the
can have dark stripes on the knees or hocks.The body of upper lip that can run down to the lower lip. A blaze is a
cream-colored horses is cream colored, while a Palomino wide strip that runs down from the star, past the nostrils,
is a cream-colored horse that ranges from light to dark to the end of the nose; a blaze is the width of the top of
golden with cream mane and tail. Pied horses have large the nose. A bald face is a blaze that goes over the nose’s
edge and frequently includes the eyes.
3
Equine Science
Leg markings include coronet, pastern, fetlock, cannon, hunting; they played a major role in the development of
and knee or hock. (See Figure 1.2.) The coronet is a the early-day livestock industry. Today, they are primarily
stripe of white hair just above the coronet band. Pastern used as a pleasure horse.
is from the coronet to just below the fetlock.The fetlock
is white from the coronet to the top of the fetlock joint. Arabians are credited as the foundation of all light horse
Cannon marking is from the coronet to just below the breeds.They are noted for having beautiful tapered heads
knee on the front leg. Knee or hock markings are in the with dished faces; short, alert ears; large, wide-set eyes;
region from the coronet to the knee or hock. large nostrils; and deep, wide jaws. Originating in Arabia,
they are primarily saddle horses, but are also used as
Light horse breeds – Each breed has characteristics that stock, racing, and pleasure horses.
make it unique. Some of the more popular breeds and
their characteristics follow. Another American horse is the quarter horse. They were
the earliest U.S. race horse. Quarter horses are noted for
The Saddlebred originated in the U.S. Saddlebreds are their heavy, well-defined muscling; large heads with large,
either three-gaited or five-gaited and used primarily as prominent jaws; small, alert ears; well-developed necks;
pleasure horses. (Gait describes the way a horse moves, and short, heavily muscled backs. They were developed
such as walking, trotting, and galloping.) The Saddlebreds for racing and ranching. They are fast and very agile with
are noted for their easy ride and head movement as they athletic abilities that are unsurpassed.
walk. They have an attractive head set on a long neck;
short, rounded back; level croup; and high tail setting. The Missouri Fox Trotter is a breed that originated in
They are very flashy but usually docile and intelligent. the hills of the Ozarks around Ava, Mo. It is noted for its
sure-footed, easy gait and very smooth ride. The breed
Appaloosas also originated in the U.S. and are noted for registry was established in 1948 and is located in Ava.
their unusual coat coloring. They have many variations of With its smooth ride, poise, and easy manner, the Fox
spotting and can be any combination of colors. All have Trotter quickly became known as the common person’s
a white circle around the eye and vertical striping of the pleasure horse.
hooves. They have been used for war, racing, and buffalo
Figure 1.2 - Leg Markings

4
 Introduction
Draft horses and ponies – Originating in Europe, draft Credits
horses are known for their massive bulk, great strength,
and gentle manner. They are used primarily to pull great Ensminger, M. Eugene. Horses and Horsemanship. 6th ed.
weight and are still used in some areas to pull plows and Danville, IL: Interstate Publishers, Inc., 1990.
wagons.
Hawcroft, Tim. The Complete Book of Horse Care. New
Most ponies, with the exception of the Pony of the York: Howell Book House, Inc., 1994.
Americas, were developed in Europe. They are small and
used as children’s horses and to pull small carts.

Summary

The horse has had a large impact on people’s lives

throughout history and will probably continue to grow in
popularity. Horses come in many shapes, sizes, colors, and
uses. People today enjoy horses in a variety of activities;
their love and fascination of the horse will undoubtedly
continue.

5
Equine Science
Lesson 2: Psychology and Handling Pawing the ground is another sign that a horse is not
pleased. This can mean that it doesn’t like something,
Horses are much stronger than people, so it is much or it might be because the horse has been tied up and
better to get a horse to do something because it wants is bored. Whatever the signs, the handler should get to
to do it. Generally, one person cannot force a horse know the animal and never ignore what it is trying to
to do something it does not want to do. This makes it “say” so that an injury can be prevented.
important to understand how horses think and how they
will react under certain circumstances. Horse Manners

When working with any horse, it is important to As mentioned earlier, each horse has its own personality
reinforce actions that are desirable with praise. When and can develop good or bad manners. There are several
undesirable actions happen, they should immediately bad manners (vices) that horses sometimes pick up;
be met with some sort of punishment. Using positive some of them can affect the horse’s health.
and negative reinforcement is an important part of any
horse’s training. Barn sour – With this vice, the horse doesn’t want to
leave the barn. This can be the result of not wanting to
Reaction to People leave a companion or the safety of the barn. A preventive
measure is to work the horse after returning to the barn
Like people, horses have their own personalities. Some area.
are very jumpy, easily spooked, or aggressive, while others
are calm and docile. Some horses show a great deal of Biting – Biting can be caused by innocently giving the
loyalty and affection to their owners, while others are horse treats or by rubbing its nose while petting.
very independent.
Bolting feed – It is not known for certain why some horses
Signs of Danger gulp (or bolt) their food, but they can be slowed down by
spreading the food out or placing a large, baseball-sized
When the horse appears nervous or agitated, there’s rock in the feed.
something wrong. Observing these signs will help a
handler avoid injury. A horse’s handler should be aware Cribbing – This is when a horse hooks its upper teeth on
of danger signs and react accordingly. One of the best a solid object, extends its neck, and sucks in air. This bad
indicators is the horse’s ears because they show which habit can cause bloating, and horses that crib often are
way the horse is looking. (See Figure 2.1.) more prone to get colic.

If the ears and eyes are relaxed with the ears dropped Pawing – Here, a horse stands and digs at the ground with
back, the horse is resting or asleep. If both ears are its front feet. Many times, this is a sign of boredom and
perked up and forward, it is interested in something. A releasing them into a paddock or field will help prevent it.
horse can look and listen in two directions at once. If Occasionally, pawing the ground means the horse is sick.
one ear points forward while the other is pointing to
the rear, the horse is watching both directions. When a Shying – Some horses seem to be easily spooked by
horse pins its ears back, it is angry and there is a danger unfamiliar items. The only things that can be done are
of being kicked. to develop trust and use good training methods and
patience.
How a horse holds its tail can also communicate. If the
horse switches its tail, something is bothering it—flies or Weaving, stall walking, and wood chewing – These vices
something the rider is doing. are usually brought on by boredom and can be corrected
by allowing the horse to get outside and exercise.

7
 Psychology and Handling
Equine Senses Training Methods

The horse has monocular vision, which gives it the Trainers have their own style of training; however, certain
ability to use each eye independently and see different things should remain constant. When teaching a horse a
pictures at the same time. When a horse wants a good new lesson, patience is a must. Repeating what the horse
look at something, it looks straight at it and uses both is to learn is a must. It might take several days, weeks, or
eyes in a binocular manner. The horse does have two even months of practice before the horse has learned
blind spots—directly in front of its nose and directly in it thoroughly. Positive reinforcement should always be
back of the horse. This is why a horse should always be used, either by verbal praise or by giving it some kind of
approached from the side or at an angle, never from the treat. Don’t overdo the treats, however; give them only
rear or from straight ahead. Horses have very good night when deserved.
vision. It is a good idea to talk to horses so they also hear
you coming. Discipline is a means of communicating to the horse that
it is doing something wrong. It is not being mean, nor is
The horse is much better at detecting something it mistreatment—unless it becomes excessive or inflicts
approaching it than most animals. With its monocular injury to the animal. Mistreatment will be avoided if one
vision and excellent hearing, it can watch a greater area never punishes out of anger.
than a cow or most other animals. This is why horse
warriors always paid close attention to horse signs. Discipline should always be prompt and never administered
out of anger. The whip and spurs are the most common
Foal Handling devices used to discipline a horse. If a horse fails to carry
out a command and discipline has been given, promptly
The newborn foal should be worked with as soon as make the horse follow through with the original command
possible. Rubbing the foal’s body with a towel or gunny and follow that by positive reinforcement.
sack (sacking) helps get it used to handling. Start the foal
on a regular routine of a short lesson, such as putting on Summary
a halter, at about 1-2 weeks of age. After the foal is used
to the halter, tie it to the stall near the mare and groom it, Horses are like people in that each has its own
working with the legs and hoofs. Well-disciplined horses personality and can form vices. Handlers should become
result from early training. well acquainted with their horses and know how each
horse reacts to handling. Training the horse at an early
Figure 2.1 - Equine Body Language age will help eliminate problems with temperament and
result in an animal that is easy to work. Routine, frequent
handling is the key to a steady horse.Training styles differ,
but the basics are the same—repetition, reinforcement,
and discipline.

Credits

Fraser, A. The Behavior of the Horse. Melksham, U.K.:

Redwood Press Ltd., 1992.

Hawcroft, Tim. The Complete Book of Horse Care. New

York: Howell Book House, Inc., 1994.

8
 Conformation and Selection
Lesson 3: Conformation and Selection From behind the horse, find ideal hind leg structure by
drawing imaginary, perpendicular lines from the points of
Selecting a horse is somewhat like buying a car. Everyone the hip to the ground behind the heels. The line makes
wants four good tires, no major flaws in the body, two two equal halves, as with the front legs.
working headlights, good air intake, a sound motor, and
a solid exhaust. Of course, the emphasis placed on a The head and muscles – The horse should have adequate
particular characteristic can vary, depending on the muscling for its breed and a well-shaped head. It should
owner’s needs and skill level. A draft horse is not suitable have large, wide-set eyes that are bright and alert. A
for someone with limited means to feed it, for example, horse that has small eyes is likely to have poor vision and
just as a large, high-strung horse is not appropriate for be easily spooked. Large, wide nostrils permit proper air
a child. intake. If the horse has small nostrils, it might not be able
to breathe properly when asked to run or work hard.
Characteristics of a Good Horse
Teeth – Deformed or poor teeth can cause weight loss
In general, the horse should be healthy and of normal and poor conditioning. This can lead to other problems,
weight. There should be no outward signs of disease. such as colic, impacted bowels, or in extreme cases, even
death.
Gender – After the class and breed have been selected,
gender is the next decision. There are five choices: mare, The teeth are the best indication of a horse’s age. This
stallion, gelding, colt, or filly.A mare is the adult female and is because teeth develop at different ages and wear at
can be a good pleasure horse or can be used for breeding. a certain rate, which can be correlated to the horse’s
The stallion is an adult male and can also be used either age. Foals develop temporary teeth at about 4 weeks of
as a pleasure horse or for breeding. However, a stallion age, starting with the front incisors. By about 9 months
can be more difficult to work with and frequently will of age, all of the temporary teeth are in. At about age 2,
not be the best choice for a pleasure horse, especially permanent teeth replace the temporary teeth, starting
for a beginner. A gelding is a male horse that has been again with the front incisors and working around to
castrated and cannot reproduce. Geldings make very the back. Temporary teeth are whiter, smaller, and cup-
good pleasure horse because they do not exhibit any of shaped, while permanent teeth are off-white and more
the aggressive breeding characteristics that a stallion will rectangular in shape.
when around mares. Colts are young male horses, and
fillies are young females that have not foaled. It takes about 4½ years for all the permanent teeth to
come in.They will all have a black area on top of the teeth,
Leg structure – The next category to consider when which wears off with age. At age 7, if the horse has not
buying a car is the tires; with a horse, it is the legs. Leg had its teeth floated (filed), a spot known as the seven-
structure is very important.The leg should be straight and year hook will develop on the inside incisor. By the time
well muscled. If the horse has any defects in leg structure, the horse is 8 years old, all the black has worn off, and
problems can develop with the pastern, knee, shoulder, at age 10, a groove will appear on the inside incisor. As a
or hip. These problems can make the horse unsound to horse further ages, the teeth wear and slightly protrude.
ride.
Because of the wearing of the teeth, it becomes necessary
When looking at the chest, the ideal front legs are shown to float the teeth (file them) to keep sharp edges from
by drawing a straight line, perpendicular to the ground, developing that would cut the gums and make eating
from the point of the shoulder to the tip of the hoof on difficult and painful.
each leg. The legs would be in two identical segments
from hip joint to hoof. Toes should point forward.

9
Equine Science
Temperament Soundness – Buying a horse that is unsound can cause
problems in the future. The horse might appear to be all
A horse should have a good temperament; it should right, but as it ages, the defects can progress to a point that
not be jumpy or aggressive. Many times, temperament the horse will no longer be sound enough to ride. Some
problems are associated with such characteristics as slight blemishes, however, might not cause any problems
small eyes, poor eyesight, or some other structural at all; they may be mere imperfections in appearance that
problem. Remember, a horse with a poor temperament do not interfere with performance.
(bad attitude) can cause many hours of problems or even
injuries. In general, structure can be broken into two categories—
blemishes and unsoundness. A blemish is something that
Balance and Soundness does not interfere with the horse’s performance.Anything
that interferes with the horse’s ability to perform makes
If possible, ask the veterinarian to look at the horse for it unsound. An unsoundness can be an inherited trait or
internal problems or structural defects. it can be caused from some outside influence such as
stress, strain, injury, or nutritional deficiency. Some minor
Balance – The horse should be properly proportioned. defects, such as in travel or gait, can be corrected by
The head should not be too small for its frame, nor shoeing.
should the neck be too long. If the horse does not have
a good balance to its body, it can be prone to stumbling.
(See Figure 3.1 for parts of a horse.)

Figure 3.1 - Parts of a Horse

10
 Conformation and Selection
Disreputable dealers can disguise defects.Always buy from Summary
a reputable owner who is willing to allow a veterinarian
to examine the horse. To get a horse with desirable traits, attention must be
given to the horse’s conformation or makeup. Buying a
Performance Records and Pedigrees horse is much like buying an automobile; if component
parts are not well inspected, the buyer might end up with
Performance records – These records can be a great help a lemon.
when selecting a horse, especially if the horse will be used
for breeding. Because of inherited genetic characteristics, Credits
the ancestors’ performance can be a gauge of how well
the offspring will do. The Thoroughbred breed registry Ensminger, M. Eugene. Horses and Horsemanship. 6th ed.
was the first to use performance records. This registry Danville, IL: Interstate Publishers, Inc., 1990.
recorded pedigrees of all horses that won important
races, which is often recorded on the horse’s registration Hawcroft, Tim. The Complete Book of Horse Care. New
papers. York: Howell Book House, Inc., 1994.

Pedigree – A pedigree is simply a record of the horse’s University of Missouri-Columbia Extension Division
ancestry, which is often recorded on the horse’s agricultural publications
registration papers. It is much like a person’s family tree.
It is used to look back in time to find out which horses a. G2840: Unsoundness and Blemishes of Horses:
were bred to sire certain offspring. Pedigrees are used in Feet and Legs
conjunction with performance records to help predict b. G2842: Determining Age of Horses by Their
how the offspring might be expected to perform. Teeth
c. G2843: Leg Set: Its Effect on Action and
Even more important than the horse’s pedigree is the Soundness of Horses
breeder’s reputation. Look for breeders who will stand
behind the quality of their animals.

11
 Genetics and Reproduction
Lesson 4: Genetics and Reproduction Breeders have been selecting for different characteristics
for hundreds of years by breeding the best to the best.
Genetics determines the type of foal that will be However, sometimes the foal is less desirable than the
produced. Understanding genetic influences will help parents. The mare and stallion may have recessive genes
a breeder select the highest quality animals possible that, when linked together, produce weak or lethal genes.
for mating. Also, ensuring healthy births is critical to a This combination will cause severe defects and even
productive operation since a horse’s gestation period is death in foals. One lethal gene combination results in
11 months long. albinism, which causes the all-white foals to die, usually
before birth.
Genetic Characteristics
The horse has a total of 32 chromosome pairs. When
The characteristics that a breeder looks for in a horse, a mare is mated to a jack (the male of the ass family),
such as color, muscling, stamina, and speed, are somewhat it produces a mule. Mules are usually infertile because
breed specific. The field of study that explains this is of the difference in parental chromosome numbers. This
genetics. Genetics deals with gene combinations and crossing of two different families produces a hybrid.
how genes are passed on from generation to generation
(inheritance). With horses, it is somewhat difficult to Reproductive Tract of the Mare
advance genetic material because only one foal a year is
produced. The reproductive tract of the mare is designed to produce
the eggs (ova) and to provide a safe environment for the
embryo to develop.After the embryo has fully developed,
Figure 4.1 - Mare Reproductive Organs

13
Equine Science
the mare expels it to the outside world and provides it mid-October. The mare goes through a series of cycles
with nourishment until the foal has grown to sufficient that are about 21 days long. An ovum from the mare can
size. become fertilized during a seven-day period in the middle
of her 21-day estrous cycle. If the mare has not been bred
The ova (eggs) are produced in the ovary and are expelled successfully at that time, the cycle will repeat. In terms
from a blisterlike sac that forms on the outside of the of handling, mares are frequently more temperamental
ovary. Ova travel from the ovary to the fallopian tubes, during heat.
which carry them down through the uterine horn to the
uterus. (See Figure 4.1.) Reproductive Organs of the Stallion

After fertilization, the embryo attaches to the lining of The stallion’s reproductive tract is designed to produce
the uterus by the umbilical cord. Before the embryo sperm cells and to transmit the sperm cells to the
gets to the uterus, the uterus develops a thick lining of female’s tract to fertilize the ovum. Sperm is produced
blood vessels. This lining supports the embryonic sac, in the testicles and is transmitted down a tube called
which makes up the afterbirth. At the end of the uterus the vas deferens. The vas deferens connects to the
is a strong muscle called the cervix, which keeps foreign urethra just behind the bladder. The urethra acts as a
matter out of the uterus. The cervix leads to the vagina common transportation tube for both urine and sperm
(birth canal), which is where semen is deposited by the cells. Along the urethra are three accessory glands: the
male and, after gestation, where the newborn exits to the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, and the Cowper’s
outside world. gland. These glands produce fluids that help nourish the
sperm and provide a transportation medium through the
The mare is receptive to the stallion only during parts urethra in the penis. (See Figure 4.2.)
of her estrous period. The breeding season varies from
mare to mare, but on the average runs from mid-April to

Figure 4.2 - Stallion Reproductive Organs

14
 Genetics and Reproduction
Methods of Reproduction problem is that the semen does not freeze as well as it
does in other animals, such as cattle. AI does have several
Nature needs no help to reproduce in the wild, but since advantages. One advantage is that it will allow one
domestication has changed the life of the horse, people stallion to breed as many as 500 mares in one season, as
have had to develop ways to assure that reproduction compared to 80 in natural breeding or hand breeding.
takes place at convenient times. In natural (pasture)
breeding, the mare and stallion are allowed to run in the There are three steps to using AI. The first step is the
pasture and bred naturally.With this method, the breeder collection of the semen. The next step is the evaluation
probably will not know when the mare is due to foal. of the semen. The last step in AI is insemination of the
mare.
Many breeders want to know when the mare will foal,
so the method of hand breeding is used. This method Parturition
involves taking the mare to the stallion, which is tied
to a rail, fence, or post. (See Figure 4.3.) When teasing Parturition is the process of giving birth. Waxing, the first
the mare, the stallion is allowed to check the mare to sign that a mare is going to foal, takes place 2-4 days
see if she is in the appropriate part of the estrous cycle before foaling.The mare’s teats secrete a waxy substance.
and will allow the stallion to service (breed) her. A mare However, not all mares do this. The next sign is when
that is not in estrous will aggressively kick and paw the the mare’s udder begins to get hard and full-looking. The
stallion and not allow him to approach her. A mare that mare’s vagina muscles begin to relax, getting ready for
is in estrous will go through several gestures, such as the birth. The mare might also show signs of irritability
winking.Winking is when she lowers her pelvis and raises and wish to stay in the quietest area.
her tail in a submissive manner, allowing the stallion to
breed her. During the actual birth, there are three stages. In the first
stage, the mare might sweat, be agitated, paw the ground,
Artificial insemination (AI) is not used very much in horse or lie down and get up several times. She will not show
breeding because some breed registries will not register signs of straining, but the water might break. During stage
the foal if breeding is done in that manner. Another two, the mare will show visible signs of straining, and she

Figure 4.3 - Teasing the Mare

15
Equine Science
will either lie on her side or sit. Fetal membranes will A retained placenta causes inflammation/infection of the
appear from the vagina as she strains. As she progresses, uterus, which can trigger laminitis (founder). In foaling
the foal’s feet appear first, followed by the nose, which is founder, the uterus becomes inflamed from some type
the start of stage three. After the foal’s head appears, the of abrasion during parturition.This inflammation can also
shoulders follow, and the rest of the birth is fairly rapid. trigger founder (laminitis).
After the foal has been delivered, the afterbirth will be
expelled in 2-3 hours. Colostrum

Dystocia Colostrum is the first milk that the mare produces. It

is thick and yellowish and contains antibodies that give
Dystocia refers to anytime a mare has difficulty giving the foal immunities against infections and diseases.
birth to the foal. This can be caused by several things, Colostrum is higher in protein and antibodies than
such as the foal being too large for the birth canal, one or regular milk. The colostrum lasts only for a few days, and
both of the legs being caught inside, the foal coming out it is very important that the foal gets this first milk, as
rump first (breech), or if twins are present. Any time a it is sometimes referred to, to help ward off disease or
mare strains or has contractions for longer than normal, infection. As with other species, it is critical that the foal
a veterinarian should be called to assist. nurses within the first two hours.

Table 4.1 - Normal Delivery Stages Summary

1. Preparatory 30 min. to 4 hours
2. Delivery 20-30 minutes The process of life is the most remarkable process in all
of nature, and the birth of a new foal is a wonderful thing
3. Delivery of placenta 30 min. to 3 hours
to see. Considerable care must be taken from breeding
to birth to ensure that the foal has every chance of
Dystocia can be caused by many things, such as age,
surviving and thriving.
proportion of the mare to the foal, breech births, or a
foal tangled in the umbilical cord. Other possible causes
Credits
of dystocia can be disease or improper diet.
Ensminger, M. Eugene. Horses and Horsemanship. 6th ed.
Afterbirth
Danville, IL: Interstate Publishers, Inc., 1990.
It is important to check the afterbirth as soon as it has
Hawcroft, Tim. The Complete Book of Horse Care. New
been expelled to make sure it all came out. (The placenta
York: Howell Book House, Inc., 1994.
should be in the same basic shape as the foal.) If there
are holes or unusual tears in the placenta, part of the
University of Missouri-Columbia Extension Division
placenta might have been retained in the uterus. Call a
agricultural publications
veterinarian to assist.
a. G2790: Horse Breeding Arithmetic: 2 + 2 = 1
b. G2791: Genetics of Coat Color of Horses

16
 Herd Health
Lesson 5: Herd Health of teeth; and paralysis of the limbs, lips, and bladder. The
mortality rate can be as high as 90 percent.
It is essential that owners have health programs to take
care of their horses. For breeders with many horses, it Tetanus (lockjaw) usually occurs as the result of an infected
becomes even more important because the herd provides wound. Symptoms can include stiffness around the head
an income. When unsure about an injury’s seriousness, and difficulty chewing and swallowing. The stiffness or
contact a veterinarian. paralysis progresses throughout the body and muscle
spasms can occur. The mortality rate is 80 percent due
Vaccinations and Vaccines to the exhaustion and/or paralysis of vital organs.

“An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure” Viral rhinopneumonitis (Rhino) causes a pregnant mare to
describes the importance of preventing problems before abort the foal in the last half of the term. Mares can catch
they happen. It takes a great deal of time and expensive this virus easily from other horses, and the symptoms
care to help a sick animal regain its health, compared are similar to a cold or respiratory disease. All horses
to the small cost of a vaccine. A vaccination program is are susceptible to the virus. Rhino can be prevented by
recommended to help prevent diseases that are common keeping pregnant mares away from others or by keeping
among horses.There are many different diseases that can them in small groups.Also, weanlings and yearlings should
affect a horse, and it is best to consult the veterinarian be kept away from pregnant mares.
as to what specific disease should be vaccinated for in
the area.The veterinarian can also help with developing a Strangles (or distemper) is a communicable disease
vaccination schedule. that usually affects younger animals. Symptoms include
depression, loss of appetite, high fever, and pus-like
The type of vaccine will vary. Some vaccines provide discharge from the nostrils. As the disease progresses,
lifetime protection, while others need an annual booster. glands under the jaw enlarge and become sensitive.
The type of vaccine needed will depend on the protection These glands can break open, allowing pus to drain out.
needed and vaccine availability. Most vaccines today have Strangles can spread to internal organs, but as soon as
fewer side effects than vaccines of years ago. drainage occurs, glands can heal. However, if it spreads to
internal organs, the horse may die. Treatment varies and
Diseases That Horses Can Be Vaccinated Against depends on veterinarian recommendations. The spread
of strangles can be controlled by keeping infected animals
There are many different vaccines available; consult the away from non-infected animals. It can also be prevented
veterinarian as to what is appropriate in the area. The by vaccinating the entire herd.
three most common diseases that horses are vaccinated
against are influenza, sleeping sickness, and tetanus. Vaccinations might be needed for other diseases, such as
rabies and viral arteritis. Consult the local veterinarian
Influenza is a highly contagious disease that affects young for recommendations.
horses.The symptoms include high fever, loss of appetite,
weakness, depression, rapid breathing, dry cough, and Ailments Common to Horses
a watery discharge from the eyes and nostrils that is
followed by a yellowish nasal discharge. Mortality (or Colic can be fatal if not treated properly. Contact the
death rate) is low, but recovery can take weeks or even veterinarian as soon as possible. Symptoms include
months. pawing at the ground, looking nervously at the flanks,
continually lying down and getting back up, rolling,
Sleeping sickness (EEE, WEE, and/or VEE) is carried by sweating, constipation, and the absence of normal
mosquitoes, and both horses and humans can contract intestinal sounds. To avoid intestinal twisting (gastric
the disease. The symptoms include walking around torsion), the horse should not be allowed to roll or get
aimlessly and running into things; depression; grinding up and down.Walk the horse slowly, if possible, and don’t
feed it until the veterinarian arrives.

17
Equine Science
Equine Infectious Anemia (EIA or Swamp Fever) is a This will cause pain for the horse as it tries to chew its
serious blood disease. Symptoms can vary but include food (mastication process). For this reason, it becomes
high intermittent fever, depression, stiffness, weakness, necessary to float the horse’s teeth (file off the sharp
loss of condition and weight, and swelling. An afflicted edges).
animal can die within 2-4 weeks. There is no vaccine
available. However, a Coggins test can detect the disease. Observe the horse as it eats. Usually, a horse with this
When a positive Coggins test results, the animal should problem will eat very slowly, dribble food out of its
be quarantined and slaughtered. mouth, salivate excessively, and might have blood mixed
with saliva.Wasted feed frequently ends up on the ground.
Potomac Horse Fever is an often fatal form of diarrhea. As a result, the horse can lose weight and conditioning.
Symptoms include fever, depression, loss of appetite, Floating the teeth should be done by a veterinarian or
colic, and edema (swelling) of the underline (belly).These someone with experience and training to prevent injury
symptoms are followed by severe watery diarrhea. to the horse’s mouth.
Many horses with this ailment develop founder, and the
mortality rate is about 30 percent. Horses that contract Parasites
Potomac Horse Fever are given large amounts of fluids
intravenously and medications to reduce the fever There are two classifications of parasites—internal and
and the chance of founder. A vaccine is available, and a external. A parasite is any form of life that lives off of
veterinarian should be consulted to see if it is needed in another. Parasites usually don’t kill their host but do
the area. cause it to be unthrifty and perform at a lower level.

Salmonella is the bacterium that causes symptoms Symptoms of internal parasite infestation include
resembling colic, which makes it difficult to diagnose. unthriftiness, rough coat, recessed flanks, distended
Suspected horses should be checked by a veterinarian. abdomen, and weakness. Prevention involves a deworming
Prevention practices include keeping feed clean and program. To prevent parasites from developing immunity
free from contaminates, along with quarantining of new to a specific dewormer, rotate the brands used. There
animals. are several different types of dewormers on the market;
consult the veterinarian as to what will work the best in
Dental Care the area.

Because of the way a horse’s teeth wear, they will develop

sharp edges on the molars that cause cuts to the gums.

Table 5.1 - Internal Parasites of Horses Credit: Controlling Internal Parasites of Horses (G2854)
Parasite Location Ages affected Injury and symptoms
Strongyles Larvae: arteries, liver and gut wall All ages but young especially Retarded growth, loss of weight,
Adults: large intestine susceptible poor appetite, rough hair coat,
general weakness, anemia,
recurrent colic, death
Ascarids Larvae: liver and lungs Young under 2 years old Retarded growth, pot bellied,
Adults: small intestine rough hair coat, colic, pneumonia,
death (ruptured intestine)
Bots Eggs: on hair All ages Excitement (by flies), colic,
Larvae: tongue retarded growth, poor condition,
Bots: stomach death (stomach rupture)
Tapeworms Adults: junction of small intestine Six months or older Digestive disturbances
with large intestine

18
 Herd Health
Along with a deworming program, make sure the For bites and stings, clean the wound (as with any injury)
environment around the horses cuts down on many of and apply an antiseptic to the affected area. Determining
the problems associated with parasites. Keep stalls and the cause makes prevention much easier. If the horse acts
paddocks clean and free from manure buildup. Dragging unusual or has any excess pain or swelling, consult the
of fields (to break up manure piles) and rotating pastures veterinarian.
will help lower the parasite population. If possible, avoid
feeding horses on the ground where they can ingest For strains, sprains, and swelling, restrict the horse’s
parasites with the feed; provide a feeder that is clean and movements to prevent any further injury and apply
above the ground. cold water to the affected area. These measures help
reduce swelling and relieve pain. Apply the cold water
There are about 150 different types of parasites that intermittently for the first 24 hours, at least. After all the
can affect a horse. Some of the most common internal swelling has stopped, warm compresses or liniment can
parasites that affect horses are found in Table 5.1. be applied to stimulate the healing process.

External parasites include flies, ticks, mosquitoes, mites, If a horse is suspected of founder, the veterinarian should
and lice. Some of these eternal parasites are the source be contacted and the horse should be confined in a stall.
of the internal parasites, such as the botfly. The botfly Don’t give feed and restrict it from drinking large amounts
lays its eggs on the horse’s legs and jaw, and the larvae of water until the veterinarian advises otherwise.
soon enter the horse’s mouth and are swallowed. They
are eventually passed back out with the feces and the Summary
larva mature to the fly stage, where the cycle starts over
again. (See Figure 5.1.) The horse’s health is in the owner’s hands. It is wise to
have a trusted veterinarian nearby to answer any health
There are several ways to help reduce external parasites, questions that arise.Also, the veterinarian can help create
such as keeping the area clean of manure buildup, not a health program that will keep animals in good health
having too many horses in one area, and using insecticides for years.
that are especially made for horses. Again, it is wise to
contact a veterinarian as to what will work best and be Credits
the safest.
Controlling Internal Parasites of Horses (G2854).
First Aid University of Missouri-Columbia Extension Division,
1993.
Lesson 8 discusses the contents of a basic first aid kit.
First aid is the immediate and temporary aid given for Ensminger, M. Eugene. Horses and Horsemanship. 6th ed.
an animal that has been injured or become ill. For any Danville, IL: Interstate Publishers, Inc., 1990.
injury involving bleeding, first stop or at least control the
bleeding by applying gauze and pressure to the wound. Fraser, Clarence M., ed. The Merck Veterinary Manual: A
If the wound is slight and bleeding is minimal, applying Handbook of Diagnosis,Therapy, and Disease Prevention and
an antibiotic to the wound might be enough. However, Control for the Veterinarian. 7th ed. Rahway, NJ: Merck &
if the wound is worse, a veterinarian should be called to Co., Inc., 1991.
inspect it and decide if stitches are needed.
Hawcroft, Tim. The Complete Book of Horse Care. New
Foot punctures occur most often. Clean punctures of any York: Howell Book House, Inc., 1994.
dirt or foreign objects.The wound should then be treated
with an antiseptic and watched for infection. If the wound
has a small opening, enlargement of the opening might be
necessary so it will drain. Enlargement of a wound usually
requires the services of a veterinarian.

19
Equine Science
Credit: Controlling Internal
Figure 5.1 - Life Cycles of Botflies Parasites of Horses (G2854)

20
 Hoof Care
Lesson 6: Hoof Care Figure 6.1 - External Parts of the Foot (Side View)

The hoof is designed to withstand tremendous amounts of

pressure. Normally, it can endure the impacts of walking
and running. However, this seemingly indestructible
structure can be weakened by something as simple as
overeating.

Structures of the Hoof

As the horse is standing, the visible parts of a hoof are

the wall, coronary band, perioplic ring, pastern, fetlock,
and cannon. (See Figure 6.1.) The hoof wall is made
from fibers that grow down from the cornet band (also
known as the growth ring). These fibers are parallel to
one another.The hoof wall grows approximately 3/8" per
month and at a 45-55° angle.
When examining the hoof, the first step is to clear away
The hoof can be divided into three sections: toe, quarter, any mud, manure, or foreign matter stuck to the sole.Take
and heel. The white line, or inner wall of the hoof, is a care to clean well around the frog. Never cut down the
softer tissue with a similar cell structure that separates size of the frog, but remove any dead and loose material
the wall from the sole. around the frog.

The next structure is the frog. It starts at the heel and While cleaning out mud and debris, it is usually very
projects forward toward the toe in the shape of a V. At easy to tell if the horse has thrush. Thrush is a fungus
the back part of the frog is the extension point known that creates a very strong, unpleasant odor. If detected,
as the cleft of the frog. The frog’s major functions are to there are several products to treat this condition. One
allow the hoof to expand and to act as a shock absorber. inexpensive treatment is to use a mild solution of bleach
(See Figure 6.2.) The hoof’s inner structure is made up of water and spray directly on the sole and frog area. Next,
five major bones—the cannon, long and short pasterns, check for any chipping or cracking caused from drying
coffin, and navicular. (See Figure 6.3.) These bones are the out.
supporting structures that are responsible for holding
the horse’s weight. Failure of any one of these bones will Figure 6.2 - External Parts of the Foot (Bottom View)
cause lameness; if severe enough, it will cause permanent
damage.

Inspecting the Hoof

Hoofs should be inspected at regular intervals (daily, if

shod). Before and after riding, each hoof should be picked
up and cleaned. If the horse is pastured and barefoot,
hoofs should be inspected at least twice a week. This
assures healthy hoofs and keeps the animal used to
having its feet picked up. A person should also be on the
lookout for any unusual movements that might indicate
lameness. Use extreme care when handling hoofs of a
horse that has not been handled that much.

21
Equine Science
Figure 6.3 - Internal Parts of the Foot Training from a qualified farrier is a good way to learn
hoof trimming for one’s own animals.

Ways of Shoeing

Shoeing protects the hoof from excessive wear, provides

increased traction when trail riding, and helps correct
defects in stance or gait. It also helps correct diseases
and defects. Furthermore, shoes can help relieve pain
and discomfort from such problems as hoof wall cracks,
stone bruises, and tendonitis. However, shoeing does not
make walking easier or increase agility. It does increase
road shock, and nail holes can weaken the hoof wall
or provide an access for germs to enter and cause an
infection.

There are two styles of shoeing—hot shoeing and cold

shoeing. Hot shoeing involves taking a shoe that has
been handmade or commercially made, heating it up, and
If drying becomes a problem, apply a hoof dressing such shaping and sizing it to the hoof’s shape. Cold shoeing is
as neat’s-foot oil, sweet oil, linseed oil, or another type of simply shaping and sizing the shoe without heat treatment.
dressing. During extreme dry weather, it is a good idea Whichever method is used, shoeing should only be done
to apply some type of hoof dressing each time the hoofs by a skilled farrier. If not done properly, it can cause some
are cleaned. very serious problems.

Trimming the Hoof A new method called Natural Hoof Care is being used
as an alternative to shoeing and as a way to treat horses
In the wild, horses have very few problems with their with hoof abnormalities. This involves careful trimming
feet. However, during domestication, the horse moved and exercise to build up the hoof naturally without shoes.
away from the naturally soft pasture to hard surfaces; Horses were intended to go barefoot everywhere and
small paddocks; muddy, urine-filled stalls; and unnatural on any kind of terrain. The natural method of hoof care
diets. Therefore, people need to trim and care for the is intended to bring the hoof back to its ideal shape and
horse’s hoof. Any shod horse’s hoofs should be trimmed form. It can be used to treat several hoof abnormalities.
and reshod once a month since the hoof grows about
3/8" in a month’s time. Failure to keep the hoof trimmed Hoof Abnormalities
can cause excess strain on tendons.
Lameness is simply any condition that affects the horse’s
Trimming is not something an amateur should attempt. feet in an adverse way. Treatment depends on the exact
Done incorrectly, it can cause quicking of the hoof or condition. Many things can affect the horse’s hoofs; some
setting the hoof at the wrong angle. Quicking happens of these abnormalities follow.
when trimming is done too close to the hoof’s quick
(similar to the quick on a person’s fingernail). It can Founder – A serious and common problem is founder (or
cause some bleeding and leaves an opening for infection. laminitis), which affects about 100,000 horses a year. It is
Nipping involves taking a pair of nippers (like large a breakdown between the soft tissue of the laminae and
fingernail clippers) and removing a small portion of the the hard outer wall of the hoof. It can be brought on by a
hoof all the way around. Filing consists of taking a large number of causes, such as overeating grain, lush legumes
rasp and filing smooth the rough edges.This is done after or grasses (rich in carbohydrates); watering while the
nipping. horse is hot; or because of uterus inflammation after

22
 Hoof Care
foaling. Treatment for this condition varies, depending on Hoof cracks – Also known as quarter cracks and toe cracks,
the severity. Regardless, treatment should be immediate these vertical cracks develop in the hard, outer surface of
to reduce the risk of permanent damage or death. the hoof and vary in length. The cause is usually from the
hoof becoming too dry or from improper shoeing. The
Stone bruise – Another common problem is stone treatment is to use special shoes that protect the hoof
bruising. Frequently, a bruise to the sole of the hoof is and prevent it from cracking further. Another treatment
caused by a hard object (usually a stone or chunk of is to file or burn the top of the crack with a hot bar in a
frozen soil). The main concern is that the injury does half-moon shape. Prevention includes applying some type
not form an abscess and cause further complications. of hoof dressing or, during very dry weather, moistening
Treatment is to let the animal rest and not use the hoof the soil around watering troughs.
any more than necessary. If an abscess does develop, a
veterinarian should be called. Summary

Naviculitis – Naviculitis (navicular disease) is a disease The horse’s hoof is a complex structure that can
of the navicular bone and bursa in the front feet. In withstand the pressures of walking and running. However,
some cases, the bone can rotate downward. (See Figure the horse’s hoof can be damaged relatively easily through
6.4.) The cause may be difficult or even impossible to improper care by its owner or handler. An animal’s health
determine, and treatment will vary from animal to animal. depends greatly on the condition of its feet.
Some animals may respond to corrective shoeing, while
others may require therapy by a veterinarian. In most Credits
cases, recovery is limited.
Ensminger, M. Eugene. Horses and Horsemanship. 6th ed.
Thrush – One of the most preventable diseases a horse Danville, IL: Interstate Publishers, Inc., 1990.
can contract, thrush is caused by an anaerobic bacterium
that grows around the frog of the hoof, causing a Fraser, Clarence M., ed. The Merck Veterinary Manual: A
foul odor. The main cause of thrush is unsanitary stall Handbook of Diagnosis,Therapy, and Disease Prevention and
conditions—wet and urine-soaked bedding—that the Control for the Veterinarian. 7th ed. Rahway, NJ: Merck &
horse is left to stand in for extended periods of time. Co., Inc., 1991.
Treatment is to first clean the stall and keep it clean.
Treat the affected hoof with a disinfectant-like bleach, Harper, F. Top Form Book of Horse Care. New York: Popular
iodine, copper sulphate, or copper naphthenate. Library, 1971.

Figure 6.4 - Rotated Bone Versus Normal Bone

23
Equine Science
Hawcroft, Tim. The Complete Book of Horse Care. New
York: Howell Book House, Inc., 1994.

Horse Safety: Catching, Leading and Grooming (G2880).

University of Missouri-Columbia: Extension Division,
1993.

OSU Extension Facts No. 9115. Stillwater, OK. Division of

Agricultural Science and Natural Resources, Oklahoma
State University, 1990.

24
 Nutrition
Lesson 7: Nutrition passes through it very quickly, and not much digestion or
absorption takes place in the stomach.
Providing a properly balanced ration is vital for care of the
horse. Grain and hay must be clean and free from dust The horse’s digestive system consists of the following
and molds. It is important to understand how the horse’s organs: mouth, esophagus, simple stomach, small intestine,
digestive tract uses the nutrition that is provided. cecum, large intestine, colon, and rectum. The mouth is
responsible for taking in and chewing (masticating) the
Anatomy of the Simple Digestive Tract feed; this is where digestion begins. The mouth also
adds saliva to the feed to allow it to pass down the
Horses differ from cattle in that a cow has a four- esophagus, which is the next organ in the digestive tract.
chambered stomach, while the horse has only one. The The esophagus transports feed from the mouth to the
horse’s stomach holds about 8-16 quarts, depending on stomach. After leaving the stomach, feed passes into the
the size of the animal. Feed that is taken into the stomach small intestine, which is about 70 feet long. To aid in the
break down of the feed, enzymes are added from the
Table 7.1 - Light Horse Feeding Guide1 Credit: Horses and Horsemanship, p. 218. Used with permission.
Age, sex, and use Daily allowance Kind of hay
Stallions in breeding season 3/4-1 1/2 lb. grain per 100 lb. body weight, Grass-legume mixed; or 1/3-1/2 legume hay,
(weighing 900-1,400 lb.) together with a quantity of hay within same with remainder grass hay
range

Pregnant mares (weighing 900-1,400 lb.) 3/4-1 1/2 lb. grain per 100 lb. body weight, Grass-legume mixed; or 1/3-1/2 legume hay,
together with a quantity of hay within same with remainder grass hay (Straight grass hay
range may be used in the first half of pregnancy.)

Foals before weaning (weighing 100-350 lb. 3/4-1 1/2 lb. grain per 100 lb. body weight, Legume hay
with projected mature weights of 900-1,4000 together with a quantity of hay within same
lb.) range

Weanlings (weighing 350-450 lb.) 1-1 1/2 lb. grain and 1 1/2-2 lb. hay per 100 lb. Grass-legume mixed; or 1/2 legume hay, with
body weight. remainder grass hay

Yearlings, second summer (weighing 450- Good, luxuriant pastures. (If in training for
700 lb.) other reasons without access to pastures, the
ration should be intermediate between the
adjacent upper and lower groups.)

Yearlings, or rising 2-year-olds, second 1/2-1 lb. grain and 1-1 1/2 lb. hay per 100 lb Grass-legume mixed; or 1/3-1/2 legume hay,
winter (weighing 700-1,000 lb.) body weight. with remainder grass hay

Light horses at work; riding, driving, and • Hard use—1 1/4 - 1 1/3 lb. grain and 1-1 1/4 Grass hay
racing (weighing 900-1,400 lb.) lb. hay per 100 lb. body weight
• Medium use—3/4-1 lb. grain and 1-1 1/4 lb.
hay per 100 lb. body weight
• Light use—2/5 - 1/2 lb. grain and 1 1/4-1 1/2
lb. hay per 100 lb. body weight

Mature idle horses; stallions, mares, and 1 1/2-1 3/4 lb. hay per 100 lb. body weight Pasture in season; or grass-legume mixed hay
geldings (weighing 900-1,400 lb)

1
With all rations and for all classes and ages of horses, provide free access to a mineral box as follows: (1) Where the pasture or hay is primarily grass,
use a mixture containing 2 parts of calcium to 1 part of phosphorus; and (2) where the pasture or hay is primarily a legume, use a mixture containing
1 part of calcium to 1 part of phosphorus. To each of these mixes, add 1/3 salt (trace mineralized) to improve acceptability. if preferred, a good
commercial mineral can be used. Self-feed salt separately.

25
Equine Science
liver and the pancreas. At the site where the large and The Importance of Water
small intestines meet, the cecum is connected. It is about
4 feet long and about one foot in diameter, which is much Of all the nutrients required by the horse, the cheapest
larger than that of a cow’s, pig’s, or human’s. The cecum and most important one is water. The horse can go
is also called the water gut. In the horse, it is where much longer without feed than it can without water. If
digestion (fermentation) continues and nutrients that are a horse lost only 20 percent of its body’s water from
ready for absorption are absorbed. dehydration, it would die. Water is necessary for the
production of saliva, cell formation within the body’s
After feed passes from the cecum, it goes through the organs, as a medium to carry nutrition to the body’s
large intestine, where more absorption takes place. In cells, temperature control, lubrication, and in chemical
the colon, moisture from the feed is removed and the reactions.
undigested feed is balled up and excreted through the
rectum. In cool weather, a horse drinks approximately 0.5 gallons
of water per hundred-weight daily. In hot weather, when
Colic working hard and when nursing, a horse needs about 1.5
gallons of water daily. Give the horse free access to clean
Colic is a generic term that simply means abdominal water. However, do not let a horse drink heavily after or
discomfort. This can be severe and even fatal for the before doing heavy work or exercise, as this can cause
horse. The horse’s stomach is designed to take in feed foundering. Keep water fresh, cool in the summer, and
frequently in small quantities. In the wild, the horse about 40 degrees F in the winter.
eats at an almost continual rate. Because of the horse’s
domestication, it does not always get the chance to eat Feed Types
as it would n the wild, and overfeeding is the main cause
of colic. People feed the horses two or three larger There are many different types of feed available. They are
meals, which sometimes causes intestines to become grouped as grains, roughage, supplements, minerals, and
blocked (impacted). This can be serious or even fatal, if vitamins. The one constant is that they all must be clean
not promptly treated by a veterinarian. and free from dust and molds. The feed used will depend
on cost, availability, and owner personal preferences. The
Nutritional Requirements of the Horse most common grains fed to horses are oats and corn.

Each horse has different needs, depending on the size, age, Many people buy feed that has been premixed with
and activity level (work load) of the horse. Other factors added vitamins and minerals. This has some advantages
that affect nutritional requirements are breeding, location, and some disadvantages. An obvious advantage is one of
weather conditions, stress, and quality of feed. Table 7.1 convenience. Many owners who have only a few animals
shows the recommended nutritional requirements of do not have the equipment or storage facilities to mix
the different light horses. their own rations. Another advantage is that they do not
have to buy large quantities, so there is less money tied
Factors Affecting Digestion up in feed. Disadvantages are that they cannot control the
exact amounts of ingredients in the ration, and premixed
In the horse, it takes about 24 hours to completely empty feed is more expensive to buy.
the stomach, as compared to the cow’s, which takes
about 72 hours. Outside factors influence this rate of Hay needs to be clean and free from dust and molds,
digestion, such as stress, body condition, or feed quality. If which may cause a horse to colic. Along with its grain, a
a horse is being worked or becomes frightened, digestion horse only needs about 1 percent of its body weight in
slows down or may even stop temporarily. The horse roughage per day. (See Table 7.1.)
processes much of its food in the cecum. The horse’s
simple digestive system does not break down as much In addition to the ration, horses should have access to a
food as a cow’s (about 30 percent, compared to about mineral box with either loose or block mineral. These
70 percent).
26
 Nutrition
mineral feeders are usually freely available and are a Table 7.2 - There are many other types of
combination mineral-vitamin-salt blocks. Toxic Plants plants that can be toxic to the
horse. Contact the veterinarian
Acorns
The important thing is that all horses are different and or Extension agent to find out
will require different amounts of feed. All feed charts are Bracken fern what plants are a problem in the
meant to be used as guides when choosing a feed. Horses Dallis grass area.
should be fed and watered, if water is not given free Hairy vetch
choice, at about the same time each day. It is important Horsetail One toxicity problem horses
to avoid sudden changes in feed type or amount to avoid Locoweed have is with alfalfa hay infested
problems with colic or founder. Nightshade with blister beetles. These
Oak beetles contain a substance
Determining What Feeds Are Used Onion called cantharis. This toxin is very
Red maple irritating to the horse’s intestines,
The feed type used is decided by cost and availability. In Sorghum/Sudan and if the horse eats enough of
some areas, certain feeds are not grown, and they are Sweet clover them, it can cause death. In areas
unavailable or too expensive to be practical. Medical that have problems with blister
Yellow star thistle
condition is one factor affecting feed choice. After a beetles, all hay should be checked
horse has had colic, a veterinarian might put it on a bran for signs of the beetles.
mash until it has recovered. Likewise, if a mare is in heavy
lactation, she may be put on a high protein diet. Tying up syndrome is also called Monday morning sickness
or azoturia. Symptoms include rapid pulse, sweating,
Nutrition-Related Problems muscle stiffening (especially in the hindquarters). The
exact cause is unknown. Tying up is usually associated
There are many nutrition-related problems that a horse with heavy exercise followed by a rest period, during
can experience. Probably the most common and serious which high-energy feed is fed. In severe cases, permanent
two are colic and founder (laminitis). Both cause millions lameness can result. To lessen the chances of tying up,
of dollars in losses yearly and are probably preventable limit the amount of high-energy feed during rest periods.
in most cases. (See Lesson 5 for more on colic; review Treatment involves keeping the animal quiet, sheltered,
Lesson 6 for more information on founder.) and standing until a veterinarian can examine it.

Epiphysis is a nutritional disease that sometimes affects Summary

young horses. It involves swelling around the growth
plates of the long leg bones; the cause is believed to be In the wild, the horse was able to take care of all its needs
malnutrition. and usually had few problems. The domesticated horse
depends on people to provide all its nutritional needs. It
Vitamins are very important for good health and should is the responsibility of the owner to make sure the horse
be included in the horse’s ration. For example, a lack has the proper nutrition at all times.
of Vitamin D can cause rickets. However, overfeeding
vitamins can be as harmful as the lack of vitamins. (Refer Credits
to Table 7.3.)
Ensminger, M. Eugene. Horses and Horsemanship. 6th ed.
Horses can develop nutritional problems by ingesting Danville, IL: Interstate Publishers, Inc., 1990.
toxic plants in their hay or in the field. It is a good idea
to find out what plants grow in the area in order to get
rid of any that could be harmful. Table 7.2 lists poisonous
plants found in temperate North America; consult an
Extension agent to help identify these plants.

27
Equine Science
Table 7.3 - Horse Vitamin Chart Credit: Horses and Horsemanship, pp. 194–199. Used with permission.
Vitamins which may be deficient under normal conditions
Conditions usually prevailingiii Function of vitamin Some deficiency Practical sources
where deficiencies are reported symptoms of the vitamin
Fat-soluble vitamins:
A • Extended drought, bleached hays. • Promotes growth and Loss of appetite, poor growth, • Stabilized vitamin A.
Stall feeding where there is little or stimulates appetite. reproductive problems, nerve de- • Green grass.
no green forage or yellow corn. • Assists in reproduction generation, night blindness, lachry- • Green grass or legume hay not more than 1
• Following great stress, as when and lactation. mation (tears, keratinization of the year old.
race or show horses are put in • Keeps the mucous cornea and skin, uneven and poor • Carrots, yellow corn.
training. membranes of respiratory hoof development, a predisposition
to respiratory infection, incoor-
• The younger the animal, the and other tracts in healthy
dination, progressive weakness,
quicker vitamin A deficiencies will condition.
convulsive seizures, certain bone
show up. Mature animals may store • Makes for normal vision. disorders, and finicky appetite.
sufficient A to last 6 months. Prevents night blindness.
D Limited sunlight and/or limited sun- Assimilation and utilization • Rickets in foals, osteomalacia in •Either vitamin D2 (the plant form) or D3 (the
cured hay, especially when the horse of calcium and phosphorus, mature horses. Both conditions result animal form is equally effective for the horse.
is kept inside most of the time. necessary in normal bone in large joints and weak bones. • Exposure to sunlight.
• Rickets is characterized by reduced
development—including the • Sun-cured hays.
bone calcification, stiff and swollen
bones of the fetus. joints, stiffness of gait, irritability,
and reduction in serum calcium and
phosphorus.
• Osteomalacia results in bones
which soften, become distorted, and
fracture easily.
E More vitamin E may be destroyed • As an antioxidant. • Lowered breeding performance • Alpha-tocopherol acetate, a stable form of
or used by horses during times of • As an occasional replace- in both mares and stallions. vitamin E.
stress or strain than can be ob- ment for selenium. • Anhidrosis—a dry, dull hair • Wheat germ meal and wheat germ oil.
tained through normal feeds. Improves reproduction. coat; elevated temperature; and • Green plants.
Prevents anhidrosis. high blood pressure. Anhidrosis • Green hays.
has been successfully treated by
the oral administration of 1,000-
3,000 IU of vitamin E daily.
K Following intestinal disorders. Concerned with blood Increased clotting time of the • Green pasture.
coagulation. It converts blood and lowered level of • Well-cured hays.
precursor proteins to prothrombin. • Cereal grains.
the active blood clotting • Milk.
factors. • Menadione (vitamin K3).

Water-soluble vitamins:
Biotin Sulfa drugs kill intestinal organ- Biotin play an important In all animals, a deficiency of Alfalfa hay, blackstrap molasses, cottonseed
isms; hense, when they are used an role in the metabolism of biotin will depress growth and meal, soybean meal, peanut meal, milk, wheat
extended period, there may be a carbohydrates, fats, and cause a loss of hair and/or a bran, synthetic biotin, and yeast (brewers’,
deficiency of biotin. proteins. dermatitis. torula).

Choline Ration low in methionine, an amino Prevention of fatty livers, Slow growth and fatty livers are • Feed sources, such as alfalfa hay, blackstrap
acid. the transmitting of nerve the deficiency symptoms. molasses, and cereal grains.
impulses, and the metabo- • Body manufacture of choline from excess of
lism of fat. the amino acid methionine.
• Choline chloride.
• Choline dihydrogen.

Folacin In all vertebrates, folacin is • Poor growth. • Alfalfa hay, the oil meals (soybean, cottonseed,
(Folic essential for normal growth • Anemia. and linseed), skimmed milk, and wheat and
Acid) and reproduction, for the wheat by-products.
prevention of blood dis- • Synthetic folacin, wheat germ, and yeast
orders, and for important (brewers’, torula).
biochemical mechanisms in
each cell.

28
 Nutrition

Nutrient requirements1 2 Nutrient allowances1 2

Per In Per ton Per In ration Per ton
Classes/Function horse ration ration horse A-F ration Comments
daily A-F A-F daily A-F
(IU) (IU/lb.) (IU/ton) (IU) (IU/lb.) (IU/ton) • Vitamin A is not synthesized in the cecum.
Maintenance: • Hay more than 1 year old, regardless of green color, is usually not
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 22,725 909 1,818,000 26,134 1,045 2,090,700 an adequate source of carotene or vitamin A activity.
• When deficiency symptoms appear, add stabilized vitamin A to the
Gestation/Lactation:
ration.
1,000 lb. (454 kg) mare 34,100 1,364 2,728,000 39,215 1,569 3,137,200 • It is wasteful to feed more vitamin A than is needed. Also, exceed-
Growth: ingly high levels more than an extended period of time may cause
450 lb. (204.5 kg) weanling 10,908 909 1,818,000 12,544 1,045 2,090,700 bone fragility, hyperostosis, and exfoliated epithelium.
Working:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 22,725 909 1,818,000 26,134 1,045 2,090,700

Maintenance: • The requirement is less when a proper balance of calcium and

1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 3,400 136 272,000 3,910 156 312,800 phosphorus exists in the ration.
Gestation/Lactation: • When animals are exposed to direct sunlight, the ultraviolet light
produces vitamin D from traces of cholesterol in the skin. Stabled
1,000 lb. (454 kg) mare 6,825 273 546,000 7,849 314 627,900
horses exercised in the early morning will not get sufficient vitamin
Growth: D.
450 lb. (204.5 kg) weanling 4,368 364 728,000 5,023 419 837,200 • Too much vitamin D may harm a horse. Toxicity is characterized
Working: by calcification of the blood vessels, heart, and other soft tissues,
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 3,400 136 272,000 3,910 156 312,800 and by bone abnormalities. A toxic level of vitamin D has not been
established in the horse, but a level 50 times the requirement may
be harmful.
Maintenance:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 575 23 46,000 661 26 52,900 Utilization of vitamin E is dependent on adequate selenium.
Gestation/Lactation:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) mare 900 36 72,000 1,035 41 82,800
Growth:
450 lb. (204.5 kg) weanling 432 36 72,000 497 41 82,800
Working:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 900 36 72,000 1,035 41 82,800
Maintenance: (mg) (mg/lb.) (mg/ton) (mg) (mg/lb.) (mg/ton)
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 8.0 0.32 640 • High levels of vitamin K will overcome bleeding due to
Gestation/Lactation: dicoumarol.
1,000 lb. (454 kg) mare 8.0 0.32 640 • Vitamin K is generally (1) widely distributed in normal feeds,
Growth: and/or (2) synthesized in adequate amounts by the intestinal
450 lb. (204.5 kg) weanling 3.6 0.30 600 microflora of the horse.
Working:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 8.0 0.32 640
Maintenance:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 2.5 0.1 200 Biotin is closely related metabolically to folacin, pantothenic
Gestation/Lactation: acid, and vitamin B-12.
1,000 lb. (454 kg) mare 2.5 0.1 200
Growth:
450 lb. (204.5 kg) weanling 1.2 0.1 200
Working:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 2.5 0.1 200
Maintenance:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 500 20.0 40,000 Choline content of normal feeds is usually sufficient.
Gestation/Lactation:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) mare 750 30.0 60,000
Growth:
450 lb. (204.5 kg) weanling 750 62.5 125,000
Working:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 750 30.0 60.000
Maintenance:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 20 0.8 1,600 Folacin is widely distributed in horse feeds. Also, folacin is
Gestation/Lactation: synthesized in the lower gut.
1,000 lb. (454 kg) mare 30 1.2 2,400
Growth:
450 lb. (204.5 kg) weanling 36 3.0 6,000
Working:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 30 1.2 2,400

29
Equine Science
Vitamins which may be deficient under normal conditions
Conditions usually prevailingiii Function of vitamin Some deficiency Practical sources
where deficiencies are reported symptoms of the vitamin
Fat-soluble vitamins:
Niacin Constituent of two • Reduced growth and appetite. • Green alfalfa.
(Nicotinic Acid, important coenzymes. • Skin rashes, diarrhea, nerve • Niacin is widely distributed in
Nicotinamide) They are involved in disorders. feeds; fermentation solubles and
the release of energy certain oil meals are especially good
from carbobydrates, fats, sources.
and proteins, and in the • Synthetic niacin.
synthesis of fatty acids,
protein, and DNA.
Pantothenic Acid Part of coenzyme A, which Poor growth, skin rashes, poor • Safflower meal, blackstrap molasses,
(Vitamin B-3) plays a key role in body appetite, nervous disorders. wheat bran, and milk.
metabolism. • Calcium pantothenate.

Riboflavin (Vitamin When green feeds (pasture, hay, or Riboflavin has an essential • Periodic ophthalmia (or moon • Green pasture.
B-2) silage) are not available. role in the oxidative blindess), characterized by • Green hay.
mechanisms of the cells. catarrhal conjunctivitis in one • Milk and milk products.
or both eyes, accompanied by • Synthetic riboflavin.
photophobia, and lachrymation. • Yeast.
• Decreased rate of growth and
feed efficiency.
• Porous and weak bones; liga-
ments and joints impaired.
Thiamin (Vitamin • Poor-quality hay and grain. When • In energy metabolism. • A thiamin deficiency has been • Wheat and wheat by-products.
B-1) sulfa drugs or antibiotics are given Without thiamin, there produced experimentally. • Oilseed meals.
to the horse, the synthesis of B would be no energy. • Decreased feed consump- • Oat grain and groats.
vitamins is impaired. • In the working of the tion (loss of weight), anemia, • Thiamin hydrochloride.
• Consumption of bracken fern peripheral nerves. incoordination (especially in the • Yeast (brewers’, torula).
(Pteris aquilina) and horsetail • Promotes appetite and hindquarters), lowered blood
(Equisetum spp) will cause thiamin growth. thiamin, elevated blood pyruvic
deficiency due to the antithiamin acid, enlarged heart, and nervous
compounds that they contain. symptoms.
Vitamin B-6 In its coenzyme forms, it is No deficiency symptoms of Green pasture, alfalfa hay, wheat
(Pyridoxine, involved in a large number vitamin B-6 have been reported bran, wheat germ, and yeast
Pyridoxal, of physiologic functions, in the horse. So, it is thought to (brewers’, torula).
Pyridoxamine) particularly protein, be synthesized in the cecum.
carbohydrate, and fat
metabolism.

Vitamin B-12 • When few, or no feeds of animal • Coenzyme in several Loss of appetite and poor • Protein supplements of animal
(Cobalamins) origin are fed. enzyme systems. growth. origin.
• Where cobalt is not present in • Closely linked with cho- • Fermentation products.
the feed, thereby precluding the line, folacin, and pantothenic • Cobalamins, yeast.
synthesis of vitamin B-12 in the acid.
gastrointestinal tract.

Vitamin C The vitamin C requirements of fish • Formation and mainte- No deficiency symptoms in • Ordinary rations and body synthe-
(Ascorbic Acid, and humans have been observed nance of collagen. horses noted. 1 In humans and sis provide adequate vitamin C for
Dehydroascorbic to increase in periods of stress. it • More rapid healing of monkeys, scurvy is the main horses.
Acid) is conjectured that heavily stressed wounds. deficiency symptom. In humans, • Well-cured hays and green pastures
horses may require more vitamin C • Sound bones. sudden death from severe are good sources of vitamin C.
than they can synthesize. internal hemorrhage and heart
failure is always a danger.

Unidentified Since the U.S. foal crop is only around 50 percent, it is obvious that there is room for improvement, and perhaps unidentified factors are
Factors involved. Also, optimal results with horses during the critical periods (growth, gestation-lactation, and when under stress as in racing or
showing) appear to be dependent upon providing unidentified factors through such ingredients as distillers’ dried solubles, dehydrated alfalfa
meal, condensed fish solubles, brewers’ dried yeast, antibiotic fermentation residues, dried whey, and corn fermentation solubles.
2
Feed consumption of mature 1,000 lb (454 kg) horse estimated at 25 lb. (11.36 kg) per day. Feed consumption of a 450 lb. (204.5 kg) weanling is estimated at 12 lb. (5.45 kg) per day.
30
 Nutrition
Nutrient requirements1 2 Nutrient allowances1 2
Per In Per ton Per In ration Per ton
Classes/Function horse ration ration horse A-F ration Comments
daily A-F A-F daily A-F
(IU) (IU/lb.) (IU/ton) (IU) (IU/lb.) (IU/ton) • There is some evidence that niacin is synthesized
Maintenance: by the horse.
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 250 10.0 20,000 • The horse can convert the essential amino acid
Gestation/Lactation: tryptophan into niacin. Hence, it is important to
1,000 lb. (454 kg) mare 250 10.0 20,000 make certain that the ration is adequate in niacin;
Growth: otherwise, the horse will use tryptophan to supply
450 lb. (204.5 kg) weanling 250 20.8 41,600 niacin needs.
Working:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 250 10.0 20,000
Maintenance:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 250 10.0 20,000 • Grain is very deficient in pantothenic acid.
Gestation/Lactation: • Of all the B vitamins, pantothenic acid is most
1,000 lb. (454 kg) mare 250 10.0 20,000 likely to be deficient under stable (confinement)
Growth: conditions.
450 lb. (204.5 kg) weanling 250 20.8 41,600
Working:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 250 10.0 20,000
Maintenance:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 22.8 0.91 1,820 40.0 1.6 3,200 Lack of vitamin B-2 is not the only cause of moon
Gestation/Lactation: blindness. Sometimes, moon blindness follows
1,000 lb. (454 kg) mare 22.8 0.91 1,820 40.0 1.6 3,200 leptospirosis, and it may be caused by an allergic
Growth: reaction.
450 lb. (204.5 kg) weanling 10.9 0.91 1,820 19.2 1.6 3,200
Working:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 22.8 0.91 1,820 40.0 1.6 3,200
Maintenance:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 34.1 1.36 2,720 39.2 1.57 3,140 • Thiamin is synthesized in the lower gut of the horse
Gestation/Lactation: by bacterial action, but there is some doubt as to its
1,000 lb. (454 kg) mare 34.1 1.36 2,720 39.2 1.57 3,140 sufficiency.
Growth: • When neither green pasture nor high-quality roughage
450 lb. (204.5 kg) weanling 16.4 1.36 2,720 18.9 1.57 3,140 is available, thiamin hydrochloride should be added to
the ration.
Working:
• Since carbohydrate metabolism is increased during
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 56.8 2.27 4,540 65.3 2.61 5,220
physical exertion, it is important that B-1 be available in
quantity at such times.
Maintenance:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 25.0 1.0 2,000 Normally, horse rations contain adequate vitamin
Gestation/Lactation: B-6. Also, it appears to be synthesized in the cecum.
1,000 lb. (454 kg) mare 25.0 1.0 2,000 Yet, these sources may not be adequate for the
Growth: maximum performance of the horse.
450 lb. (204.5 kg) weanling 6.0 0.5 1,000
Working:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 25.0 1.0 2,000
Maintenance:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 0.125 0.005 10 It is reported that horses in poor nutritional
Gestation/Lactation: condition showing anemia respond to the
1,000 lb. (454 kg) mare 0.150 0.006 12 administration of vitamin B-12.
Growth:
450 lb. (204.5 kg) weanling 0.084 0.007 14
Working:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 0.150 0.006 12
Maintenance:
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 60 2.4 4,800 Dietary need is clearly evident for humans,
Gestation/Lactation: monkeys, guinea pigs, fruit-eating bats, and bulbul
1,000 lb. (454 kg) mare 100 4.0 8,000 birds. However, vitamin C is probably required
Growth: by other species, but synthesized in the body; the
450 lb. (204.5 kg) weanling 45 3.75 7,500 only question is whether the horse can synthesize
Working: enough vitamin C when under stress.
1,000 lb. (454 kg) horse 100 4.0 8,000
1
As used herein, the distinction between “nutrient requirements” and “nutrient allowances” is as follows. In nutrient requirements, no margins of safety are included intentionally, whereas
in nutrient allowances, margins of safety are provided in order to compensate for variations in feed composition, environment, and possible losses during storage or processing. The
nutrient requirements in this table were adapted by the authors from Nutrient Requirements of Horses, 5th rev. ed., NRC-National Academy of Sciences, 1989. The nutrient allowances were
developed by the author, based on experiments and experiences; it is intended that they are meet the nutrient requirements and provide adequate margins of safety, in addition.

31
 Equipment and Facilities
Lesson 8: Equipment and Facilities Figure 8.2.) There are many variations of both and many
different types of bits that can be used.
With horses, having good equipment and facilities is a
must, given the horse’s strength. Buildings provide a safe The saddle is the next piece of tack. (See Figure 8.3.)
environment from the elements and pests, along with There are two main styles—Western and English. The
providing a place to care for sick or injured animals. Using main difference between the two saddles is that the
equipment that is in poor condition can result in injury to Western saddle has a high pommel and cantle, and the
the horse and/or the handler. English saddle looks almost flat. The Western saddle was
designed for use by cowboys as they worked and roped
Types and Uses of Tack cattle.

Tack comes in many varieties and generally refers to any Figure 8.2 - Bridle Nomenclauture and Adjustment
equipment that is used during riding or handling. Styles Points Credit: Choosing, Assembling,
of tack include Western, English, show, and work. The and Using Bridles (G2845)
type of tack used will depend on what the rider wants to
accomplish. For example, if one is working cattle, a show
saddle is not appropriate.

The halter and bridle are tack that a rider/handler uses

to communicate with the horse and give directions. The
halter is simply a bridle that doesn’t have a bit connected
to it. (See Figure 8.1.) A halter can be made out of nylon
webbing, rope, or leather. Each material has advantages and
disadvantages. The rope halter is inexpensive and easily
made, but easier for the horse to break. Nylon halters are
more expensive than rope halters but are stronger and
easier to find.The leather halter is the most expensive but
also the most attractive and is used when showing.

A bridle’s main function is to hold the bit in the horse’s

mouth, which transmits commands from the rider. There
are two main types of bridles—Western and English. (See

Credit: Haltering and

Figure 8.1 - Halter Tying Horses (G2844)

33
Equine Science
A saddle pad goes between the horse’s back and the horse. A properly adjusted bridle will only cause one or
saddle to protect the horse from the rubbing of the two wrinkles in the corners of the horse’s mouth.
saddle as the horse moves. Saddle pads come in several
sizes and thicknesses; the one chosen will depend on the The throat latch strap should be adjusted to allow two or
specific saddle. three fingers between it and the horse’s jaw. If the throat
latch is too small, it will restrict the horse’s head and
Blankets are used to cover a horse in the winter on cool could interfere with breathing.
nights if the horse has been sweating from exercise. This
lessens the chance of a horse catching cold or coming The saddle should be of proper size for the horse and
down with pneumonia. rider. The saddle blanket should fit the saddle. Before
saddling a horse, make sure that the horse’s back and
There are many different accessories that can be used girth (mid-section) are clean, as well as the girth strap and
when riding for pleasure or when working cattle. Some saddle blanket. The girth strap should be tightened firmly,
accessories most commonly used are chaps, which are but the gullet (the underside of the pommel) should not
made out of leather and protect the rider’s legs; spurs, rub the horse’s wither (front shoulders).
which attach to a boot’s heel and help give commands to
the horse; and splints, which go on the horse’s front legs Equipment adjustment will vary, depending on the style of
to protect it from injury. Some horse owners will need a equipment used.
harness also. (See Figure 8.5.)
Bits and How They Work
Adjusting Tack
Bits are the mechanical means from which cues are
The size of the horse is the deciding factor for choosing communicated to the horse from the rider. There are
appropriate equipment. It is very important that all tack various types of bits, and the ones used will depend
be properly fitted to the horse. If the bridle is too loose, on the horse and the style of riding. Some of the more
the rider might not be able to get the horse to respond common bits are snaffle, curb, pelham, rearing, hackamore,
and might lose control. If it is too tight, it can injure the and bosal. Bits act on pressure points on the horse’s head,

Figure 8.3 - Saddle Styles Credit: Equine Management and Production, pp. H1-5. Used with permission.

34
 Equipment and Facilities
Figure 8.4 - Types of Bits

such as the poll, nose, lips, chin, tongue, and the roof of The pelham bit is a curb bit with two sets of reins and
the mouth. is used in English style riding. This bit gives more control
than snaffle or curb bits.
The snaffle bit is a mouthpiece with a ring at each end
where the reins attach. When the rider pulls on the The hackamore has no mouthpiece—just a head stall
reins, it puts direct pressure on the corner of the horse’s and chin strap. It is used frequently by trainers on young
mouth. The smaller the diameter of the mouthpiece, the horses. This prevents injuring the sensitive mouth of a
harsher the bit is. The snaffle bit can be a solid piece or a young horse.
piece that is jointed in the middle. Some will have a cheek
piece to prevent the bit from being pulled through the A bosal or bosal hackamore is very similar to the
horse’s mouth. (See Figure 8.4.) hackamore, except that the bosal has no chains or metal
parts. Both exert pressure on the outside muzzle of the
Curb bits have shanks that act as levers. Pressure is applied horse.
to the tongue, bars, corners, and roof of the mouth. The
bit rests on the bars of the mouth. (Bars are the spaces on Types of Reins
the gums between front and rear teeth.) The longer the
shank, the more leverage and the harsher the bit. Curb There are two types of reins—single and split. A single
bits can also have curb chains on them, which exert more rein is one piece with ends that attach to the bit. Split
pressure in the horse’s mouth. Curb bits can have straight reins are two separate pieces, each attaching to one side
or jointed mouthpieces. Some bits have an extra loop of the bit.
extending upward called a spade, which exerts pressure
to the roof of the mouth.
35
Equine Science
Double and multiple reins are variations on single and Every owner should have a grooming kit and a first aid
split reins. Double reins are used with bits such as the kit on hand.These, too, can be simple (containing only the
pelham. Multiple reins are used with a team of horses basics) or they can be very complete and contain everything
pulling a wagon (one set of reins for each horse in the available for use with horses. A basic first aid kit should
team). contain scissors, gauze, rolled cotton, antiseptic, crepe
bandage, vet thermometer, alcohol, iodine, a clean bucket,
Equipment and Their Uses tape, antibiotic dressing, and a twitch. (See Restraints in
Lesson 9 for more information on twitches.) First aid kits
Proper equipment for horses includes feeders, waterers, should also contain vet wrap, a clingy support wrap. Vet
facilities, first aid kits, and grooming supplies. Feeding thermometers are specially designed for rectal use with
equipment can be as simple as five-gallon buckets for livestock.
waterers and feed buckets, or it can be prefabricated
especially for horses. There are advantages and A grooming kit should contain at least a brush, hoof pick,
disadvantages to each, with the main difference being sweat scraper, body brush, mane-and-tail comb, curry
cost. Feeding can also be done without any containers comb, clippers, shampoo, wash cloth, and a clean bucket.
at all by pouring the feed on the ground. However, the Each kit will be individualized, depending on owner
biggest disadvantage is a greater chance of the horse preferences. Disinfect grooming tools and equipment
picking up parasites from the ground. Using a watering routinely to prevent the spread of disease.
fountain costs more but will help ensure available, fresh,
clean water supply.

Figure 8.5 - Horse in Single Harness

36
 Equipment and Facilities
The final part of equipment deals with transportation. Summary
Horse trailers are a big investment that must be justified.
For an owner who does not go to rodeos or horse shows Understanding the different types of equipment used
frequently, consider hiring someone to haul the horse(s) to handle horses helps make owning a horse safe and
when needed. If a trailer is justified, consider several enjoyable. There is a wide assortment of products on
factors. It must be both road-safe (in good condition) the market that are designed just for horses. Horse
and safe inside. If it is larger than a one-horse trailer, it enthusiasts should learn how a piece of equipment works
should have a partition and adequate padding. If needed, before deciding to purchase it. Will it fit their needs? The
a ramp should be long enough so that it is not too steep. style of equipment selected will depend on the type of
Ramps should have traction so the horse will not slip riding or work that will be done, what the owner wishes
while walking on it. to accomplish, and the size of the horse.

Costs of Equipment and Facilities Credits

Depending on the owner’s preferences and budget, Curriculum Material for Agriscience 334: Equine Science (Topic
equipment can be minimal or plentiful. When purchasing #8899-B). College Station, TX: Instructional Materials
any equipment, put safety considerations first. Fencing is a Service, Texas A&M University, 1990.
major safety concern and should be as strong as possible.
Fencing can be made from many different materials (post Ensminger, M. Eugene. Horses and Horsemanship. 6th ed.
and rails, woven wire, pipe, boards, or wire) but should Danville, IL: Interstate Publishers, Inc., 1990.
never be barbed wire.
Equine Management and Production. Stillwater, OK:
Facilities range from simple and inexpensive to very Curriculum and Instructional Materials Center, Oklahoma
costly. Regardless, facilities should always provide shelter Department of Vocational and Technical Education, 1990.
to avoid such health problems as rain scald, a fungus that
develops during continuous rain. Some kind of feeding Hawcroft, Tim. The Complete Book of Horse Care. New
and watering equipment is also needed. Horses kept in York: Howell Book House, Inc., 1994.
stalls need regular exercise.
University of Missouri-Columbia Extension Division
There are numerous manufacturers of equine equipment, agricultural publications
and prices will vary from dealer to dealer. Whether an
item is portable or stationary also affects its cost. Get to a. G2844: Haltering and Tying Horses
know how something new works before purchasing it to b. G2845: Choosing, Assembling and Using Bridles
make sure it will work for the desired operation. c. G2887: Selecting a Saddle

Owning a horse is a big responsibility; even with the

simplest of operations, it will not be inexpensive.
Equipment needs to be maintained and occasionally
replaced.

37
 Handling Horses
Lesson 9: Handling Horses Equitation

Safety is the most important aspect of handling horses, Equitation is the process of riding.There are several styles
for both the rider and the horse. of riding; Western and English (hunter-jumper, hunt seat,
racing, and dressage) are the most common. Most styles
Leading a Horse of riding are either Western or English. The English-type
events contain more jumping and ballet-type movements
When leading a horse, a handler should always walk than Western events.
to the left of the horse with the right hand about 12-
18 inches from the horse’s head. The remaining length Restraints
of rope should be held in the left hand, but not coiled
around the hand. To prevent rope burn, never let a rope It is important that a handler be able to properly restrain a
slip through the hand. horse when needed. The method of restraint will depend
on the horse and its temperament. The simplest form of
Walk evenly with the horse’s head—not in front of it or restraint is the halter. For most occasions, this will be all
too far behind it. Always make sure that gates are fully that is needed.
open. When releasing a horse into a stall or field, go all
the way inside before unhooking the halter. Never leave Occasionally, it becomes necessary to use something
a halter on a horse that is left out in the field. Horses stronger. In this instance, grip the neck or twist an ear to
wearing halters in the field can get caught on things, restrain the animal. If this does not work, a mechanical
causing injury or even death. Halters need to be refitted device known as a twitch can be used. (See Figure 9.1.)
periodically on young animals. If adjustments are not A twitch can be either a loop of rope that is attached to
made, strangulation could result. the end of a wooden rod or a scissor-type device. Either
type works about the same because they are put on the
Lunging upper lip and pressure is applied. This pressure causes
the horse’s brain to release endorphins that act to calm
Lunging is a method of exercising and training a horse. the horse. Rubbing the upper gums also calms the horse.
Lunging can be done anywhere, but is best done in a Other methods of restraining a horse are sidelines and
circular pen that is about 30 feet in diameter. It is an hobbles. Sidelines keep one of the horse’s feet off the
excellent method of training a young horse to walk, trot,
canter, and stop on command.When lunging, always work
the horse equally in both directions. Lunging can also be Figure 9.1 - Twitch
an excellent way to rehabilitate a horse that has been
injured and cannot be ridden. It gives horses the exercise
they need without stress.

Mounting and Dismounting

Before mounting, make sure the saddle is in the correct

position and that the saddle blanket has not slipped or
bunched up. Also, check that the girth is tight. Before
mounting a horse, first move it forward a few steps to
make sure it is standing squarely. Most people mount
from the left side. Insert the left foot in the stirrup,
straightening the left leg while swinging the right leg over
the horse’s back. Dismounting is simply reversing the
mounting process.

39
Equine Science
Figure 9.2 - Hobbles When washing a horse, the excess water can be removed
with a sweat scraper. Use cool (not ice cold) water in
the summer and warm water during cool weather. Then,
brush the horse with the grain (the direction the hair
lies). If needed, any hair around the bridle path would be
clipped. (The bridle path is the area behind the ears where
the strap of the bridle goes.) The bridle path should be
kept clipped so the hair won’t get tangled in the buckle
of the bridal strap. If the weather is cool or insects are
ground, while hobbles fit around the ankles and limit the
numerous, it might be necessary to put a blanket on the
speed an animal can walk. (See Figure 9.2.)
horse, especially if the horse is kept in a stable.

Haltering
The mane and tail on some horses are braided for show.
This also keeps the mane all on one side and out of the
To catch and halter a horse, generally approach from
rider’s way. If the mane or tail grows too long, it will get
its left side. Never approach directly from the front or
matted and will take several hours to undo. Grooming
from the rear because it cannot see well there. Always
for show is similar to daily grooming except that more
make the horse aware you are coming, never rush, and
attention is given to fine details. Different people have
be confident. As you reach the horse, slip the lead rope
different ways of preparing their horses for show.
around its neck to help restrain it, and then slip the halter
Grooming will also vary from breed to breed.
around the neck and fasten it.
One other important thing that should be done while
If the horse is hard to catch, keep the lead rope out of
grooming is to pick out the hoofs. This will help prevent
sight and keep the horse in a smaller area. Reward the
stone bruises and thrush.
horse after catching it, and remember that patience is a
must.
Safety Precautions for Trailering

Never tie the rope to yourself or allow yourself to become

The trailer should be in top condition with all running
entangled. If the horse is startled, the handler could be
lights, latches, padding, and brakes in proper working
dragged behind it. When tying a lead rope, it is important
order. The horse should have a strong, properly fitted
to tie to a secure object. The amount of freedom given
halter, and lead rope. The horse should be well groomed
to the horse’s head is also critical. If too much freedom
with its legs wrapped for protection. Also, the tail should
is given, the horse can get tangled in the rope. If too little
be wrapped to prevent it from being tangled by the wind.
slack is given, the horse could feel confined and react
If the weather is cool, a blanket should be used to prevent
violently. (See Figure 9.3.)
the horse from getting too cold. The horse should be fed
and watered two or three hours before loading. If going
Grooming
on a long trip, plans should be made to stop along the
way to give the horse water and let it stretch its legs.
Grooming is an important part of the horse’s health and
training. Grooming keeps parasites down, helps maintain
To load the horse, be careful when getting behind it. If
coat condition, teaches the horse to stand patiently, and
it is resistant to loading, it might kick, which can injure
gives the handler an opportunity to check for injuries.The
a person severely. If needed, a rope can be tied around
amount of time and the frequency of grooming depends
the hindquarters and pulled by the person leading the
on the conditions in which the horse is kept. A horse
horse. If the trailer does not have a walk-through door
that is kept in a stable and is ridden a great deal will need
at the front but only a side window, it is not advisable
grooming more frequently than one that is kept out in a
to lead the horse in. Instead, use a long rope and run it
pasture and ridden infrequently.

40
 Handling Horses
through the window to prevent getting crushed if the When buying a horse, it is a good idea to have a
horse decides to go inside suddenly. veterinarian give it a checkup. It is strongly advised
to investigate regulations before going to a show or
Before driving, double-check latches and prevent horses transporting the horse anywhere. Check with a local
from putting their heads out of windows. A hay bag can Extension agent, veterinarian, saddle club representative,
be used to help keep the horse occupied while traveling and/or the Department of Agriculture for regulations. It
and to give it some nourishment on a long trip. Tie the can save a lot of time and money in the long run.
bag high enough to prevent leg tangling.
Summary
To unload a horse, use caution that the horse doesn’t bolt
out of the trailer. Always unload in a fenced-in area. Do Owning and handling horses can provide a great deal
not get between the horse and the trailer to avoid being of enjoyment, but it requires thought, planning, and
pinned against the wall. care. Without enough preparation, there will be many
problems.
Regulations Dealing with Horses
The next important thing to remember in order to have
Whether traveling in or out of state, it is a good idea to an enjoyable experience with a horse is safety. Nothing
call the Department of Agriculture to determine what can substitute for following safe practices when handling
quarantine regulations exist in that state. Some local a horse. Remember that horses are a great deal larger
regulations might also apply. For example, one regulation than people and can injure someone without meaning to.
might require a negative Coggins blood test before being It is also important to remember that horses depend on
allowed to participate in a local saddle club show. It is also their owners to provide them with proper care and a safe
a good idea to have liability insurance. This will protect environment.
the horse’s owner in case of an accident. An owner
can contact an insurance representative to check on
appropriate coverage.

Figure 9.3 - Tying a Horse

41
Equine Science
Credits

Ensminger, M. Eugene. Horses and Horsemanship. 6th ed.

Danville, IL: Interstate Publishers, Inc., 1990.

Hawcroft, Tim. The Complete Book of Horse Care. New

York: Howell Book House, Inc., 1994.

42
 Career Opportunities
Lesson 10: Career Opportunities normal life. Another development is the use of artificial
insemination. Saving the semen or eggs from superior
There are many opportunities available in the horse horses to use later is a step toward improving the future
industry for those who have the desire to work with genetic pool of horses.
horses. These opportunities are broken into two main
types: primary and secondary. Either type offers many Training has also benefitted from technology. Blood
rewards and can become long-lasting careers. samples can be taken to determine a horse’s maximum
amount of exercise. New equipment, such as a swimming
Career Opportunities pool especially designed for the horse, has advanced
training a great deal.
A primary career is one that deals directly with horses,
such as a trainer or handler. A secondary career is one Marketing Horses
that works with horses but has limited or no contact
with them. Some examples include someone who sells There are several marketing options available to a horse
equine pharmaceuticals or someone who makes horse breeder. The breeder can sell the best horses as breeding
trailers. Both careers contribute to the equine industry, stock, either as mature breeders or as yearlings. The
although the workers may or may not have direct contact monetary amount that a horse will bring depends on its
with horses. blood lines and the past performances of its ancestors.
Another factor in the selling price of horses is the
Someone who wants to work with horses directly should geographic area’s needs and the breed of the horse. In
gain as much experience in the industry as possible. A European and Asian countries, horses are also sold for
person does not need to be an owner to get into the meat.
horse industry. In fact, many trainers and race track
jockeys do not own the horses they work with because Summary
these horses are very expensive to buy and own.
The horse industry has many careers available to an
Examples of different careers in the horse industry are individual. A person does not have to work directly with
owner, trainer, stable manager, veterinarian, jockey, farrier, horses to be involved in the horse industry. However, for
auctioneer, rodeo announcer, concession stand worker, those who do want to work with horses, there are many
and grounds keeper. opportunities.

Supporting Income Credits

Most people who own horses do so as a hobby or raise Ensminger, M. Eugene. Horses and Horsemanship. 6th ed.
them in a limited way. Usually, these individuals have Danville, IL: Interstate Publishers, Inc., 1990.
another job that helps support the horse operation.
Many breeders who raise horses incorporate another Horse Registries and Associations (G2780). University of
aspect of the horse industry to maintain the style of living Missouri-Columbia Extension Division, 1991.
they require. This includes boarding or training horses as
a service to others.

Emerging Technologies

With technology changing very quickly, many new ways

of breeding and training are being developed. In the past,
a horse with a broken leg was destroyed. Frequently
today, the animal can be treated successfully and live a

43