PID ALGORITHMS

and
TUNING METHODS

John A. Shaw
Process Control Solutions

Rochester, New York

585-234-5864

The PID control algorithm is used for the control of almost all loops in the process
industries, and is also the basis for many advanced control algorithms and strategies. In
order for control loops to work properly, the PID loop must be properly tuned. Standard
methods for tuning loops and criteria for judging the loop tuning have been used for many
years, but should be reevaluated for use on modern digital control systems.

While the basic algorithm has been unchanged for many years and is used in all distributed
control systems, the actual digital implementation of the algorithm has changed and differs
from one system to another and from commercial equipment to academia.

We will discuss controller tuning methods and criteria. Also discussed will be the digital
PID control algorithm, how it works, the various implementation methods and options, and
how these affect the operation and tuning of the controller.

Chapter 1
The Feedback Control Loop
The system measures the process, compares it to a setpoint, and then
manipulates the output in the direction which should move the process toward
the setpoint.

Valve Linearity

Valves are usually non-linear. That is, the flow through the valve is not the same as the
valve position. Several types of valves exist:

Linear

Same gain regardless of valve position

Equal Percentage
 Low gain when valve is nearly closed

High gain when valve is nearly open

Quick Opening

High gain when valve is nearly closed

Low gain when valve is nearly open

As we will see later, the gain of the process, including the valve, is very important to the
tuning of the loop.

• If the controller is tuned for one process gain, it may not work for other process gains.

Valve Linearity:
Installed characteristics

The flow vs. percent open curve changes due to the head loss in the piping
At low flow, the head loss through the pipes is less, leaving a larger differential pressure
across the valve.

At high flow, the head loss through the pipe is more, leaving a smaller differential
pressure across the valve.

The effect is to increase the non-linearity of most valves.

Fail Open Valves

Valves are usually either: Fail Closed, air to open or

Fail Open, air to close

• Regardless of the way the valve operates, the operator is interested in the
knowing and adjusting the position of the valve, not the value of the signal.
"Up is always open"
• All controllers have some means of indicating the controller output in
terms of the valve position. When the operator increases the output as
indicated on the controller, the valve opens.

Indication Inversion

The output
indication is
inverted.

The controller
action takes the
valve action
into acount.

The flow loop

is direct
acting.

Most analog
controllers
work like this.

Signal Inversion
The output
signal is
inverted.

The controller
action ignores
the valve
action.

The flow loop

is reverse
acting

Some
distributed
control systems
work like this.
 Chapter 2
The Process Response to the Controller

Steady state relationships:

Relating valve change to measurement change
Steady state relationships:
changing load
When the load changes, either the process value changes or the valve position must be
changed to compensate for the load change.

Process Dynamics: Simple lag

 Process Dynamics: Dead time

Dead Time: A delay in the loop due to the time it takes

material to flow from one point to another

Also called: Distance Velocity Lag

Transportation Lag
Most loop combine dead time and lag.

Measurement of dynamics
The dynamics differ from one loop to another.

However, they usually result in a response curve like this:

L is Lag—the largest lag in the process loop.

D is "Pseudo Deadtime"—the sum of the deadtime and all lags other than the largest lag.
 Disturbances
Almost all processes contain disturbances.

Disturbances can enter anywhere in the process.

The effect of the disturbance can depend on where it enters the loop.

Most disturbances cannot be measured.

Chapter 3
The PID algorithm

Action
PROCESS ACTION

Defines the relationship between changes in the valve and changes in

the measurement.

DIRECT Increase in valve position causes an increase in the

measurement.

REVERSE Increase in valve position causes a decrease in the

measurement.

CONTROLLER ACTION

Defines the relationship between changes in the measured variable and

changes in the controller output.

DIRECT Increase in measured variable causes an increase in the

output.

REVERSE Increase in measured variable causes a decrease in the

output.

The controller action must be the opposite of the process action.

Auto/Manual
Manual Mode:

The operator adjust the output to operate the plant.

During startup, this mode is normally used.

Automatic Mode:

The control algorithm manipulates the output to hold the process measurements at their
setpoints.
This should be the most common mode for normal operation.

Key concepts
The PID control algorithm does not "know" the correct output to bring the process
to the setpoint.

• It merely continues to move the output in the direction which should move the process
toward the setpoint.

• The algorithm must have feedback (process measurement) to perform.

The PID algorithm must be "tuned" for the particular process loop. Without such
tuning, it will not be able to function.

• To be able to tune a PID loop, each of the terms of the PID equation must be
understood.

• The tuning is based on the dynamics of the process response.

The PID Control Algorithm

The PID control algorithm comprises three elements:

 Proportional - also known as Gain

 Integral - also known as Automatic Reset or simply Reset
  Derivative - also known as Rate or Pre-Act (TM of Taylor Instrument Co.)

The algorithm is normally available in several combinations of these elements:

 Proportional only
 Proportional and Integral (most common)
 Proportional, Integral, and Derivative
 Proportional and Derivative

We will examine each of the three elements below:

Proportional
E = Measurement - Setpoint (direct action)

E = Setpoint - Measurement (reverse action)

Output = E * G + k

The output is equal to the error times the gain plus the manual reset.

If the manual reset stays constant, there is a fixed relationship between the setpoint, the
measurement, and the output.

Proportional—units
The proportional or gain term may be calibrated in two ways:

Gain and Proportional Band

Gain = Output/Input

Increasing the gain will cause the output to move more.

Proportional band is the % change in the input which would result in a 100% change in
the output.

Proportional Band = 100/Gain

We will use gain in this document.

Proportional—Output vs. Measurement

(Reverse acting)
Proportional only control produces an offset. Only the adjustment of the manual reset
removes the offset.

Proportional—Offset
Offset can be reduced by increasing gain.

Proportional control with low gain

Proportional control with higher gain

Proportional—Reducing offset with manual reset

Offset can be eliminated by changing manual reset.
Proportional control different manual reset

Adding automatic reset

With proportional only control, the operator "resets" the controller (to remove offset) by
adjusting the manual reset:
This manual reset may be replaced by automatic reset which continues to move the
output whenever there is any error:

This is called "Reset" or Integral Action.

Note the use of the positive feedback loop to perform integration.

Reset or integral mode

Reset Contribution:

Out = g XKr Xintegral of error

where g is gain, Kr is the reset setting in repeats per minute.

 Units used to set integral or reset

Assume a controller with proportional and integral only.

Calculation of repeat time: (gain and reset terms used in controller)

With the error set to zero (measurement input = setpoint), make a change in the input
and note the immediate change in output. The output will continue to change (it is
integrating the error). Note the time it takes the output to, due to the integral action,
repeat the initial change made by the gain action.

Some control vendors measure reset by repeat time in minutes. This is the time it takes
the reset (or integral) element to repeat the action of the proportional element.

Others measure reset by "repeats per minute".

• Repeats per minute is the inverse of minutes of repeat

This document will use repeats per minute.

Derivative
First used as a part of a temperature transmitter ("Speed-Act™" - Taylor Instrument
Companies) to overcome lag in transmitter measurement.

Also known as Pre-Act and Rate.

Derivative Contribution:

Out = g xKd xde/dt

where g is gain, Kd is the derivative setting in minutes.

Response of controller with proportional and derivative:

The amount of time that the derivative action advances the output is known as the
"derivative time" measured in minutes.

All major vendors measure derivative (Derivative, Rate) the same.

Complete PID response

Non-Interactive (text book) form:
Out = G(e + R+ D)
Where

G = Gain

R = Reset (repeats per minute)

D = Derivative (minutes)

Chapter 4
Additional PID Concepts

Interactive or Noninteractive algorithm

"Interactive" and "Noninteractive" refer to interaction between the reset and
derivative terms. This is also known as "series" or "parallel" derivative.

Almost all analog controllers are interactive.

Many digital controllers are non-interactive, some are interactive

The only difference is in the tuning of controllers with derivative.

Non-Interactive (Parallel):
Out = G(e + R+ D)

Interactive (series):

Out = (RD+1)G(e + R+D )

Converting between interactive and non-interactive

Applies only to 3-mode controllers

To convert from non-interactive to interactive:

Gn = Gi (1 + Ri Di)

Rn = Ri/(1 + Ri Di)

Dn = Di/(1 + Ri Di)

• In other words, with a non-interactive controller the gain

should be higher, the reset rate lower, and the derivative lower
than on a commercial interactive controller.

External feedback
The integral function implemented using a positive feedback.

If the input to the positive feedback loop is taken from the signal to the process, it is
called "external feedback" or "reset feedback". At steady state the controller output is the
Gain multiplied by Error added to external feedback. If the error is zero, the output is
equal to the external feedback.

Saturation Properties
Another difference is in the "Saturation Properties"

eg. what happens when output has been at the upper or lower limit.

Standard algorithm

Described on previous page.

Output stays at limit until measurement crosses setpoint.

"Integrated velocity form"

Similar to equation:

Output = Last output + gain x (error - last error + reset x error)

Output pulls away from limit one reset time before measurement crosses setpoint.
• For most applications, there is no difference. For some batch startup problems, the
"integrated velocity form" algorithm works best.

• Standard works best for high gain/low reset rate applications.