CLASS: I MCA SUBJECT CODE: MC5207

SUBJECT: CLOUD COMPUTING

UNIT-I
DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION TO DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS
 A distributed system is one in which components located at networked computers communicate and co-
ordinate their actions only by passing messages.
 A distributed system consists of a collection of autonomous computers linked by a computer network and
equipped with distributed system software.
 This software enables computers to coordinate their activities and to share the resources of the system
hardware, software, and data.

CHARACTERIZATION OF DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS

 A distributed system consists of a collection of autonomous computers, connected through a network and
distribution middleware, which enables computers to coordinate their activities and to share the resources
of the system, so that users perceive the system as a single, integrated computing facility.

Centralised System Characteristics

 One component with non-autonomous parts
 Component shared by users all the time
 All resources accessible
 Software runs in a single process
 Single Point of control
 Single Point of failure

Distributed System Characteristics

 Multiple autonomous components
 Components are not shared by all users
 Resources may not be accessible
 Software runs in concurrent processes on different processors
 Multiple Points of control
 Multiple Points of failure

 There are three significant characteristics on how distributed systems are different from centralized
systems:
1. Concurrency of components - different system components do work at once and handle
communication by passing messages.
2. Lack of global clock - in distributed systems each system has its own clock. Systems might
somewhat synchronize their clocks sometimes but they most likely will not have the same time.
3. Independent failures of components - in a distributed system one component might fail due to
some unforeseen circumstances.

Examples appeared on the slides:

Finance and commerce eCommerce e.g. Amazon and eBay, PayPal, online banking and
trading
The information society Web information and search engines, ebooks, Wikipedia; social
networking: Facebook and MySpace

Creative industries and online gaming, music and film in the home, user-generated content,
entertainment e.g. YouTube, Flickr
Healthcare health informatics, on online patient records, monitoring patients

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Education e-learning, virtual learning environments; distance learning
Transport and logistics GPS in route finding systems, map services: Google Maps, Google
Earth
Science The Grid as an enabling technology for collaboration between
scientists
Environmental management sensor technology to monitor earthquakes, floods or tsunamis

Common Characteristics
 Certain common characteristics can be used to assess distributed systems

Resource Sharing
 Ability to use any hardware, software or data anywhere in the system.
 Resource manager controls access, provides naming scheme and controls concurrency.
 Resource sharing model (e.g. client/server or object-based) describing how resources are provided,
they are used and provider and user interact with each other.
Openness
 Openness is concerned with extensions and improvements of distributed systems.
 Detailed interfaces of components need to be published.
 New components have to be integrated with existing components.
 Differences in data representation of interface types on different processors have to be resolved.
Concurrency
 Components in distributed systems are executed in concurrent processes.
 Components access and update shared resources (e.g. variables, databases, device drivers).
 Integrity of the system may be violated if concurrent updates are not coordinated.
Scalability
 Adaption of distributed systems to accommodate more users respond faster (this is the hard one)
 Usually done by adding more and/or faster processors.
 Components should not need to be changed when scale of a system increases.
 Design components to be scalable
Fault Tolerance
 Distributed systems must maintain availability even at low levels of hardware/software/network
reliability.
 Fault tolerance is achieved by recovery redundancy
Transparency
 Distributed systems should be perceived by users and application programmers as a whole rather
than as a collection of cooperating components.

DISTRIBUTED ARCHITECTURAL MODELS

 Architectural models describe a system in terms of the computational and communication tasks
performed by its computational elements.
 The computational elements being individual computers or aggregates of them supported by appropriate
network interconnections.
 The overall goal is to ensure that the structure will meet present and likely future demands on it.
 Major concerns are to make the system reliable, manageable, adaptable and cost-effective.

Software layers
 The concept of layering is a familiar one and is closely related to abstraction.
 In a layered approach, a complex system is partitioned into a number of layers, with a given layer
making use of the services offered by the layer below.
 A given layer therefore offers a software abstraction, with higher layers being unaware of
implementation details, or indeed of any other layers beneath them.
 A platform for distributed systems and applications consists of the lowest-level hardware and software
layers.

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  These low-level layers are implemented independently in each computer, bringing the system’s
programming interface up to a level that facilitates communication and coordination between processes.
 Intel x86/Windows, Intel x86/Solaris, Intel x86/Mac OS X, Intel x86/Linux and ARM/Symbian are
major examples.
 Middleware is a software that allows a level of programming beyond processes and message passing.

System Architecture:
Client-server model
 The system is structured as a set of processes, called servers, that offer services to the users, called
clients.
 The client-server model is usually based on a simple request/reply protocol, implemented with
send/receive primitives or using remote procedure calls (RPC) or remote method invocation (RMI):
 The client sends a request (invocation) message to the server asking for some service;
 The server does the work and returns a result (e.g. the data requested) or an error code if the work could
not be performed.

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  A server can itself request services from other servers; thus, in this new relation, the server itself acts
like a client.

Peer-to-peer
 All processes (objects) play similar role.
 Processes (objects) interact without particular distinction between clients and servers.
 The pattern of communication depends on the particular application.
 A large number of data objects are shared; any individual computer holds only a small part of the
application database.
 Processing and communication loads for access to objects are distributed across many computers and
access links.
 This is the most general and flexible model.

 Problems with peer-to-peer:

 High complexity due to
 Cleverly place individual objects
 retrieve the objects
 maintain potentially large number of replicas.

REMOTE INVOCATION
 The remote procedure call (RPC) approach extends the common programming abstraction of the
procedure call to distributed environments, allowing a calling process to call a procedure in a remote
node as if it is local.
 Remote Method Invocation (RMI) is similar to RPC but for distributed objects, with added benefits in
terms of using object-oriented programming concepts in distributed systems and also extending the
concept of an object reference to the global distributed environments, and allowing the use of object
references as parameters in remote invocations

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 REQUEST-REPLY PROTOCOLS
 Typical client-server interactions – request-reply communication is synchronous because the client
process blocks until the reply arrives.
 Asynchronous request-reply communication – an alternative that may be useful in situations where
clients can afford to retrieve replies later.

 doOperation by clients to invoke remote op.; together with additional arguments; return a byte array.
Marshaling and unmarshaling
 getRequest by server process to acquire service requests
 sendReply send reply to the client

Message identifiers
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  Any scheme that involves the management of messages to provide additional properties such as reliable
message delivery or request-reply communication requires that each message have a unique message
identifier by which it may be referenced.
 A message identifier consists of two parts:
 requestID – increasing sequence of integers by the sender
 server process identifier – e.g. internet address and port

Failure model of the request-reply protocol

 If the three primitives doOperation, getRequest and sendReply are implemented over UDP datagrams,
then they suffer from the same communication failures.
 That is:
 They suffer from omission failures.
 Messages are not guaranteed to be delivered in sender order.

Timeouts
 There are various options as to what doOperation can do after a timeout.
 The simplest option is to return immediately from doOperation with an indication to the client that the
doOperation has failed.
 To compensate for the possibility of lost messages, doOperation sends the request message repeatedly
until either it gets a reply.

Discarding duplicate request messages

 In cases when the request message is retransmitted, the server may receive it more than once.
 To avoid this, the protocol is designed to recognize successive messages (from the same client) with the
same request identifier and to filter out duplicates.

Lost reply messages

 If the server has already sent the reply when it receives a duplicate request it will need to execute the
operation again to obtain the result.
 An idempotent operation is an operation that can be performed repeatedly with the same effect as if it
had been performed exactly once.

History
 For servers that require retransmission of replies without re-execution of operations, a history may be
used.
 The term ‘history’ is used to refer to a structure that contains a record of (reply) messages that have
been transmitted.
 A problem associated with the use of a history is its memory cost. A history will become very large
unless the server can tell when the messages will no longer be needed for retransmission.

Styles of exchange protocols

 Three protocols, that produce differing behaviours in the presence of communication failures are used
for implementing various types of request behavior:
 request (R) protocol;
 request-reply (RR) protocol;
 request-reply-acknowledge reply (RRA) protocol.
 In the R protocol, a single Request message is sent by the client to the server.
 The R protocol may be used when there is no value to be returned from the remote operation and the
client requires no confirmation that the operation has been executed.
 The RR protocol is useful for most client-server exchanges because it is based on the request-reply
protocol.
 Special acknowledgement messages are not required, because a server’s reply message is regarded as an
acknowledgement of the client’s request message.
 The RRA protocol is based on the exchange of three messages: request-replyacknowledge reply. The
Acknowledge reply message contains the requestId from the reply message being acknowledged.
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  This will enable the server to discard entries from its history.

Use of TCP streams to implement the request-reply protocol

 If the TCP protocol is used, it ensures that request and reply messages are delivered reliably, so there is
no need for the request-reply protocol to deal with retransmission of messages and filtering of
duplicates or with histories.
 In addition the flow-control mechanism allows large arguments and results to be passed without taking
special measures to avoid overwhelming the recipient.
 Thus the TCP protocol is chosen for request-reply protocols because it can simplify their
implementation.

HTTP: An example of a request-reply protocol

 HTTP is a protocol that specifies the messages involved in a request-reply exchange, the methods,
arguments and results, and the rules for representing (marshalling) them in the messages.
 It supports a fixed set of methods (GET, PUT, POST, etc) that are applicable to all of the server’s
resources.
 In addition to invoking methods on web resources the protocol allows:
 Content negotiation: information – what data representations client can accept
 Authentication: Credentials and challenges to support password-style authentication

HTTP is implemented over TCP

 In the original version of the protocol, each clientserver interaction consisted of the following steps:
 The client requests and the server accepts a connection at the default server port or at a port specified
in the URL.
 The client sends a request message to the server.
 The server sends a reply message to the client.
 The connection is closed.

Later version
 Persistent connections – connections remain open ofer a series of request-reply exchanges
 Client may receive a message from the server saying that the connection is closed while it is in the
middle of sending.
 Browser will resend the requests without user involvement
 Requests and replies are marshalled into messages as ASCII text strings, but resources can be
represented as byte sequences and may be compressed.
 Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) is a standard for sending multipart data containing.

HTTP methods
 GET: Requests the resource whose URL is given as its argument.
 HEAD: identical to GET, but does not return any data but instead, all the information about the data
 POST: data supplied in the body of the request, action may change data on the server
 PUT: Requests that the data supplied in the request is stored with the given URL as its identifier.
 DELETE: deletes the resource identified by the given URL
 OPTIONS: server supplies the client with a list of methods it allows to be applied to the given URL.
 TRACE: The server sends back the request message. Used for diagnostic purposes

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Message contents
 The Request message specifies the name of a method, the URL of a resource, the protocol version, some
headers and an optional message body.

 A Reply message specifies the protocol version, a status code and ‘reason’, some headers and an
optional message body

REMOTE PROCEDURE CALL

 RPC, procedures on remote machines can be called as if they are procedures in the local address space.
 The underlying RPC system then hides important aspects of distribution, including the encoding and
decoding of parameters and results, the passing of messages and the preserving of the required semantics
for the procedure call.
 This concept was first introduced by Birrell and Nelson in 1984 and paved the way for many of the
developments in distributed systems programming used today.

Design issues for RPC

 The three design issues that are important in understanding this concept are:
 style of programming promoted by RPC – programming with interfaces;
 call semantics associated with RPC;
 key issue of transparency and how it relates to remote procedure calls.

Programming with interface:

 The interface of a module specifies the procedures and the variables that can be accessed from other
modules.
 In a distributed program, the modules can run in separate processes.
 In the client-server model, each server provides a set of procedures that are available for use by clients.
 Service interface is used to refer to the specification of the procedures offered by a server, defining the
types of the arguments of each of the procedures
 There are a number of benefits to programming with interfaces in distributed systems:
 programmers are concerned only with the abstraction offered by the service interface
 No need to know the programming language or underlying platform used to implement the service.
 Implementations can change as long as long as the interface remains the same
 Distributed nature of the underlying infrastructure:
 Not possible for a client module running in one process to access the variables in a module in another
process
 Call by reference is not supported
 Addresses cannot be passed as arguments or returned as results of calls to remote modules

Interface definition languages:

 Interface definition languages (IDLs) are designed to allow procedures implemented in different
languages to invoke one another.
 An IDL provides a notation for defining interfaces in which each of the parameters of an operation may
be described as for input or output in addition to having its type specified.
 Example:

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RPC call semantics
 doOperation implementations with different delivery guarantees:
 Retry request message
 Duplicate filtering
 Retransmission of results

Maybe semantics
 With maybe semantics, the remote procedure call may be executed once or not at all.
 When no fault-tolerance measures applied, it can suffer from:
 Omission failures
 Crash failures

At-least-once semantics
 It can be achieved by retransmission of request messages.
 Types of failures
 Crash failures when the server containing the remote procedure fails
 Arbitrary failures – in cases when the request message is retransmitted, the remote server may
receive it and execute the procedure more than once, possibly causing wrong values stored or
returned.

At-most-once semantics:

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  At-most-once semantics can be achieved by using all of the fault-tolerance measures.
 The caller receives either a result or an exception

Transparency
 The originators of RPC, aimed to make remote procedure calls as much like local procedure calls as
possible, with no distinction in syntax between a local and a remote procedure call.
 The current consensus is that remote calls should be made transparent in the sense that the syntax of a
remote call is the same as that of a local invocation, but that the difference between local and remote
calls should be expressed in their interfaces.

Implementation of RPC
 The software components required to implement RPC are:

 Stub procedure behaves like a local procedure to the client, but instead of executing the call, it marshals
the procedure identifier and the arguments into a request message, which it sends via its communication
module to the server
 The dispatcher selects one of the server stub procedures according to the procedure identifier in the
request message.
 The server stub procedure then unmarshals the arguments in the request message, calls the
corresponding service procedure and marshals the return values for the reply message.
 RPC generally implemented over request-reply protocol
 RPC may be implemented to have one of the choices of invocation semantics as at-leastonce or at-most-
once is generally chosen.

REMOTE METHOD INVOCATION

 Remote method invocation (RMI) is closely related to RPC but extended into the world of distributed
objects.
 In RMI, a calling object can invoke a method in a potentially remote object. As with RPC, the
underlying details are generally hidden from the user.
 The commonalities between RMI and RPC are as follows:
 Support programming with interfaces
 Typically constructed on top of request-reply protocols
 Can offer a range of call semantics, such as at-least-once and at-most-once
 Similar level of transparency
 RMI added expressiveness for programming of complex distributed applications and services:
 Full expressive power of object-oriented programming
 use of objects, classes and inheritance
 object oriented design methodologies and associated tools
 All objects in an RMI-based system have unique object references
 Object references can also be passed as parameters
 Richer parameter-passing semantics than in RPC

Design issues for RMI

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  RMI shares the same design issues as RPC in terms of programming with interfaces, call semantics and
level of transparency.

Object model
 Object oriented languages allow programmers to define objects whose instance variables can be
accessed directly.
 But for use in a distributed object system, an object’s data should be accessible only via its methods.
 Object references: to invoke a method object’s reference and method name are given
 Interfaces: definition of the signatures of a set of methods without their implementation
 Actions: initiated by an object invoking a method in another object
 Exceptions: a block of code may be defined to throw an exception; another block catches the exception
 A language such as Java, that can detect automatically when an object is no longer accessible recovers
the space and makes it available for allocation to other objects. This process is called garbage collection.

Distributed objects
 Distributed object systems may adopt the client-server architecture
 They are usually done using client-server methods:
 The client sends the RMI request in a message to the server
 The server executes the invoked method of the object
 The server returns the result to the client in another message

The distributed object model

 Each process contains objects, some of which can receive remote invocations are called remote objects
(B, F), others only local invocations
 Objects need to know the remote object reference of an object in another process in order to invoke its
methods, called remote method invocations
 Every remote object has a remote interface that specifies which of its methods can be invoked remotely

 Two fundamental concepts in distributed system for remote invocation are Remote Object Reference
and Remote Interface
 Remote object reference: identifier that can be used throughout a distributed system to refer to a
particular unique remote object. It be passed as arguments and results of remote method invocations
 Remote interfaces: which of the object methods can be invoked remotely

Actions
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  An action initiated by a method invocation may result in further invocations on methods in other
objects located indifference processes or computers
 Remote invocations could lead to the instantiation of new objects, ie. objects M and N of following
figure.

Garbage Collection
 Distributed garbage collections is generally achieved by cooperation between the existing local garbage
collector and an added module that carries out a form of distributed garbage collection

Exceptions
 RMI should be able to raise exceptions such as timeouts that are due to distribution as well as those
raised during the execution of the method invoked

Implementation of RMI

Communication module
 Responsible for transfering request and reply messages between the client and server uses only 3 fields
of the messages: message type, requestId and remote reference.
 Communication modules are together responsible for providing a specified invocation semantics.

Remote reference module

 A remote reference module is responsible for translating between local and remote object references and
for creating remote object references.
 To support this, the remote reference module in each process has a remote object table that records the
correspondence between local object references and remote object references.
 The table includes:
 An entry for all the remote objects held by the process
 An entry for each local proxy

Servants
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  A servant is an instance of a class that provides the body of a remote object.
 It is the servant that eventually handles the remote requests passed on by the corresponding skeleton.
 Servants live within a server process. They are created when remote objects are instantiated and remain
in use until they are no longer needed, finally being garbage collected or deleted.

The RMI software:

Proxy:
 The role of a proxy is to make remote method invocation transparent to clients by behaving like a local
object to the invoker.
 But instead of executing an invocation, it forwards it in a message to a remote object.
 It hides the details of the remote object reference, the marshalling of arguments, unmarshalling of
results and sending and receiving of messages from the client.

Dispatcher
 A server has one dispatcher and one skeleton for each class representing a remote object.
 The dispatcher receives request messages from the communication module. It uses the operationId to
select the appropriate method in the skeleton, passing on the request message.

Skeleton:
 A skeleton method unmarshals the arguments in the request message and invokes the corresponding
method in the servant.
 It waits for the invocation to complete and then marshals the result, together with any exceptions, in a
reply message to the sending proxy’s method.

Dynamic invocation: An alternative to proxies

 Useful in applications where some of the interfaces of the remote objects cannot be predicted at design
time

Server and client programs

 The server program contains the classes for the dispatchers and skeletons, together with the
implementations of the classes of all of the servants that it supports.
 The server program contains an initialization section. The initialization section is responsible for
creating and initializing at least one of the servants to be hosted by the server
 The client program will contain the classes of the proxies for all of the remote objects that it will invoke

Factory methods
 The remote object interfaces cannot include constructors.
 Servants are created either in the initialization section or in methods in a remote interface designed for
that purpose.
 The term factory method is sometimes used to refer to a method that creates servants, and a factory
object is an object with factory methods.

Binder
 A binder in a distributed system is a separate service that maintains a table containing mappings from
textual names to remote object references.

Server threads
 To avoid the execution of one remote invocation delaying the execution of another, servers generally
allocate a separate thread for the execution of each remote invocation.

Activation of remote objects

 A remote object is described as active when it is available for invocation within a running process,
whereas it is called passive if is not currently active but can be made active.
 A passive object consists of two parts:
 implementation of its methods;
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  its state in the marshalled form.
 Activation consists of creating an active object from the corresponding passive object by creating a new
instance of its class and initializing its instance variables from the stored state.
 An activator is responsible for:
 Registering passive objects
 Starting named server processes and activating remote objects
 Keeping track of the locations of the servers for remote objects

Persistent object stores

 An object that is guaranteed to live between activations of processes is called a persistent object
 Generally managed by persistent object stores, which store their state in a marshaled form on disk

Object location
 A location service helps clients to locate remote objects from their remote object references.

Distributed garbage collection

 The distributed garbage collector works in cooperation with the local garbage collectors as follows:
 Each server process maintains a set of the names of the processes that hold remote object references
for each of its remote objects
 When a client first receives a remote reference to a particular remote object, it makes an addRef( )
invocation to the server of that remote object and then creates a proxy

GROUP COMMUNICATION
 Group communication offers a service whereby a message is sent to a group and then this message is
delivered to all members of the group.
 In this action, the sender is not aware of the identities of the receivers
 Key areas of application:
 Reliable dissemination of information to potentially large numbers of clients
 Support for collaborative applications
 Support for a range of fault-tolerance strategies
 Support for system monitoring and management

COORDINATION IN GROUP COMMUNICATION

 In group communication, the central concept is that of a group with associated group membership,
whereby processes may join or leave the group.
 Group communication implements multicast communication, in which a message is sent to all the
members of the group by a single operation.
 Communication to all processes in the system is known as broadcast, whereas communication to a single
process is known as unicast.
 The essential feature of group communication is that a process issues only one multicast operation to
send a message to each of a group of processes instead of issuing multiple send operations to individual
processes.

Process groups and object groups

 Messages are typically unstructured byte arrays with no support for marshalling of complex data types.
 The level of service provided by process groups is therefore similar to that of sockets.
 An object group is a collection of objects that process the same set of invocations concurrently, with
each returning responses.
 A group is said to be closed if only members of the group may multicast to it. A group is open if
processes outside the group may send to it.

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  Inoverlapping groups, entities (processes or objects) may be members of multiple groups, and non-
overlapping groups imply that membership does not overlap.

ORDERED MULTICAST
 Reliability in one-to-one communication has two properties: integrity (the message received is the same
as the one sent, and no messages are delivered twice) and validity (any outgoing message is eventually
delivered).
 As well as reliability guarantees, group communication demands extra guarantees in terms of the relative
ordering of messages delivered to multiple destinations.
 Ordering is not guaranteed by underlying interprocess communication primitives.
 Group communication services offer ordered multicast, with the option of one or more of the following
properties:
 FIFO ordering: First-in-first-out (FIFO) (or source ordering) – if sender sends one before the other, it
will be delivered in this order at all group processes
 Casual ordering: – if a message happens before another message in the distributed system, this so-
called casual relationship will be preserved in the delivery of the associated messages at all processes
 Total ordering: – if a message is delivered before another message at one process, the same order
will be preserved at all processes

TIME ORDERING
 Time is an important and interesting issue in distributed systems, for several reasons.
 First, time is a quantity we often want to measure accurately.
 Second, algorithms that depend upon clock synchronization have been developed for several problems in
distribution.
 These include maintaining the consistency of distributed data, checking the authenticity of a request sent
to a server and eliminating the processing of duplicate updates.
 A process is a sequence of totally ordered events, i.e., for any event a and b in a process, either a comes
before b or b comes before a.
 A system is distributed if the time it takes to send a message from one process to another is significant
compared to the time interval between events in a single process
 Two approaches for building clocks: physical and logical clocks.

Physical Clocks:
 Each machine has its own local clock.
 Clock synchronization algorithms run periodically to keep them synchronized with each other within
some bounds.

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  Useful for giving a consistent view of “current time” across all nodes within some bounds, but cannot
order events always

Logical Clocks:
 Use the notion of causality to order events
 Useful for ordering events, but not for giving a consistent view of “current time” across all nodes

PHYSICAL CLOCK SYNCHRONIZATION

 Each node has a local clock used by it to timestamp events at the node
 Local clocks of different nodes may vary
 Need to keep them synchronized
 Perfect synchronization not possible because of inability to estimate network delays exactly

Internal Synchronization:
 Requires the clocks of the nodes to be synchronized to within a pre-specified bound
 However, the clock times may not be synchronized to any external time reference, and can vary
arbitrarily from any such reference

External Synchronization
 Requires the clocks to be synchronized to within a prespecified bound of an external reference clock

 Computer clocks are based on crystals that oscillate at a certain frequency

 Every H oscillations, the timer chip interrupts once
 The interrupt handler increments a counter that keeps track of no. of ticks from a reference in the past
(epoch)

Cristian’s Algorithm
 One node acts as the time server
 All other nodes sends a message periodically to the time server asking for current time
 Time server replies with its time to the client node
 Client node sets its clock to the reply

Handling message delay:

 Try to estimate the time the message with the timer server’s time took to reach the client
 Measure round trip time and halve it
 Make multiple measurements of round trip time, discard too high values, take average of rest
 Make multiple measurements and take minimum
 Use knowledge of processing time at server if known to eliminate it from delay estimation

Handling fast clocks:

 Do not set clock backwards; slow it down over a period of time to bring in tune with server’s clock

Berkeley Algorithm
 Centralized as in Cristian’s, but the time server is active
 Time server asks for time of other nodes at periodic intervals
 Other nodes reply with their time
 Time server averages the times and sends the adjustments needed to each machine
 Adjustments may be different for different machines

LOGICAL TIME AND LOGICAL CLOCKS

 Logical Clocks refer to implementing a protocol on all machines within your distributed system, so that
the machines are able to maintain consistent ordering of events within some virtual timespan.
 A logical clock is a mechanism for capturing chronological and causal relationships in a distributed
system.
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 Instead of synchronizing clocks, event ordering can be used
 If two events occurred at the same process pi (i = 1, 2, … N) then they occurred in the order observed
by pi, that is order →i
 when a message, m is sent between two processes, send(m) happened before receive(m)
 Lamport generalized these two relationships into the happened-before relation: e →i e'
 HB1: if e →i e' in process pi, then e → e'
 HB2: for any message m, send(m) → receive(m)
 HB3: if e → e' and e' → e'', then e → e''

Lamport‘s logical clocks

 It is a monotonically increasing software counter. It need not relate to a physical clock.
 Each process pi has a logical clock Li

UNIT –II
CLOUD COMPUTING BASICS
DEFINE CLOUD COMPUTING (2 MARKS)
EXPLAIN ABOUT CLOUD COMPUTING. (8 MARKS)
 “The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) defines cloud computing as a "pay-per-use
model for enabling available, convenient and on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable
computing resources that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or
service provider interaction."
 Cloud computing means on demand delivery of IT resources via the internet with pay as you go pricing.
IT provides a solution of IT Infrastructure in low cost.
 The term cloud came from a network design that was used by network engineers to represent the location
of various network devices and there inter- connection. The shape of this network design was like a
cloud.

17
 Why Cloud Computing?
 Large and small scale businesses today thrive on their data & they spent a huge amount of Money to
maintain this data.
 It requires a strong IT support and a storage hub. Not all businesses can afford high cost of in house IT
infrastructure and back up support services. For them cloud computing is a cheaper solution.
 Cloud Computing decreases the hardware and software demand form the user’s side.
 The only thing that user must be able to run is the cloud computing system interface software, which can
be as simple as web browser and the cloud network take care of the rest.

Technologies For Network – Based Systems

 It will focus on variable approaches to building distributed operating systems for handling massive
parallel in a distributed environment.
Multi – Core CPUs and Multithreading technologies:-
 The Growth of component and network technologies over the past 30years are crucial.
 Processor speed is measured in millions of instructions per second[MIPS] and network bandwidth
measured in megabits per second[Mbps] or gigabits per second[Gbps]
 Today, advanced CPUs or microprocessor’s chips assume a multicore architecture with dual, Quad
six more processing cores.
GPU [Graphics Processing Unit]
 A GPU is a graphics co-processor or accelerator mounted on a computer’s graphics card or video
card
 A GPU offloads the CPU from tedious graphics task in video editing applications. A modern GPU
can be built with hundreds of processing cores.
 GPUs have a throughput architecture that exploits massive parallelism by executing many concurrent
threads slowly, instead of executing a single long thread in a conventional microprocessor very
quickly.

Memory, Storage and wide – Area Networking:-

 Memory chips have experienced a 4x Increase in capacity every three years. Faster Processor speed
anlarger memory capacity result in a wider gap between processors and memory.

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  The rapid growth of flash memory and solid – state drives [SSDs] also impacts the future system.
Eventually, power consumption, cooling and packaging will limit large system development.
 High- band width networking increases the capability of building massively distributed system. Most
data centers are using Gigabit Ethernet in their server clusters.

Virtual Machines and Virtualization Middleware.

 Virtual machines [VMs] offers novel solutions to underutilized resources application inflexibility
software manageability and security concerns in existing physical machines.
 The VM is built with virtual resources managed by a guest OS to run a specific application.
 Between the VMs and the host platform one needs to deploy a middleware layer called a virtual
machine monitor [VMM]. The VMM called a hypervisor in privileged mode.

History

DESIRED FEATURES OF CLOUD COMPUTING

 Certain features of a cloud are essential to enable services that truly represent the cloud computing model
and satisfy expectations of consumers, and cloud offerings must be:
 Self-service

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  Per-usage metered and billed
 Elastic
 Customizable.

Self-Service
 Consumers of cloud computing services expect on-demand, nearly instant access to resources.
 To support this expectation, clouds must allow self-service access so that customers can request,
customize, pay, and use services without intervention of human operators .

Per-Usage Metering and Billing

 Cloud computing eliminates up-front commitment by users, allowing them to request and use only the
necessary amount. Services must be priced on a short term basis (e.g., by the hour), allowing users to
release (and not pay for) resources as soon as they are not needed.

Elasticity
 Cloud computing gives the illusion of infinite computing resources available on demand.
 Therefore users expect clouds to rapidly provide resources in any quantity at any time.
 In particular, it is expected that the additional resources can be:
(a) Provisioned, possibly automatically, when an application load increases
(b) Released when load decreases (scale up and down) .

Customization
 In a multi-tenant cloud a great disparity between user needs is often the case. Thus, resources rented from
the cloud must be highly customizable.
 In the case of infrastructure services, customization means allowing users to deploy specialized virtual
appliances and to be given privileged (root) access to the virtual servers.
 Other service classes (PaaS and SaaS) offer less flexibility and are not suitable for general-purpose
computing , but still are expected to provide a certain level of customization.

ELASTICITY IN CLOUD
 Elasticity is defined as the ability of a system to add and remove resources to adapt to the load variation
in real time.
 Elasticity is a dynamic property for cloud computing.
 Elasticity is the degree to which a system is able to adapt to workload changes by provisioning and
deprovisioning resources in an autonomic manner, such that at each point in time the available resources
match the current demand as closely as possible.


 Elasticity is built on top of scalability
 It can be considered as an automation of the concept of scalability and aims to optimize at best and as
quickly as possible the resources at a given time.
 Another term associated with elasticity is the efficiency, which characterizes how cloud resource can be
efficiently utilized as it scales up or down.
 It is the amount of resources consumed for processing a given amount of work, the lower this amount is,
the higher the efficiency of a system.
 Elasticity also introduces a new important factor, which is the speed.

Classification
 Elasticity solutions can be arranged in different classes based on
 Scope

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  Policy
 Purpose
 Method

Scope
 Elasticity can be implemented on any of the cloud layers.
 Most commonly, elasticity is achieved on the IaaS level, where the resources to be provisioned are virtual
machine instances.
 On the PaaS level, elasticity consists in scaling containers or databases for instance.
 Finally, both PaaS and IaaS elasticity can be used to implement elastic applications, be it for private use
or in order to be provided as a SaaS
 The elasticity actions can be applied either at the infrastructure or application/platform level.
 Google App Engine and Azure elastic pool are examples of elastic Platform as a Service (PaaS).
 Application Map: The elasticity controller must have a complete map of the application components and
instances.
 Code embedded: The elasticity controller is embedded in the application source code.

Policy
 Elastic solutions can be either manual or automatic.
 A manual elastic solution would provide their users with tools to monitor their systems and add or
remove resources but leaves the scaling decision to them.

Automatic mode:
 All the actions are done automatically, and this could be classified into reactive and proactive modes.

Reactive mode:
 The elasticity actions are triggered based on certain thresholds or rules, the system reacts to the load
and triggers actions to adapt changes accordingly.
 An elastic solution is reactive when it scales a posteriori, based on a monitored change in the system.
 These are generally implemented by a set of Event-Condition-Action rules.

Proactive mode:
 This approach implements forecasting techniques, anticipates the future needs and triggers actions
based on this anticipation.
 A predictive or proactive elasticity solution uses its knowledge of either recent history or load
patterns inferred from longer periods of time in order to predict the upcoming load of the system and
scale according to it.

Purpose
 An elastic solution can have many purposes.
 The first one to come to mind is naturally performance, in which case the focus should be put on their
speed.
 Another purpose for elasticity can also be energy efficiency, where using the minimum amount of
resources is the dominating factor.
 Other solutions intend to reduce the cost by multiplexing either resource providers or elasticity methods
 Elasticity has different purposes such as improving performance, increasing resource capacity, saving
energy, reducing cost and ensuring availability.

Method
 Vertical elasticity, changes the amount of resources linked to existing instances on-the-fly.
 This can be done in two manners.
 The first method consists in explicitly redimensioning a virtual machine instance, i.e., changing the quota
of physical resources allocated to it.

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 This is however poorly supported by common operating systems as they fail to take into account changes
in CPU or memory without rebooting, thus resulting in service interruption.
 The second vertical scaling method involves VM migration: moving a virtual machine instance to another
physical machine with a different overall load changes its available resources

 Horizontal scaling is the process of adding/removing instances, which may be located at different
locations.
 Load balancers are used to distribute the load among the different instances.
 Vertical scaling is the process of modifying resources (CPU, memory, storage or both) size for an
instance at run time.
 It gives more flexibility for the cloud systems to cope with the varying workloads

ON-DEMAND PROVISIONING
 Resource Provisioning means the selection, deployment, and run-time management of software and
hardware resources for ensuring guaranteed performance for applications.
 Resource Provisioning is an important and challenging problem in the large-scale distributed systems
such as Cloud computing environments.
 There are many resource provisioning techniques, both static and dynamic each one having its own
advantages and also some challenges.
 These resource provisioning techniques used must meet Quality of Service (QoS) parameters like
availability, throughput, response time, security, reliability etc., and thereby avoiding Service Level
Agreement (SLA) violation.
 Over provisioning and under provisioning of resources must be avoided.
 Another important constraint is power consumption
 The ultimate goal of the cloud user is to minimize cost by renting the resources and from the cloud
service provider’s perspective to maximize profit by efficiently allocating the resources.
 In order to achieve the goal, the cloud user has to request cloud service provider to make a provision for
the resources either statically or dynamically.

Static Provisioning :
 For applications that have predictable and generally unchanging demands/workloads, it is possible to use
“static provisioning" effectively.
 With advance provisioning, the customer contracts with the provider for services.
 The provider prepares the appropriate resources in advance of start of service.
 The customer is charged a flat fee or is billed on a monthly basis.

Dynamic Provisioning:
 In cases where demand by applications may change or vary, “dynamic provisioning" techniques have
been suggested whereby VMs may be migrated on-the-fly to new compute nodes within the cloud.
 The provider allocates more resources as they are needed and removes them when they are not.
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 The customer is billed on a pay-per-use basis.
 When dynamic provisioning is used to create a hybrid cloud, it is sometimes referred to as cloud bursting.

Parameters for Resource Provisioning

 Response time: The resource provisioning algorithm designed must take minimal time to respond when
executing the task.
 Minimize Cost: From the Cloud user point of view cost should be minimized.
 Revenue Maximization: This is to be achieved from the Cloud Service Provider’s view.
 Fault tolerant: The algorithm should continue to provide service in spite of failure of nodes.
 Reduced SLA Violation: The algorithm designed must be able to reduce SLA violation.
 Reduced Power Consumption: VM placement & migration techniques must lower power consumption

Dynamic Provisioning Types

Local On-demand Resource Provisioning

1.The OpenNebula Virtual Infrastructure Engine:
 OpenNEbula creates a distributed virtualization layer
 Extend the benefits of VM Monitors from one to multiple resources
 Decouple the VM (service) from the physical location
 Transform a distributed physical infrastructure into a flexible and elastic virtual infrastructure, which
adapts to the changing demands of the VM (service) workloads

Remote on-Demand Resource Provisioning

1.Infrastructure Cloud Computing Solutions
 Commercial Cloud: Amazon EC2
 Scientific Cloud: Nimbus (University of Chicago)
 Open-source Technologies • Globus VWS (Globus interfaces)
 Eucalyptus (Interfaces compatible with Amazon EC2)
 OpenNEbula (Engine for the Virtual Infrastructure)

APPLICATIONS
 Cloud service providers provide various applications in the field of art, business, data storage and backup
services, education, entertainment, management, social networking, etc.
 The most widely used cloud computing applications are given below -

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Art Applications:
 Cloud computing offers various art applications for quickly and easily design attractive cards,
booklets, and images. Some most commonly used cloud art applications are given below:
Moo
Prime Ministers of India | List of Prime Minister of India (1947-2020)
 Moo is one of the best cloud art applications. It is used for designing and printing business cards,
postcards, and mini cards.

Vistaprint
 Vistaprint allows us to easily design various printed marketing products such as business cards,
Postcards, Booklets, and wedding invitations cards.

Business Applications
 Business applications are based on cloud service providers.
 Today, every organization requires the cloud business application to grow their business. It also
ensures that business applications are 24*7 available to users.
 There are the following business applications of cloud computing -
MailChimp
 MailChimp is an email publishing platform which provides various options to design,
send, and save templates for emails.

Paypal
 Paypal offers the simplest and easiest online payment mode using a secure internet account. Paypal
accepts the payment through debit cards, credit cards, and also from Paypal account holders.

Data Storage and Backup Applications

 Cloud computing allows us to store information on the cloud and access this information using an
internet connection.
 As the cloud provider is responsible for providing security, so they offer various backup recovery
application for retrieving the lost data.
 A list of data storage and backup applications in the cloud are given below -

Mozy

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  Mozy provides powerful online backup solutions for our personal and business data. It schedules
automatically back up for each day at a specific time.

Google G Suite
 Google G Suite is one of the best cloud storage and backup application. It includes Google Calendar,
Docs, Forms, Google+, Hangouts, as well as cloud storage and tools for managing cloud apps.
 The most popular app in the Google G Suite is Gmail. Gmail offers free email services to users.

Education Applications
 Cloud computing in the education sector becomes very popular. It offers various online distance
learning platforms and student information portals to the students.
 The advantage of using cloud in the field of education is that it offers strong virtual classroom
environments, Ease of accessibility, secure data storage, scalability, greater reach for the students, and
minimal hardware requirements for the applications.
 There are the following education applications offered by the cloud -
Google Apps for Education
 Google Apps for Education is the most widely used platform for free web-based email, calendar,
documents, and collaborative study.

Chromebooks for Education

 Chromebook for Education is one of the most important Google's projects. It is designed for the
purpose that it enhances education innovation.

Tablets with Google Play for Education

 It allows educators to quickly implement the latest technology solutions into the classroom and make it
available to their students.

Entertainment Applications
 Entertainment industries use a multi-cloud strategy to interact with the target audience. Cloud
computing offers various entertainment applications such as online games and video conferencing.
Online games
 Today, cloud gaming becomes one of the most important entertainment media. It offers various online
games that run remotely from the cloud. The best cloud gaming services are Shaow, GeForce Now,
Vortex, Project xCloud, and PlayStation Now.

Video Conferencing Apps

 Video conferencing apps provides a simple and instant connected experience. It allows us to
communicate with our business partners, friends, and relatives using a cloud-based video conferencing.
The benefits of using video conferencing are that it reduces cost, increases efficiency, and removes
interoperability.

Management Applications
 Cloud computing offers various cloud management tools which help admins to manage all types of
cloud activities, such as resource deployment, data integration, and disaster recovery.
 These management tools also provide administrative control over the platforms, applications, and
infrastructure.
 Some important management applications are -

Toggl
 Toggl helps users to track allocated time period for a particular project.

Evernote
 Evernote allows you to sync and save your recorded notes, typed notes, and other notes in one
convenient place. It is available for both free as well as a paid version.
 It uses platforms like Windows, macOS, Android, iOS, Browser, and Unix.
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Social Applications
 Social cloud applications allow a large number of users to connect with each other using social
networking applications such as Facebook, Twitter, Linkedln, etc.
 There are the following cloud based social applications -

Facebook
 Facebook is a social networking website which allows active users to share files, photos, videos,
status, more to their friends, relatives, and business partners using the cloud storage system.
 On Facebook, we will always get notifications when our friends like and comment on the posts.

Twitter
 Twitter is a social networking site. It is a microblogging system. It allows users to follow high profile
celebrities, friends, relatives, and receive news. It sends and receives short posts called tweets.

BENEFITS
 There are some clear business benefits to building applications in the cloud. A few of these are listed
here:
 Almost Zero Upfront Infrastructure Investment.
 Just-in-Time Infrastructure.
 More Efficient Resource Utilization.
 Usage-Based Costing
 Reduced Time to Market
 Some of the technical benefits of cloud computing includes:
 Automation
 Auto-scaling
 Proactive Scaling
 More Efficient Development Life Cycle
 Improved Testability
 Disaster Recovery and Business Continuity
 “Overflow” the Traffic to the Cloud

CLOUD COMPONENTS: CLIENTS, DATACENTERS &

DISTRIBUTED SERVERS
 Cloud computing components correspond to platforms such as front end, back end, and cloud-dependent
delivery and the utilized network.
 So, a framework of cloud computing is broadly categorized as three specifically clients, distributed
servers and datacentre.

26
 For the operation of this computing, the following three components have a big hand and the
responsibilities of these components can be elucidated clearly as below:
Clients
 Clients in cloud computing are in general to the operation of Local Area Networks (LAN’s).
 They are just the desktops where they have their place on desks. These might be also in the form of
laptops, mobiles, tablets to enhance mobility.
 Clients hold the responsibility of interaction which pushes for the management of data on cloud
servers.

Datacentre
 It is an array of servers that houses the subscribed application.
 Progressing the IT industry has brought the concept of virtualizing servers, where the software might
be installed through the utilization of various instances of virtual servers.
 This approach streamlines the process of managing dozens of virtual servers on multiple physical
servers.

Distributed Servers
 These are considered as a server where that is housed in the other location.
 So, the physical servers might not be housed in a similar location. Even the distributed server and the
physical server appear to be in different locations, they perform as they are so close to each other.
 While the other component is Cloud Applications, where it is defined as cloud computing in the form
of software architecture.
 So, cloud applications serve as a service which operates both the hardware and software architecture.

Application
 Further, cloud computing has many other components:
 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
 Platform as a Service (PaaS)
 Software as a Service (SaaS)

CHARACTERIZATION OF DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS

 A distributed system consists of a collection of autonomous computers, connected through a network and
distribution middleware, which enables computers to coordinate their activities and to share the resources
of the system, so that users perceive the system as a single, integrated computing facility.

Centralised System Characteristics

 One component with non-autonomous parts
 Component shared by users all the time
 All resources accessible
 Software runs in a single process
 Single Point of control
 Single Point of failure
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Distributed System Characteristics
 Multiple autonomous components
 Components are not shared by all users
 Resources may not be accessible
 Software runs in concurrent processes on different processors
 Multiple Points of control
 Multiple Points of failure

 There are three significant characteristics on how distributed systems are different from centralized
systems:
4. Concurrency of components - different system components do work at once and handle
communication by passing messages.
5. Lack of global clock - in distributed systems each system has its own clock. Systems might
somewhat synchronize their clocks sometimes but they most likely will not have the same time.
6. Independent failures of components - in a distributed system one component might fail due to
some unforeseen circumstances.

Examples appeared on the slides:

Finance and commerce eCommerce e.g. Amazon and eBay, PayPal, online banking and
trading
The information society Web information and search engines, ebooks, Wikipedia; social
networking: Facebook and MySpace

Creative industries and online gaming, music and film in the home, user-generated content,
entertainment e.g. YouTube, Flickr
Healthcare health informatics, on online patient records, monitoring patients

Education e-learning, virtual learning environments; distance learning

Transport and logistics GPS in route finding systems, map services: Google Maps, Google
Earth
Science The Grid as an enabling technology for collaboration between
scientists
Environmental management sensor technology to monitor earthquakes, floods or tsunamis

Common Characteristics
 Certain common characteristics can be used to assess distributed systems

Resource Sharing
 Ability to use any hardware, software or data anywhere in the system.
 Resource manager controls access, provides naming scheme and controls concurrency.
 Resource sharing model (e.g. client/server or object-based) describing how resources are provided,
they are used and provider and user interact with each other.
Openness
 Openness is concerned with extensions and improvements of distributed systems.
 Detailed interfaces of components need to be published.
 New components have to be integrated with existing components.
 Differences in data representation of interface types on different processors have to be resolved.
Concurrency
 Components in distributed systems are executed in concurrent processes.
 Components access and update shared resources (e.g. variables, databases, device drivers).
 Integrity of the system may be violated if concurrent updates are not coordinated.

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Scalability
 Adaption of distributed systems to accommodate more users respond faster (this is the hard one)
 Usually done by adding more and/or faster processors.
 Components should not need to be changed when scale of a system increases.
 Design components to be scalable
Fault Tolerance
 Distributed systems must maintain availability even at low levels of hardware/software/network
reliability.
 Fault tolerance is achieved by recovery redundancy
Transparency
 Distributed systems should be perceived by users and application programmers as a whole rather
than as a collection of cooperating components.

DISTRIBUTED ARCHITECTURAL MODELS

 Architectural models describe a system in terms of the computational and communication tasks
performed by its computational elements.
 The computational elements being individual computers or aggregates of them supported by appropriate
network interconnections.
 The overall goal is to ensure that the structure will meet present and likely future demands on it.
 Major concerns are to make the system reliable, manageable, adaptable and cost-effective.

Software layers
 The concept of layering is a familiar one and is closely related to abstraction.
 In a layered approach, a complex system is partitioned into a number of layers, with a given layer
making use of the services offered by the layer below.
 A given layer therefore offers a software abstraction, with higher layers being unaware of
implementation details, or indeed of any other layers beneath them.
 A platform for distributed systems and applications consists of the lowest-level hardware and software
layers.
 These low-level layers are implemented independently in each computer, bringing the system’s
programming interface up to a level that facilitates communication and coordination between processes.
 Intel x86/Windows, Intel x86/Solaris, Intel x86/Mac OS X, Intel x86/Linux and ARM/Symbian are
major examples.
 Middleware is a software that allows a level of programming beyond processes and message passing.

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System Architecture:
Client-server model
 The system is structured as a set of processes, called servers, that offer services to the users, called
clients.
 The client-server model is usually based on a simple request/reply protocol, implemented with
send/receive primitives or using remote procedure calls (RPC) or remote method invocation (RMI):
 The client sends a request (invocation) message to the server asking for some service;
 The server does the work and returns a result (e.g. the data requested) or an error code if the work could
not be performed.

 A server can itself request services from other servers; thus, in this new relation, the server itself acts
like a client.

Peer-to-peer
 All processes (objects) play similar role.
 Processes (objects) interact without particular distinction between clients and servers.
 The pattern of communication depends on the particular application.
 A large number of data objects are shared; any individual computer holds only a small part of the
application database.
 Processing and communication loads for access to objects are distributed across many computers and
access links.
 This is the most general and flexible model.

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  Problems with peer-to-peer:
 High complexity due to
 Cleverly place individual objects
 retrieve the objects
 maintain potentially large number of replicas.

PRINCIPLES OF PARALLEL AND DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING

Parallel Computing:
 Parallel computing is a model that divides a task into multiple sub-tasks and executes them
simultaneously to increase the speed and efficiency.
 Here, a problem is broken down into multiple parts. Each part is then broke down into a number of
instructions.
 These parts are allocated to different processors which execute them simultaneously. This increases the
speed of execution of programs as a whole.

Distributed Computing
 Distributed computing is different than parallel computing even though the principle is the same.
 Distributed computing is a field that studies distributed systems. Distributed systems are systems that
have multiple computers located in different locations.
 These computers in a distributed system work on the same program. The program is divided into different
tasks and allocated to different computers.
 The computers communicate with the help of message passing. Upon completion of computing, the result
is collated and presented to the user.

Distributed Computing vs. Parallel Computing:

 Having covered the concepts, let’s dive into the differences between them:

Number of Computer Systems Involved

 Parallel computing generally requires one computer with multiple processors. Multiple processors
within the same computer system execute instructions simultaneously.
 All the processors work towards completing the same task. Thus they have to share resources and data.
 In distributed computing, several computer systems are involved. Here multiple autonomous computer
systems work on the divided tasks.
 These computer systems can be located at different geographical locations as well.

Dependency Between Processes

 In parallel computing, the tasks to be solved are divided into multiple smaller parts. These smaller tasks
are assigned to multiple processors.
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  Here the outcome of one task might be the input of another. This increases dependency between the
processors. We can also say, parallel computing environments are tightly coupled.
 Some distributed systems might be loosely coupled, while others might be tightly coupled.

Which is More Scalable?

 In parallel computing environments, the number of processors you can add is restricted. This is because
the bus connecting the processors and the memory can handle a limited number of connections.
 There are limitations on the number of processors that the bus connecting them and the memory can
handle. This limitation makes the parallel systems less scalable.
 Distributed computing environments are more scalable. This is because the computers are connected
over the network and communicate by passing messages.

Resource Sharing
 In systems implementing parallel computing, all the processors share the same memory.
 They also share the same communication medium and network. The processors communicate with each
other with the help of shared memory.
 Distributed systems, on the other hand, have their own memory and processors.

Synchronization
 In parallel systems, all the processes share the same master clock for synchronization. Since all the
processors are hosted on the same physical system, they do not need any synchronization algorithms.
 In distributed systems, the individual processing systems do not have access to any central clock.
Hence, they need to implement synchronization algorithms.

Where Are They Used?

 Parallel computing is often used in places requiring higher and faster processing power. For example,
supercomputers.
 Since there are no lags in the passing of messages, these systems have high speed and efficiency.
 Distributed computing is used when computers are located at different geographical locations.
 In these scenarios, speed is generally not a crucial matter. They are the preferred choice when scalability
is required.

APPLICATIONS OF CLOUD COMPUTING

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 Cloud service providers provide various applications in the field of art, business, data storage and backup
services, education, entertainment, management, social networking, etc.
 The most widely used cloud computing applications are given below -

Art Applications:
 Cloud computing offers various art applications for quickly and easily design attractive cards,
booklets, and images. Some most commonly used cloud art applications are given below:
Moo
Prime Ministers of India | List of Prime Minister of India (1947-2020)
 Moo is one of the best cloud art applications. It is used for designing and printing business cards,
postcards, and mini cards.

Vistaprint
 Vistaprint allows us to easily design various printed marketing products such as business cards,
Postcards, Booklets, and wedding invitations cards.

Business Applications
 Business applications are based on cloud service providers.
 Today, every organization requires the cloud business application to grow their business. It also
ensures that business applications are 24*7 available to users.
 There are the following business applications of cloud computing -
MailChimp
 MailChimp is an email publishing platform which provides various options to design,
send, and save templates for emails.

Paypal
 Paypal offers the simplest and easiest online payment mode using a secure internet account. Paypal
accepts the payment through debit cards, credit cards, and also from Paypal account holders.

Data Storage and Backup Applications

 Cloud computing allows us to store information on the cloud and access this information using an
internet connection.
 As the cloud provider is responsible for providing security, so they offer various backup recovery
application for retrieving the lost data.
 A list of data storage and backup applications in the cloud are given below -
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Mozy
 Mozy provides powerful online backup solutions for our personal and business data. It schedules
automatically back up for each day at a specific time.

Google G Suite
 Google G Suite is one of the best cloud storage and backup application. It includes Google Calendar,
Docs, Forms, Google+, Hangouts, as well as cloud storage and tools for managing cloud apps.
 The most popular app in the Google G Suite is Gmail. Gmail offers free email services to users.

Education Applications
 Cloud computing in the education sector becomes very popular. It offers various online distance
learning platforms and student information portals to the students.
 The advantage of using cloud in the field of education is that it offers strong virtual classroom
environments, Ease of accessibility, secure data storage, scalability, greater reach for the students, and
minimal hardware requirements for the applications.
 There are the following education applications offered by the cloud -
Google Apps for Education
 Google Apps for Education is the most widely used platform for free web-based email, calendar,
documents, and collaborative study.

Chromebooks for Education

 Chromebook for Education is one of the most important Google's projects. It is designed for the
purpose that it enhances education innovation.

Tablets with Google Play for Education

 It allows educators to quickly implement the latest technology solutions into the classroom and make it
available to their students.

Entertainment Applications
 Entertainment industries use a multi-cloud strategy to interact with the target audience. Cloud
computing offers various entertainment applications such as online games and video conferencing.
Online games
 Today, cloud gaming becomes one of the most important entertainment media. It offers various online
games that run remotely from the cloud. The best cloud gaming services are Shaow, GeForce Now,
Vortex, Project xCloud, and PlayStation Now.

Video Conferencing Apps

 Video conferencing apps provides a simple and instant connected experience. It allows us to
communicate with our business partners, friends, and relatives using a cloud-based video conferencing.
The benefits of using video conferencing are that it reduces cost, increases efficiency, and removes
interoperability.

Management Applications
 Cloud computing offers various cloud management tools which help admins to manage all types of
cloud activities, such as resource deployment, data integration, and disaster recovery.
 These management tools also provide administrative control over the platforms, applications, and
infrastructure.
 Some important management applications are -

Toggl
 Toggl helps users to track allocated time period for a particular project.

Evernote

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  Evernote allows you to sync and save your recorded notes, typed notes, and other notes in one
convenient place. It is available for both free as well as a paid version.
 It uses platforms like Windows, macOS, Android, iOS, Browser, and Unix.

Social Applications
 Social cloud applications allow a large number of users to connect with each other using social
networking applications such as Facebook, Twitter, Linkedln, etc.
 There are the following cloud based social applications -

Facebook
 Facebook is a social networking website which allows active users to share files, photos, videos,
status, more to their friends, relatives, and business partners using the cloud storage system.
 On Facebook, we will always get notifications when our friends like and comment on the posts.

Twitter
 Twitter is a social networking site. It is a microblogging system. It allows users to follow high profile
celebrities, friends, relatives, and receive news. It sends and receives short posts called tweets.

BENEFITS
 There are some clear business benefits to building applications in the cloud. A few of these are listed
here:
 Almost Zero Upfront Infrastructure Investment.
 Just-in-Time Infrastructure.
 More Efficient Resource Utilization.
 Usage-Based Costing
 Reduced Time to Market
 Some of the technical benefits of cloud computing includes:
 Automation
 Auto-scaling
 Proactive Scaling
 More Efficient Development Life Cycle
 Improved Testability
 Disaster Recovery and Business Continuity
 “Overflow” the Traffic to the Cloud

CLOUD SERVICES
 The cloud can provide exactly the same technologies as “traditional” IT infrastructure – This service can
be accessible over a cloud management interface layer, which provides access over REST/SOAP API or
a management console website.
 As an example, let’s consider Amazon Web Services (AWS).
 Amazon Elastic Compute cloud (EC2) is a key web service that provide a facility to create manage
virtual machine instances with operation system running inside them.
 Amazon relational database service (RDS) provides MySQL and oracle database services cloud.
 Amazon S3 is a redundant and fast cloud storage service that provides public access to files over.
 The three major cloud computing offerings are
 Software as a Service(SaaS)
 Platform as a Service (PaaS)
 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

IaaS
 Iaas (Infrastructure as a service) is one of the fundamental service model of cloud computing.
 It provides access to computing resources in a virtualized environment “the cloud “ on internet.

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  It provides computing infrastructure like virtual server space, network connections, bandwidth
balances and IP addresses.
 The pool of hardware resources is extracted from multiple servers and networks usually distributed
numerous data centers. This provides redundancy and reliability to IaaS.
 IaaS(Infrastructure as a service) is a complete package for computing. For small scale business looking
for cutting cost on IT infrastructure, IaaS is one of the solutions.
 Annually a lot of money is spent in maintenance which a business owner could have saved for
expenses by using IaaS.

Benefits:
 Full control over computing resources through administrative access to VMs
 Flexible and efficient renting of computer hardware.
 Portability, interoperability with legacy application.

Issues:
 Compatibility with legacy security vulnerabilities
 Virtual Machine Sprawl
 Robustness of VM Level isolation

PaaS
 Platform as a service, is referred as PaaS, it provides a platform and environment to allow developers
to build applications and services.
 This service is hosted in the cloud and accessed by the users via internet.
 To Understand in a simple terms, let compare this with painting a picture, where you are provided with
paint colors, paint brushes and paper and you just have to draw a beautiful picture using those tools.
 Paas services are constantly updated & new features added. Software developers, web developers and
business can benefit from PaaS.
 It provides platform to support application development.
 It includes software support and management services, storage, networking, deploying, testing,
collaborating, hosting and maintaining applications.

Benefits:
 Lower administrative overhead
 Lower total cost of Ownership
 Scalable Solutions
 More current system software

Issues:
 Lack of Portability between PaaS clouds
 Event based processors scheduling.

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SaaS
 Saas or Software as a service distribution model in which application are hosted by a vendor or service
provider and made available to customer over a network(internet).
 SaaS is becoming an increasingly prevalent delivery model as underlying technologies that support
service oriented architecture (SOA) or Web services.
 Through internet this service is available to user anywhere in the world.
 Traditionally, Software application needed to be purchased upfront and then installed it onto your
computer. SaaS users on the other hand, Instead of purchasing the software subscribes to it, usually on
monthly basis via internet.
 Anyone who needs an access to a particular piece of software can be subscribe as a user, whether it is
one or two people or every thousands of employee in a corporation.
 SaaS is compatible with all internet enabled devices.

Benefits:
 Modest Software tools
 Efficient use of software Licenses
 Centralized management and data
 Platform responsibilities managed by providers
 Multitenant Solutions
Issues:
 Browser based risks
 Network dependence
 Lack of portability between SaaS clouds

OPEN SOURCE CLOUD SOFTWARE

EUCALYPTUS
 The Eucalyptus cloud platform pools together existing virtualized infrastructure to create cloud resources
for infrastructure as a service, network as a service and storage as a service.
 The name Eucalyptus is an acronym for Elastic Utility Computing Architecture for Linking Your
Programs To Useful Systems.

Eucalyptus architecture:
 Images - An image is a fixed collection of software modules, system software, application software,
and configuration information that is started from a known baseline
 Instances - When an image is put to use, it is called an instance
 IP addressing - Eucalyptus instances can have public and private IP addresses. An IP address is
assigned to an instance when the instance is created from an image.
 Security - TCP/IP security groups share a common set of firewall rules. This is a mechanism to
firewall off an instance using IP address and port block/allow functionality.
 Networking - There are three networking modes. In Managed Mode Eucalyptus manages a local
network of instances, including security groups and IP addresses.
 Access Control - A user of Eucalyptus is assigned an identity, and identities can be grouped together
for access control

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Components:
The Cloud Controller (CLC):
 It is a Java program that offers EC2-compatible interfaces, as well as a web interface to the outside
world.

The Cluster Controller (CC):

 It is written in C and acts as the front end for a cluster within a Eucalyptus cloud and communicates
with the Storage Controller and Node Controller.
 It manages instance (i.e., virtual machines) execution and Service Level Agreements (SLAs) per
cluster.

The Storage Controller (SC) :

 It is written in Java and is the Eucalyptus equivalent to AWS EBS.
 It communicates with the Cluster Controller and Node Controller and manages Eucalyptus block
volumes and snapshots to the instances within its specific cluster

The VMware Broker :

 It is an optional component that provides an AWS-compatible interface for VMware environments
and physically runs on the Cluster Controller.

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  The VMware Broker overlays existing ESX/ESXi hosts and transforms Eucalyptus Machine Images
(EMIs) to VMware virtual disks.

The Node Controller (NC) :

 It is written in C and hosts the virtual machine instances and manages the virtual network
endpoints.
 It downloads and caches images from Walrus as well as creates and caches instances.

OPEN NEBULA
 OpenNebula is a cloud computing platform for managing heterogeneous distributed data center
infrastructures.
 The OpenNebula platform manages a data center's virtual infrastructure to build private, public and
hybrid implementations of infrastructure as a service.

Interfaces for cloud consumers and administrators:

 A number of API’s are available for the platform, including AWS EC2, EBS, and OGF OCCI.
 A powerful, yet familiar UNIX based, command-line interface is available to administrators.
Appliance Marketplace
 The OpenNebula Marketplace offers a wide variety of applications capable of running in
OpenNebula environments
Capacity and Performance Management
 Fine-tuned ACL’s, user quotas, and powerful user, group, and role management ensure
solid security.
Integration with third-party tools:
 The platform features a modular and extensible architecture allowing third-party tools
to be easily integrated.
Component and Deployment Model:
 The OpenNebula Project's deployment model resembles classic cluster architecture which utilizes
 A front-end (master node)
 Hypervisor enabled hosts (worker nodes)
 Datastores
 A physical network
Front-end machine:
 The master node, sometimes referred to as the front-end machine, executes all the
OpenNebula services.
 This is the actual machine where OpenNebula is installed.
Hypervisor enabled-hosts:
 The worker nodes, or hypervisor enabled-hosts, provide the actual computing resources needed for
processing all jobs submitted by the master node.
Physical networks:
 Physical networks are required to support the interconnection of storage servers and virtual machines
in remote locations.
 It is also essential that the front-end machine can connect to all the worker nodes or hosts.
Storage:

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OPENSTACK:
 OpenStack is a free and open-source software platform for cloud computing, mostly deployed as
infrastructure-as-a-service, whereby virtual servers and other resources are made available to
customers.

Compute (Nova):
 OpenStack Compute (Nova) is a cloud computing fabric controller, which is the main part of
an IaaS system.
Networking (Neutron):
 OpenStack Networking (Neutron) is a system for managing networks and IP addresses .
Block storage (Cinder):
 OpenStack Block Storage (Cinder) provides persistent block-level storage devices for use with
OpenStack compute instances.
Identity (Keystone):
 OpenStack Identity (Keystone) provides a central directory of users mapped to the OpenStack
services they can access.
Image (Glance):
 OpenStack Image (Glance) provides discovery, registration, and delivery services
for disk and serverimages. Stored images can be used as a template.
ANEKA
 Aneka is an Application Platform-as-a-Service (Aneka PaaS) for Cloud Computing.
 It acts as a framework for building customized applications
 Aneka is a market oriented Cloud development and management platform with rapid application
development and workload distribution capabilities.
CLOUDSIM:
EXPLAIN ABOUT CLOUDSIM IN DETAIL (PART B)
 CloudSim is a framework for modeling and simulation of cloud computing infrastructures and
services.
 It helps tune the bottlenecks before real-world deployment.

40
The basic components of CloudSim are:
Datacenter:
 Data center is used to model the core services at the system level of a cloud infrastructure.
Host:
 This component is used to assign processing capabilities (which is specified in the milion of
instruction per second that the processor could perform), memory and a scheduling policy to allocate
different processing cores to multiple virtual machines that is in the list of virtual machines managed
by the host.
Virtual Machines:
 This component manages the allocation of different virtual machines different hosts, so that
processing cores can be scheduled (by the host) to virtual machines.
 This configuration depends on particular application, and the default policy of the allocation of
virtual machines is “first-come, first-serve”.
Datacenter broker:
 The responsibility of a broker is to meditate between users and service providers, depending on the
requirement of quality of service that the user specifies.

*****************UNIT –II COMPLETED*******************

Reference Book:
1) ”Distributed and Cloud Computing” Kai Hwang Geoffrey C. Fox Jack J. Dongarra.
2) Cloud Computing Implementation, Management, and Security John W. Rittinghouse James F.
Ransome

UNIT – III
CLOUD ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN
 An Internet cloud is envisioned as a public cluster of servers provisioned on demand to perform
collective web services or distributed applications using data-center resources.
 Cloud Platform Design Goals
 Enabling Technologies for Clouds
 A Generic Cloud Architecture
Cloud Platform Design Goals
 Scalability
 Virtualization
 Efficiency
 Reliability
 Security
 Cloud management receives the user request and finds the correct resources.
 Cloud calls the provisioning services which invoke the resources in the cloud.
 Cloud management software needs to support both physical and virtual machines
Enabling Technologies for Clouds
 Cloud users are able to demand more capacity at peak demand, reduce costs, experiment with new
services, and remove unneeded capacity.
 Service providers can increase system utilization via multiplexing, virtualization and dynamic resource
provisioning.
 Clouds are enabled by the progress in hardware, software and networking technologies
 Cloud users are able to demand more capacity at peak demand, reduce costs, experiment with new
services, and remove unneeded capacity.

41
 Service providers can increase system utilization via multiplexing, virtualization and dynamic resource
provisioning.
 Clouds are enabled by the progress in hardware, software and networking technologies
A Generic Cloud Architecture
 The Internet cloud is envisioned as a massive cluster of servers.
 Servers are provisioned on demand to perform collective web services using data- center resources.
 The cloud platform is formed dynamically by provisioning or deprovisioning servers, software, and
database resources.
 Servers in the cloud can be physical machines or VMs.
 User interfaces are applied to request services. The cloud computing resources are built into the data
centers.
 Data centers are typically owned and operated by a third-party provider. Consumers do not need to
know the underlying technologies
 In a cloud, software becomes a service.

 Cloud demands a high degree of trust of massive amounts of data retrieved from large data centers.

 The software infrastructure of a cloud platform must handle all resource management and maintenance
automatically.
 Software must detect the status of each node server joining and leaving.
 Cloud computing providers such as Google and Microsoft, have built a large number of data centers.
 Each data center may have thousands of servers.

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 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN CHALLENGES
Challenge 1: Service Availability and Data Lock-in ProblemService
Availability
 Service Availability in Cloud might be affected because of:
 Single Point Failure:
 Distributed Denial of Service
Single Point Failure
 Depending on single service provider might result in failure.
 In case of single service providers, even if company has multiple data centres located in different
geographic regions, it may have common software infrastructure and accounting systems.
Distributed Denial of service (DDoS) attacks.
 Cyber criminals, attack target websites and online services and makes services unavailable to users.
 DDoS tries to overwhelm (disturb) the services unavailable to user by having more traffic than the
server or network can accommodate.
Data Lock-in
 It is a situation in which a customer using service of a provider cannot be moved to another service
It
provider because technologies used by a provider will be incompatible with other providers.
 This makes a customer dependent on a vendor for services and makes customer unable to use service
of another vendor.
Challenge 2: Data Privacy and Security Concerns
 Cloud services are prone to attacks because they are accessed through internet.
 Security is given by
 Storing the encrypted data in to cloud.
 Firewalls, filters.
 Cloud environment attacks include
1. Guest Hopping: Virtual machine hyper jumping (VM jumping) is an attack method that
exploits(make use of) hypervisor’s weakness that allows a virtual machine (VM) to be accessed from
another.
2. Hijacking: Hijacking is a type of network security attack in which the attacker takes control of a
communication
3. VM Rootkit: is a collection of malicious (harmful) computer software, designed to enable access to a
computer that is not otherwise allowed.

Challenge 3: Unpredictable Performance and Bottlenecks

 Multiple VMs can share CPUs and main memory in cloud computing, but I/O sharing is problematic.
 Internet applications continue to become more data-intensive (handles huge amount of data).
 Handling huge amount of data (data intensive) is a bottleneck in cloud environment.
 Weak Servers that does not provide data transfers properly must be removed from cloud environment

Challenge 4: Distributed Storage and Widespread Software Bugs

 The database is always growing in cloud applications.
 There is a need to create a storage system that meets this growth.
 This demands the design of efficient distributed SANs (Storage Area Network of Storage devices).
 Data centres must meet
 Scalability
 Data durability
 HA(High Availability)
 Data consistence
 Bug refers to errors in software. Debugging must be done in data centres.
Challenge 5: Cloud Scalability, Interoperability and Standardization
Cloud Scalability
 Cloud resources are scalable. Cost increases when storage and network bandwidth scaled(increased)

43
Interoperability
 Open Virtualization Format (OVF) describes an open, secure, portable, efficient, and extensible format
for the packaging and distribution of VMs.
 OVF defines a transport mechanism for VM, that can be applied to different virtualization platforms

Standardization
 Cloud standardization, should have ability for virtual machine to run on any virtual platform.

Challenge 6: Software Licensing and Reputation Sharing

 Cloud providers can use both pay-for-use and bulk-use licensing schemes to widen the business
coverage.
 Cloud providers must create reputation-guarding services similar to the “trusted e-mail” services
 Cloud providers want legal liability to remain with the customer, and vice versa.

TECHNOLOGIES FOR NETWORK – BASED SYSTEMS

 It will focus on variable approaches to building distributed operating systems for handling massive
parallel in a distributed environment.
Multi – Core CPUs and Multithreading technologies:-
 The Growth of component and network technologies over the past 30 years are crucial.
 Processor speed is measured in millions of instructions per second[MIPS] and
network bandwidth measured in megabits per second[Mbps] or gigabits per
second[Gbps]
 Today, advanced CPUs or microprocessor’s chips assume a multicore architecture with dual,
Quad six more processing cores.

GPU [Graphics Processing Unit]

 A GPU is a graphics co-processor or accelerator mounted on a computer’s
graphics card or video card
 A GPU offloads the CPU from tedious graphics task in video editing applications. A modern
GPU can be built with hundreds of processing cores.
 GPUs have a throughput architecture that exploits massive parallelism by executing many
concurrent threads slowly, instead of executing a single long thread in a conventional
microprocessor very quickly.

Memory, Storage and wide – Area Networking:

 Memory chips have experienced a 4x Increase in capacity every three years.
 Faster Processor speed enlarger memory capacity result in a wider gap between processors and
memory.
 The rapid growth of flash memory and solid – state drives [SSDs] also impacts the
future system.
 Eventually, power consumption, cooling and packaging will limit large system development.
44
  High- band width networking increases the capability of building massively distributed
system. Most data centers are using Gigabit Ethernet in their server clusters.

Virtual Machines and Virtualization Middleware:-

 Virtual machines [VMs] offers novel solutions to underutilized resources application
inflexibility software manageability and security concerns in existing physical
machines.
 The VM is built with virtual resources managed by a guest OS to run a specific
application.
 Between the VMs and the host platform one needs to deploy a middleware layer
called a virtual machine monitor [VMM].
 The VMM called a hypervisor in privileged mode.

NIST CLOUD COMPUTING REFERENCE ARCHITECTURE

 The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) defines cloud computing as a

"pay-per-use model for enabling available, convenient and on-demand network access to a
shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage,
applications and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal
management effort or service provider interaction."

Architecture
 Architecture consists of 3 tiers
 Cloud Deployment Model
 Cloud Service Model
 Essential Characteristics of Cloud Computing

45
Deployment Models
 Private cloud
 Community cloud
 Public cloud
 Hybrid cloud

Service Models
 Software as a Service (Saas)
 Platform as a Service (PaaS)
 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

Essential Cloud Computing Characteristics:

 On-demand self-service: consumers can unilaterally provision computing capabilities as needed
automatically without requiring human interaction with each service provider.
 Broad network access: capabilities are available over the network and accessed through standard
mechanism that promote use by heterogeneous thin or thick client platforms.
 Resources pooling: The provider’s computing resources are pooled to serve multiple consumers using
a multi-tenant model, with different physical and virtual resources dynamically assigned and
reassigned according to consumer demand
 Rapid elasticity: capabilities can be elastically provisioned and released to scale rapidly outward and
inward commensurate with demand.
 Measured service: cloud systems automatically control and optimize resource use by leveraging a
metering capability at some level of abstraction appropriate to the type of service.

Cloud Computing Reference Architecture

 NIST Cloud Computing reference architecture defines five major performers:

Actors in Cloud Computing

46
  Each performer is an object (a person or an organization) that contributes to a transaction or method
and/or performs tasks in Cloud computing.

Cloud Service Providers:

 A group or object that delivers cloud services to cloud consumers or end-users. It offers various
components of cloud computing.
 Cloud computing consumers purchase a growing variety of cloud services from cloud service
providers.
 There are various categories of cloud-based services mentioned below:
1. IaaS Providers: In this model, the cloud service providers offer infrastructure components that
would exist in an on-premises data center. These components consist of servers, networking, and
storage as well as the virtualization layer.
2. SaaS Providers: In Software as a Service (SaaS), vendors provide a wide sequence of business
technologies, such as Human resources management (HRM) software, customer relationship
management (CRM) software, all of which the SaaS vendor hosts and provides services through the
internet.
3. PaaS Providers: In Platform as a Service (PaaS), vendors offer cloud infrastructure and services that
can access to perform many functions. In PaaS, services and products are mostly utilized in software
development.

Cloud Carrier:
 The mediator who provides offers connectivity and transport of cloud services within cloud service
providers and cloud consumers.
 It allows access to the services of the cloud through Internet networks, telecommunication, and other
access devices. Network and telecom carriers or a transport agent can provide distribution.

Cloud Broker:
 An organization or a unit that manages the performance, use, and delivery of cloud services by
enhancing specific capability and offers value-added services to cloud consumers.
 It combines and integrates various services into one or more new services.
 There are major three services offered by a cloud broker:
1. Service Intermediation.
2. Service Aggregation.
3. Service Arbitrage.

Cloud Auditor:
 Cloud Auditor can make an assessment of the security controls in the information system to determine
the extent to which the controls are implemented correctly, operating as planned and constructing the
desired outcome with respect to meeting the security necessities for the system.
 There are three major roles of Cloud Auditor which are mentioned below:
1. Security Audit.
2. Privacy Impact Audit.
3. Performance Audit.

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Cloud Consumer:
 A cloud consumer is the end-user who browses or utilizes the services provided by Cloud Service
Providers (CSP), sets up service contracts with the cloud provider.
 The cloud consumer pays peruse of the service provisioned.
 Cloud consumers use Service-Level Agreement (SLAs) to specify the technical performance
requirements to be fulfilled by a cloud provider.

Fig: Interactions between the Actors in Cloud Computing

PUBLIC, PRIVATE AND HYBRID CLOUDS

Introduction
 The types of cloud computing are covered under Deployment Model. Deployment model and Service
model are the working models for Cloud Computing.
 Cloud computing is feasible and accessible to end users using the deployment model and service model.
Types
 Cloud can be accessed in following four ways:
i) Public cloud
ii) Private cloud
iii) Hybrid cloud
iv) Community cloud

Public cloud
 In the public cloud, systems and services are accessible to the general public. For example, Google,
IBM, Microsoft etc.
 Public cloud is open to all. Hence, it may be less secure.
 This cloud is suitable for information which is not sensitive.

48
Advantages:
 Public cloud is less expensive than the private cloud or hybrid cloud because it shares same resources
with many customers.
 It is easy to combine public cloud with private cloud so it gives the flexible approach to the customer.
 It is reliable because it provides large number of resources from various locations and if any resource
fails, another is employed.
Private cloud
 In the private cloud, systems and services are accessible within an organization.
 This cloud is operated only in a particular organization. It is managed internally or by third party.

Advantages:
 Private cloud is highly secured because resources are shared from distinct pool of resources.
 As compared to the Public cloud, Private cloud has more control on its resources and hardware
because it accessed only in the boundary of an organization.

Disadvantages:
 Private cloud is very difficult to deploy globally and it can be accessed locally only.
 Private cloud's cost is more than that of Public cloud.

Hybrid cloud
 Hybrid cloud is a mixture of public and private cloud.

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  In hybrid cloud, critical activities are conducted using Private cloud and the non-critical activities are
conducted using Public cloud.

Advantages:
 It is scalable because it gives the features of both public and private cloud.
 It gives secure resources because of Private cloud and scalable resources because of Public cloud.
 The cost of the Hybrid cloud is less as compared to Private cloud.

Disadvantages:
 In hybrid cloud, networking becomes complicated because both Private and Public cloud are available.

Community cloud
 Community cloud enables the system and services which are accessible by group of organizations.
 It shares the infrastructure between several organizations from a specific community.
 It is managed internally and operated by several organizations or by the third party or combination of
them.

Advantages:
 In Community cloud, cost is low as compared to Private cloud.
 Community cloud gives an infrastructure to share cloud resources and capabilities between several
organizations.
 This cloud is more secure than the Public cloud but less secured than the Private cloud.

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 CLOUD MODELS: IAAS, PAAS AND SAAS
 The cloud can provide exactly the same technologies as “traditional” IT
infrastructure – This service can be accessible over a cloud management interface layer, which
provides access over REST/SOAP API or a management console website.
 As an example, let’s consider Amazon Web Services (AWS).
 Amazon Elastic Compute cloud (EC2) is a key web service that provide a facility to create manage
virtual machine instances with operation system running inside them.
 Amazon relational database service (RDS) provides MySQL and oracle database services cloud.
 Amazon S3 is a redundant and fast cloud storage service that provides public access to files over.
 The three major cloud computing offerings are
 Software as a Service(SaaS)
 Platform as a Service (PaaS)
 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

IaaS
 Iaas (Infrastructure as a service) is one of the fundamental service model of cloud
computing.
 It provides access to computing resources in a virtualized environment “the cloud “
on internet.
 It provides computing infrastructure like virtual server space, network connections,
bandwidth balances and IP addresses.
 The pool of hardware resources is extracted from multiple servers and networks usually distributed
numerous data centers. This provides redundancy and reliability to IaaS.
 For small scale business looking for cutting cost on IT infrastructure, IaaS is one of the solutions.
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  Annually a lot of money is spent in maintenance which a business owner could have saved for
expenses by using IaaS.

Benefits:
 Full control over computing resources through administrative access to VMs
 Flexible and efficient renting of computer hardware.
 Portability, interoperability with legacy application.

Issues:
 Compatibility with legacy security vulnerabilities
 Virtual Machine Sprawl
 Robustness of VM Level isolation

PaaS
 Platform as a service, is referred as PaaS, it provides a platform and environment to allow
developers to build applications and services.
 This service is hosted in the cloud and accessed by the users via internet.
 To Understand in a simple terms, let compare this with painting a picture, where you are provided with
paint colors, paint brushes and paper and you just have to draw a beautiful picture using those tools.
 Paas services are constantly updated & new features added. Software developers, web
developers and business can benefit from PaaS.

Benefits:
 Lower administrative overhead
 Lower total cost of Ownership
 Scalable Solutions
 More current system software

Issues:
 Lack of Portability between PaaS clouds
 Event based processors scheduling.

SaaS
 Saas or Software as a service distribution model in which application are hosted by a
vendor or service provider and made available to customer over a network(internet).
 SaaS is becoming an increasingly prevalent delivery model as underlying technologies that
support service oriented architecture (SOA) or Web services.
 Through internet this service is available to user anywhere in the world.
 Instead of purchasing the software subscribes to it, usually on monthly basis via internet.
 Anyone who needs an access to a particular piece of software can be subscribe as a user, whether it is
one or two people or every thousands of employee in a corporation.
Benefits:
 Modest Software tools
 Efficient use of software Licenses
 Centralized management and data
 Platform responsibilities managed by providers
 Multitenant Solutions
Issues:
 Browser based risks
 Network dependence
 Lack of portability between SaaS clouds

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 CLOUD STORAGE PROVIDERS
Introduction
 Cloud storage is a flexible and convenient new-age solution to store data. In the past, data stored on hard
drives and external storage devices such as floppy disks, thumb drives, and compact discs.
 More recently, cloud storage has become a popular medium of choice for enterprises as well as
individuals.
 All the data is stored remotely without taking up physical space in your home or office or exhausting the
megabytes on your computer.
 In other words, cloud storage is a service that lets you transfer data over the Internet and store it in an
offsite storage system maintained by a third party.
How data are stored in cloud?
 Cloud storage lets you store data on hosted servers. The remote servers are managed and owned by
hosting companies. You can access your data via the Internet.
 With so many cloud storage providers that have flooded the market today, the size and maintenance of
cloud storage systems can be quite different based on the provider.
 Leading cloud storage providers like Microsoft Azure, Amazon Web Services (AWS), and Google
Cloud Computing maintain such gigantic data centers that store data from all over the world.

Benefits
 Accessibility: Data stored on the cloud can be accessed on-the-go, anytime, and anywhere. All you
need is an internet connection.
 Mobility: Cloud storage providers even offer applications that work with various devices such as
mobile phones and tablets.
 Synchronization: You have the option to sync all your files across all devices so that you have the
most current available to you all the time, creating a single source of truth.
 Collaboration: Cloud storage services come with features that allow multiple people to collaborate on
a single file even if they are spread across various locations across the world.
 Cost-Saving: Cloud storage providers generally require you to pay only for the amount of storage you
use, which prevents businesses from over-investing into their storage needs.
 Scalable: Cloud storage providers offer various plans that can quickly scale your data storage capacity
to meet the growing needs of your business.
 Low Maintenance: The responsibility of upkeeping of the storage lies with the cloud storage
provider.
 Space-Saving: Servers and even other forms of physical storage devices such as hard disks and USBs
require space. This situation does not arise with cloud storage.
 Reduced Carbon Footprint: Even a small data center requires servers, networks, power, cooling,
space, and ventilation, all of which can contribute significantly to energy consumption and CO2

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 emissions. Switching to cloud computing, therefore, can drastically reduce your energy consumption
levels.
 Security: Cloud storage providers have about two to three backup servers located in different places
globally.
Types of Cloud Storage
Public Cloud Storage
 Suitable for unstructured data, public cloud storage is offered by third-party cloud storage providers
over the open Internet.
 They may be available for free or on a paid basis. Users are usually required to pay for only what they
use.
Private Cloud Storage
 A private cloud allows organizations to store data in their environment.
 The infrastructure is hosted on-premises. It offers many benefits that come with a public cloud service
such as self-service and scalability.
Hybrid Cloud Storage
 Hybrid cloud allows data and applications to be shared between a public and a private cloud.

Choosing the Right Cloud Storage Provider

 Understand Your Storage Needs
 Look Beyond Storage
 Check Security Levels
 Look at Customer Satisfaction Ratings
 Consider the Cost

Cloud Storage Providers

Google Drive:
Features:
 It supports most file formats- photos, drawings, videos, recordings, etc.
 Up to 15 GB of free storage capacity.
 You need a Google account to get started.
 Upload files from your phone and tablet too and not just your computer.
 Share data and collaborate on them without an email attachment.
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pCloud:
Features:
 Free storage up to 10 GB
 TLS/SSL encryption for data security
 Supports file management from the web, desktop, and also the mobile
 Multiple file-sharing options.
 Saves versions of files for specific amounts of time
 Back up your photos from social media (Facebook, Instagram, and Picasa)

Microsoft OneDrive:
Features:
 Works with Microsoft Office and Office 365 suite
 Built-in Windows file syncing and restoration features
 Integrated into the file explorer, automatically jumpstarting online backup.

Dropbox:
Features:
 Store files in one central space
 Create and share anything with Dropbox Paper- rough drafts, videos, images to code and sound
 Suitable for freelancers, solo workers, teams, and businesses alike
 Admin controls to simplify team management tasks

MediaFire:
Features:
 Start with 10GB of free space which can be increased through usual activities such as referrals.
 Supports files up to 4GB large
 Unlimited downloads
 Automated photo and video syncing and streaming
OpenDrive:
Features:
 Comes with tools for data management, project and workflow, and branding
 Available for personal use with features like online storage, online backup, file syncing, online file
sharing, and file hot linking, etc.
Box:
Features:
 Work online with others, share folders and co-edit with Microsoft Office 365 or Box Notes.
 Large files can be shared straight from the Box.

IDrive:
Features:
 Real-time, automatic backups
 Entire drive including the OS and settings can be backed up
 Backup from unlimited devices from a single account
 Backup storage remains unimpacted by sync storage
 256-bit AES file encryption
 You can only delete files manually or run an Archive Cleanup
 Deleted files can entirely be recovered within 30 days.

iCloud:
Features:
 It is Apple’s proprietary cloud storage solution
 Collaborate with Pages, Numbers, Keynote, and Notes
 Pick up every conversation from where it was left off
 It will work perfect if you change your phone

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 ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE INTERNET OF THINGS
 “The Internet of Things (IoT) is a system of interrelated computing devices, mechanical and digital
machines, objects, animals or people that are provided with unique identifiers and the ability to transfer
data over a network without requiring human-to-human or human-to-computer interaction.”
 IoT(internet of things) enabling technologies are
1. Wireless Sensor Network
2. Cloud Computing
3. Big Data Analytics
4. Communications Protocols
5. Embedded System

Wireless Sensor Network(WSN) :

 A WSN comprises distributed devices with sensors which are used to monitor the environmental and
physical conditions.
 A wireless sensor network consists of end nodes, routers and coordinators.
 End nodes have several sensors attached to them where the data is passed to a coordinator with the
help of routers.
 The coordinator also acts as the gateway that connects WSN to the internet.
 Example:
1. Weather monitoring system
2. Indoor air quality monitoring system
3. Soil moisture monitoring system
4. Surveillance system
5. Health monitoring system

Cloud Computing:
 It provides us the means by which we can access applications as utilities over the internet. Cloud
means something which is present in remote locations.
 With Cloud computing, users can access any resources from anywhere like databases, webservers,
storage, any device, and any software over the internet.
 Characteristics:
1. Broad network access
2. On demand self-services
3. Rapid scalability
4. Measured service
5. Pay-per-use

Big Data Analytics:

 It refers to the method of studying massive volumes of data or big data.
 Collection of data whose volume, velocity or variety is simply too massive and tough to store, control,
process and examine the data using traditional databases.
 Big data is gathered from a variety of sources including social network videos, digital images, sensors
and sales transaction records.
 Several steps involved in analyzing big data:
1. Data cleaning
2. Munging
3. Processing
4. Visualization

Communications Protocols:
 Communication protocols allow devices to exchange data over the network. Multiple protocols often
describe different aspects of a single communication.

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  A group of protocols designed to work together is known as a protocol suite; when implemented in
software they are a protocol stack.
 They are used in
1. Data encoding
2. Addressing schemes

Embedded Systems:
 It is a combination of hardware and software used to perform special tasks.
 It includes microcontroller and microprocessor memory, networking units and storage devices.
 It collects the data and sends it to the internet.
 Examples:
1. Digital camera
2. DVD player, music player
3. Industrial robots
4. Wireless Routers etc.

INNOVATIVE APPLICATIONS OF THE INTERNET OF THINGS

 IoT is currently found in four different popular domains:
1. Manufacturing/Industrial business - 40.2%
2. Healthcare - 30.3%
3. Security - 7.7%
4. Retail - 8.3%
IoT in Industries
 Industrial IoT is defined as a network of devices, machinery and sensors connected to each other
and to the Internet, with the purpose of collecting data and analyze it to apply this information in
continuous process improvement.

Automated and remote equipment management and monitoring:

 One of the main IoT applications is related to the automated management of equipment, allowing a
centralized system to control and monitor all company processes.
 This ability to remotely control equipment via digital machines and software also implies that it is
possible to control several plants located at different geographic locations.

Predictive maintenance
 Predictive maintenance consists of detecting the need for a machine to be maintained before a
crisis takes place and production needs to be stopped urgently.
 It is therefore among the reasons to implement a data acquisition, analysis and management system.

Faster implementation of improvements

 IIoT generates valuable information so that those in charge of improving processes in an industrial
business model can access data and analyze it faster and automatically, and remotely perform the
necessary processes adjustments.

Pinpoint inventories
 The use of Industrial IoT systems allows for the automated monitoring of inventory, certifying
whether plans are followed and issuing an alert in case of deviations.
 It is yet another essential Industrial IOT application to maintain a constant and efficient workflow.

Quality control
 Another entry among the most important IIoT applications is the ability to monitor the quality of
manufactured products at any stage.
 This information is vital when studying the efficiency of the company and applying the necessary
changes in case failures are detected.

IoT in Healthcare
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  IoT is undoubtedly transforming the healthcare industry by redefining the space of devices and people
interaction in delivering healthcare solutions.
 IoT has applications in healthcare that benefit patients, families, physicians, hospitals and insurance
companies.

IoT for Patients

 Devices in the form of wearables like fitness bands and other wirelessly connected devices like blood
pressure and heart rate monitoring cuffs, glucometer etc. give patients access to personalized attention.
 These devices can be tuned to remind calorie count, exercise check, appointments, blood pressure
variations and much more.
 On any disturbance or changes in the routine activities of a person, alert mechanism sends signals to
family members and concerned health providers.

IoT for Physicians

 By using wearables and other home monitoring equipment embedded with IoT, physicians can keep
track of patients’ health more effectively.
 They can track patients’ adherence to treatment plans or any need for immediate medical attention.
 IoT enables healthcare professionals to be more watchful and connect with the patients proactively.
 Data collected from IoT devices can help physicians identify the best treatment process for patients
and reach the expected outcomes.

IoT for Hospitals

 IoT devices tagged with sensors are used for tracking real time location of medical equipment like
wheelchairs, defibrillators, nebulizers, oxygen pumps and other monitoring equipment.
 IoT devices also help in asset management like pharmacy inventory control, and environmental
monitoring, for instance, checking refrigerator temperature, and humidity and temperature control.

IoT for Health Insurance Companies

 There are numerous opportunities for health insurers with IoT-connected intelligent devices.
 Insurance companies can leverage data captured through health monitoring devices for their
underwriting and claims operations.
 This data will enable them to detect fraud claims and identify prospects for underwriting.

IoT in Security
 IoT security covers both physical device security and network security, and impacts the processes,
technologies, and measures necessary to protect IoT devices and networks.
 It spans industrial machines, smart energy grids, building automation systems, entertainment devices,
and more, including devices that often aren’t designed for network security.
 IoT device security must protect systems, networks, and data from a broad spectrum of IoT security
attacks, which target four types of vulnerabilities:
1. Communication attacks on the data transmitted between IoT devices and servers.
2. Lifecycle attacks on the IoT device as it changes hands from user to maintenance.
3. Attacks on the device software.
4. Physical attacks, which directly target the chip in the device.

IoT in Retail
Location tracking
 The Internet of Things solves one of the biggest issues in retail — lack of delivery reliability.
 The technology is capable of increasing operational efficiencies and improving logistic transparency.
 The German supermarket chain Feneberg Lebensmittel uses IoT technology to get visibility on its
goods and employees’ movements, both within the warehouse and in transit.

Predictive equipment maintenance

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  Malfunctioning electric appliances can lead to tremendous reputational and monetary losses, and it can
send dozens of product units to waste.
 In order to be updated on store maintenance and take a proactive approach in equipment managers,
store managers often use IoT in retail. The technology is capable of providing real-time equipment
monitoring and notifying the user in case of likely malfunctioning.

Smart shelves:
 As a stocker walks around the shop with a digital shopping list on their smartphone, the cell phone will
vibrate in case a needed product is on the shelf nearby.
 For a better visibility, a shelf in need of more merchandise will even light up.
 Smart shelves have three common elements — an RFID tag, an RFID reader, and an antenna.

*****************UNIT –III COMPLETED*******************

Reference Book:
1) ”Distributed and Cloud Computing” Kai Hwang Geoffrey C. Fox Jack J. Dongarra.
2) Cloud Computing Implementation, Management, and Security John W. Rittinghouse James F.
Ransome

UNIT IV
SERVICE ORIENTED ARCHITECTURE (SOA)
 A Service-Oriented Architecture or SOA is a design pattern which is designed to build distributed
systems that deliver services to other applications through the protocol. It is only a concept and not
limited to any programming language or platform.

What is Service?
 A service is a well-defined, self-contained function that represents a unit of functionality. A service can
exchange information from another service.
 It is not dependent on the state of another service. It uses a loosely coupled, message-based
communication model to communicate with applications and other services.
Service Connections
 The figure given below illustrates the service-oriented architecture. Service consumer sends a service
request to the service provider, and the service provider sends the service response to the service
consumer.
 The service connection is understandable to both the service consumer and service provider.

Service-Oriented Terminologies

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  Services - The services are the logical entities defined by one or more published interfaces.

 Service provider - It is a software entity that implements a service specification.

 Service consumer - It can be called as a requestor or client that calls a service provider. A service

consumer can be another service or an end-user application.

 Service locator - It is a service provider that acts as a registry. It is responsible for examining service

provider interfaces and service locations.

 Service broker - It is a service provider that pass service requests to one or more additional service

providers.
Characteristics of SOA
 The services have the following characteristics:
 They are loosely coupled.

 They support interoperability.

 They are location-transparent

 They are self-contained.

Components of service-oriented architecture

 The service-oriented architecture stack can be categorized into two parts - functional aspects and quality
of service aspects.

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Functional aspects
 Transport - It transports the service requests from the service consumer to the service provider and

service responses from the service provider to the service consumer.

 Service Communication Protocol - It allows the service provider and the service consumer to

communicate with each other.

 Service Description - It describes the service and data required to invoke it.

 Service - It is an actual service.

 Business Process - It represents the group of services called in a particular sequence associated with

the particular rules to meet the business requirements.

 Service Registry - It contains the description of data which is used by service providers to publish

their services.

Quality of Service aspects

 Policy - It represents the set of protocols according to which a service provider make and provide the

services to consumers.
 Security - It represents the set of protocols required for identification and authorization.

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  Transaction - It provides the surety of consistent result. This means, if we use the group of services

to complete a business function, either all must complete or none of the complete.
 Management - It defines the set of attributes used to manage the services.

Advantages of SOA
 Easy to integrate - In a service-oriented architecture, the integration is a service specification that

provides implementation transparency.

 Manage Complexity - Due to service specification, the complexities get isolated, and integration

becomes more manageable.

 Platform Independence - The services are platform-independent as they can communicate with other

applications through a common language.

 Loose coupling - It facilitates to implement services without impacting other applications or services.

 Parallel Development - As SOA follows layer-based architecture, it provides parallel development.

 Available - The SOA services are easily available to any requester.

 Reliable - As services are small in size, it is easier to test and debug them.

WEB SERVICES
 Web services are XML-centered data exchange systems that use the internet for A2A (application-
to-application) communication and interfacing.
 These processes involve programs, messages, documents, and/or objects.
Web Services = XML + transport protocol (such as HTTP)
 A key feature of web services is that applications can be written in various languages and are still able to
communicate by exchanging data with one another via a web service between clients and servers.
 A client summons a web service by sending a request via XML, and the service then responses with an
XML response.
 Web services are also often associated with SOA (Service-Oriented Architecture).

 A web service comprises these essential functions:

 Available over the internet or intranet networks
 Standardized XML messaging system
 Independent of a single operating system or programming language
 Self-describing via standard XML language
 Discoverable through a simple location method
Types:
 XML-RPC (Remote Procedure Call) is the most basic XML protocol to exchange data between a wide
variety of devices on a network. It uses HTTP to quickly and easily transfer data and communication
other information from client to server.

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 UDDI (Universal Description, Discovery, and Integration) is an XML-based standard for detailing,
publishing, and discovering web services. It’s basically an internet registry for businesses around the
world. The goal is to streamline digital transactions and e-commerce among company systems.
 SOAP, which will be described in detail later in the blog, is an XML-based Web service protocol to
exchange data and documents over HTTP or SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol). It allows
independent processes operating on disparate systems to communicate using XML.
 REST, which will also be described in great detail later in the blog, provides communication and
connectivity between devices and the internet for API-based tasks. Most RESTful services use HTTP as
the supporting protocol.
 Here are some well-known web services that use markup languages:
 Web template
 JSON-RPC
 JSON-WSP
 Web Services Description Language (WSDL)
 Web Services Conversation Language (WSCL)
 Web Services Flow Language (WSFL)
 Web Services Metadata Exchange (WS-MetadataExchange)
 XML Interface for Network Services (XINS)

BASICS OF VIRTUALIZATION
 Virtualization is the "creation of a virtual (rather than actual) version of something, such as a server, a
desktop, a storage device, an operating system or network resources".
 In other words, Virtualization is a technique, which allows to share a single physical instance of a
resource or an application among multiple customers and organizations.
 It does by assigning a logical name to a physical storage and providing a pointer to that physical
resource when demanded.

EMULATION
 Emulation, as name suggests, is a technique in which Virtual machines simulates complete hardware in
software.
 There are many virtualization techniques that were developed in or inherited from emulation technique.
It is very useful when designing software for various systems.
 It simply allows us to use current platform to access an older application, data, or operating system

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 TYPES OF VIRTUALIZATION
Hardware Virtualization:
 When the virtual machine software or virtual machine manager (VMM) is directly installed on the
hardware system is known as hardware virtualization.
 The main job of hypervisor is to control and monitoring the processor, memory and other hardware
resources.
 After virtualization of hardware system we can install different operating system on it and run different
applications on those OS.
 Usage:
 Hardware virtualization is mainly done for the server platforms, because controlling virtual
machines is much easier than controlling a physical server.

Operating System Virtualization:

 When the virtual machine software or virtual machine manager (VMM) is installed on the Host
operating system instead of directly on the hardware system is known as operating system virtualization.
 Usage:
 Operating System Virtualization is mainly used for testing the applications on different platforms of
OS.

Server Virtualization:
 When the virtual machine software or virtual machine manager (VMM) is directly installed on the
Server system is known as server virtualization.
 Usage:

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  Server virtualization is done because a single physical server can be divided into multiple
servers on the demand basis and for balancing the load.

Storage Virtualization:
 Storage virtualization is the process of grouping the physical storage from multiple network storage
devices so that it looks like a single storage device.
 Storage virtualization is also implemented by using software applications.
 Usage:
 Storage virtualization is mainly done for back-up and recovery purposes.

IMPLEMENTATION LEVELS OF VIRTULIZATION

 Virtualization is a computer architecture technology by which multiple virtual machines (VMs) are
multiplexed in the same hardware machine.
 A traditional computer runs with a host operating system specially tailored for its hardware
architecture, as shown in Figure
 After virtualization, different user applications managed by their own operating systems (guest OS) can
run on the same hardware, independent of the host OS.
 This is often done by adding additional software, called a virtualization layer as shown in Figure
 This virtualization layer is known as hypervisor or virtual machine monitor (VMM)

Levels of Abstraction
 There are 5 levels of abstraction, They are
1) Instruction Set Architecture Level
2) Hardware Abstraction Level
3) Operating System Level
4) Library Support Level
5) User-Application Level

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Instruction Set Architecture Level(ISA)
 With this approach, it is possible to run a large amount of legacy binary code written for various
processors on any given new hardware host machine.
Hardware Abstraction Level
 The idea is to virtualize a computer’s resources, such as its processors, memory, and I/O devices.
Operating System Level
 This refers to an abstraction layer between traditional OS and user applications.
 OS-level virtualization creates isolated containers on a single physical server and the OS instances to
utilize the hard-ware and software in data centers.
 The containers behave like real servers.
Library Support Level
 Virtualization with library interfaces is possible by controlling the communication link between
applications and the rest of a system through API .
User-Application Level
 Virtualization at the application level virtualizes an application as a VM.
 Application-level virtualization is also known as process-level virtualization.

VIRTUALIZATION STRUCTURE
 Before virtualization, the operating system manages the hardware.
 After virtualization, a virtualization layer is inserted between the hardware and the operating system.
 In such a case, the virtualization layer is responsible for converting portions of the real hardware into
virtual hardware.
 Depending on the position of the virtualization layer, there are several classes of VM architectures,
namely
 The hypervisor architecture,
 Para-virtualization, and
 Host-based virtualization.
Hypervisor and Xen Architecture
 The hypervisor supports hardware-level virtualization
 The hypervisor provides hyper calls for the guest OSes and applications.
 Xen is an open source hypervisor program developed by Cambridge University. Xen is a micro-
kernel hypervisor, which separates the policy from the mechanism.
 The Xen hypervisor implements all the mechanisms, leaving the policy to be handled by Domain 0
 Xen does not include any device drivers .
 It just provides a mechanism by which guestsOS can have direct access to the physical devices.
 As a result, the size of the Xen hypervisor is kept rather small.
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  The guest OS, which has control ability, is called Domain 0, and the others are called Domain U.
 Domain 0 is designed to access hardware directly and manage devices.

Para-Virtualization
 A para-virtualized VM provides special APIs requiring substantial OS modifications in user
applications.
 Figure illustrates the concept of a para-virtualized VM architecture. The guest operating systems are
paravirtualized.
 The traditional x86 processor offers four instruction execution rings: Rings 0, 1, 2, and 3.
 The lower the ring number, the higher the privilege of instruction being executed.
 The OS is responsible for managing the hardware and the privileged instructions to execute at Ring
0, while user-level applications run at Ring 3.

Host-Based Virtualization
 An alternative VM architecture is to install a virtualization layer on top of the host OS.
 This host OS is still responsible for managing the hardware.
 The guest OSes are installed and run on top of the virtualization layer.
 First, the user can install this VM architecture without modifying the host OS.
 Second, the host-based approach appeals to many host machine configurations.
 Compared to the hypervisor/VMM architecture, the performance of the host-based architecture may
also be low.

TOOLS AND MECHANISM

Third-Party virtualization Management Tools
 There are many third-party vendors that pick up by delivering feature – rich applications.
 It goes beyond the basic tools supplied by virtualization vendors and include security, monitoring,
reporting,backups and automation.

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RV tools from Robware.net:
 For VMware environments, this handy little free application is written in Microsoft.NET and
leverages the VMware SDKs to collect information from center servers and ESX/ESXi hosts.

Powershell from Microsoft:

 For VM ware ESX/ESXi and Microsoft Hyper-V environments, powershell is a free extensible
command line shell and associated scripting language developed by Microsoft.

Citrix Essentials from citrix:

 It is an application with separate versions for Hyper-V and Xenserver that adds some powerful
virtualization management capabilities and features to each.

V Control:
 V control is a multi-hypervisor web-based self provisioning and VM virtualization management for
citrixXenserver,Microsoft Hyper-V and VMWare ESX/ESXi.

VIRTUALIZATION OF CPU, MEMORY, I/O DEVICES

 To support virtualization, processors such as the x86 employ a special running mode and instructions,
known as hardware-assisted virtualization.
 In this way, the VMM and guest OS run in different modes and all sensitive instructions of the guest OS
and its applications are trapped in the VMM.

CPU Virtualization
 Unprivileged instructions of VMs run directly on the host machine for higher efficiency. Other
critical instructions should be handled carefully for correctness and stability.
 The critical instructions are divided into three categories,
 Privileged instructions
 Control sensitive instruction
 Behaviour –Sensitive instructions
Privileged instructions:
 Privileged instructions execute in a privileged modeand will be trapped if executed outside
this mode.

Control-sensitive instructions:
 Control-sensitive instructions attempt to change the configuration of resources used.

Behavior-sensitive instructions:
 Behavior-sensitive instructions have different behaviors depending on the configuration of
resources, including the load and store operations over the virtual memory.
Memory Virtualization
 Virtual memory virtualization involves sharing the physical system memory in RAM and
dynamically allocating it to the physical memory of the VMs.
 That means a two-stage mapping process should be maintained by the guest OS and the
VMM, respectively:
 virtual memory to physical memory
 physical memory to machine memory.
 The guest OS cannot directly access the actual machine memory.
 The VMM is responsible for mapping the guest physical memory to the actual machine memory.
 Figure shows the two-level memory mapping procedure.

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I/O Virtualization:
 I/O virtualization involves managing the routing of I/O requests between virtual devices and the
shared physical hardware.
 At the time of this writing, there are three ways to implement I/O virtualization:
 Full device emulation,
 Para-virtualization,
 Direct I/O.
 Full device emulation is the first approach for I/O virtualization.
 Generally, this approach emulates(match) well-known, real-world devices.

 Para-I/O-virtualization achieves better device performance than full device emulation, it

comes with a higher CPU overhead.
 Direct I/O virtualization lets the VM access devices directly.
 It can achieve close-to-native performance without high CPU costs.
 Figure provides an overview of Intel’s full virtualization techniques.
 For processor virtualization, Intel offers the VT-x or VT-i technique. VT-x adds a privileged
mode (VMX Root Mode) and some instructions to processors.
 This enhancement traps all sensitive instructions in the VMM automatically.
 For memory virtualization, Intel offers the EPT, which translates the virtual address to the
machine’s physical addresses to improve performance.
 For I/O virtualization, Intel implements VT-d and VT-c to support this.

DESKTOP VIRTUALIZATION
 Desktop virtualization is technology that lets users simulate a workstation load to access a desktop from
a connected device remotely or locally.
 This separates the desktop environment and its applications from the physical client device used to
access it.
 Desktop virtualization is a key element of digital workspaces and depends on application virtualization.

Types of Desktop Virtualization

 Desktop virtualization has two major deployment models: Hosted Desktop and Client Virtualization.

Hosted Desktop Virtualization

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  Under this model, a server, which resides in a data center hosts the virtual machines. Users can
connect to the server through standard protocols such as Remote Desktop Protocol
(RDP) or connection brokers.
 There are three major variants under Hosted Desktop Virtualization:

1. Virtual Desktop Infrastructure (VDI)

 In VDI, the operating system (OS) runs virtual machines (VMs)—which contain the desktop
image—on a server within the datacenter.
 VDI technology leverages a hypervisor to split a server into different desktop images that users can
remotely access via their endpoint devices.
 VDI provisions a dedicated VM running its own OS to each user within the virtualized environment.

2. Remote Desktop Services (RDS)

 RDS, formerly Terminal Services, allows users to remotely access shared desktops and Windows
applications on Microsoft Windows Server OS.
 In RDS, users access remote desktops by sharing the hardware, OS (in this case, a Windows Server),
apps and host resources.

3. Desktop-as-a-Service (DaaS)

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  DaaS’s functionality is similar to that of VDI: users access their desktops and apps from any
endpoint device or platform.
 However, in VDI, you have to purchase, deploy, and manage all the hardware components yourself.
 In DaaS, though, you outsource desktop virtualization to a third party to help you develop and
operate virtual desktops.

Client Virtualization:
 Client virtualization is a virtual machine (VM) environment in the user's machine.
 Also called "endpoint virtualization," the user's computer hosts multiple VMs, each of which
contains an operating system and set of applications.

How to Choose Between VDI, RDS and DaaS

 When it comes to selecting between VDI, RDS or DaaS, your decision will not only depend on end-
user experience but also business and IT considerations such as capabilities, cost, infrastructure
control, geography and agility.

Business capabilities
 As an organization, you need to ask yourself whether you have adequate expertise, resources, and the
compelling need to mount VDI, RDS, or DaaS.
 Simply put, would it better if you consumed desktop virtualization as “as a service” or you
implemented it as VDI or RDS?

Cost
 Cost is always a primary concern whether you’re implementing VDI, RDS, or DaaS.
 However, with DaaS, you execute all the desktop workloads in the cloud.

Infrastructure control
 When it comes to VDI and RDS deployments, your IT admins have absolute control in terms of
updating the infrastructure, including securing network services.
 DaaS deployment, on the other hand, takes away infrastructure control from the organization to a
cloud vendor.

Geography
 When comparing VDI, RDS and DaaS, an organization must determine the location of its data and
where its users reside.
 DaaS deployments make sense if you want to support multiple users in different places.
 If the data center is miles away from users, RDS and VDI deployments may hurt the end-user
experience.

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Agility and elasticity
 If you need a desktop virtualization solution that is easier to set up and run, then DaaS is your go-to
solution.
 For example, if you would like to accommodate seasonal or contract workers on your infrastructure,
it makes sense to select DaaS over RDS and VDI that takes time to set up.

SERVER VIRTUALIZATION
 Server virtualization is the process of dividing a physical server into multiple unique and isolated virtual
servers by means of a software application.
 Each virtual server can run its own operating systems independently.
Key Benefits of Server Virtualization:
 Higher server ability
 Cheaper operating costs
 Eliminate server complexity
 Increased application performance
 Deploy workload quicker

Kinds of Server Virtualization:

 Full Virtualization: Full virtualization uses a hypervisor, a type of software that directly
communicates with a physical server's disk space and CPU. The hypervisor monitors the physical
server's resources and keeps each virtual server independent and unaware of the other virtual servers.
It also relays resources from the physical server to the correct virtual server as it runs applications.
The biggest limitation of using full virtualization is that a hypervisor has its own processing needs.
This can slow down applications and impact server performance.
 Para-Virtualization: Unlike full virtualization, para-virtualization involves the entire network
working together as a cohesive unit. Since each operating system on the virtual servers is aware of
one another in para-virtualization, the hypervisor does not need to use as much processing power to
manage the operating systems.
 OS-Level Virtualization: Unlike full and para-virtualization, OS-level visualization does not use a
hypervisor. Instead, the virtualization capability, which is part of the physical server operating
system, performs all the tasks of a hypervisor. However, all the virtual servers must run that same
operating system in this server virtualization method.

GOOGLE APP ENGINE

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 Google App Engine is An example of Platform as a Service (PaaS).
 Google App Engine provides Web app developers and enterprises with access to Google's scalable
hosting and tier 1 Internet service.
 Google App Engine provides a scalable runtime based on the Java and Python programming language.
 Applications in Google app engine stores data in Google BigTable.
 Application in Google app engine uses Google query language.
 If applications are non-compatible to Google app engine, than application needed to be make compatible
with Google app engine. All application are not supported by Google app engine.
 Google App Engine also removed some system administration and developmental tasks to make it easier
to write scalable applications.

Cost of Google App Engine:

 Google app engine provides limited resource usage as free of cost.
 After free resource usage limit users can per day or per minute basis.

Why to use Google App Engine:

1. Google app engine allows you to build web applications on the same stable and extendable platform
which having support facility of Google’s large number of applications.
2. Google app engine gives facility to use and run applications in Google's data center.
3. Google app engine's language Java and Python are easy to understand and implement.
4. This platform is absolutely free; you can purchase additional resources if needed.
5. Using Google accounts you can use Google app engine's services.
6. It is easy to scale up as your data storage and traffic needs grows with time.
7. Google also provides marketing facility to our apps.
8. User can easily write the application code, and can test it on own local system and upload it to
Google at the click of a button or with a few lines of command script.
9. There is no need to take approval from system administration to upload or launch a new version of
the application.
10. Google takes care of all the apps maintenance and allows users/developers to focus on the features of
the application.

MICROSOFT AZURE
 To enable .NET developers to extend their applications into the cloud, Microsoft has created a set of
.NET services, which it now refers to as the Windows Azure Platform.
 Azure includes:
1. Azure AppFabric: A virtualization service. That creates an application hosting environment.
2. Storage: A high capacity non-relational storage facility.
3. Compute: A set of virtual machine instances.
4. SQL Azure Database: A cloud-enabled version of SQL Server.
5. Dallas: A database marketplace based on SQL Azure Database code.
6. Dynamic CRM: An xRM (Anything Relations Management) service based on Microsoft
Dynamics.
7. SharePoint Services: A document and collaboration service based on SharePoint.
8. Windows Live Services: A collection of services that runs on Windows Live, which can be used
in applications that run in the Azure cloud.
 Windows Azure Platform can be viewed in a sense as the next Microsoft operating system, the first one
that is a cloud OS.
 Azure is Microsoft's Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) Web hosting service and Platform as a Service
both.
 An application on Azure architecture can run locally, run in the cloud, or some combination of both.
 Applications on Azure can be run as applications, as background processes or services, or as both.
 Six main elements are part of Windows Azure:
1. Application: This is the runtime of the application that is running in the cloud.
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 2. Compute: This is the load-balanced Windows server computation and policy engine that allows
you to create and manage virtual machines that serve either in a Web role and a Worker role.
3. Storage: This is a non-relational storage system for large-scale storage.
4. Fabric: This is the Windows Azure Hypervisor, which is a version of Hyper-V that runs on
Windows Server 2008.
5. Config: This is a management service.
6. Virtual machines: These are instances of Windows that run the applications and services that are
part of a particular deployment.

FEDERATION IN THE CLOUD

 Cloud Federation, also known as Federated Cloud is the deployment and management of several external
and internal cloud computing services to match business needs.
 It is a multi-national cloud system that integrates private, community, and public clouds into scalable
computing platforms.
 Federated cloud is created by connecting the cloud environment of different cloud providers using a
common standard.

Architecture:
 The architecture of Federated Cloud consists of three basic components:
1. Cloud Exchange
 The Cloud Exchange acts as a mediator between cloud coordinator and cloud broker.
 The demands of the cloud broker are mapped by the cloud exchange to the available services provided
by the cloud coordinator.
 The cloud exchange has a track record of what is the present cost, demand patterns, and available
cloud providers, and this information is periodically reformed by the cloud coordinator.

2. Cloud Coordinator
 The cloud coordinator assigns the resources of the cloud to the remote users based on the quality of
service they demand and the credits they have in the cloud bank.
 The cloud enterprises and their membership are managed by the cloud controller.

3. Cloud Broker
 The cloud broker interacts with the cloud coordinator, analyzes the Service-level agreement and the
resources offered by several cloud providers in cloud exchange.
 Cloud broker finalizes the most suitable deal for their client.
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Properties of Federated Cloud:
1. In the federated cloud, the users can interact with the architecture either centrally or in a
decentralized manner. Decentralized interaction permits the user to interact directly with the clouds
in the federation.
2. Federated cloud can be practiced with various niches like commercial and non-commercial.
3. The visibility of a federated cloud assists the user to interpret the organization of several clouds in
the federated environment.
4. Federated cloud can be monitored in two ways. MaaS (Monitoring as a Service) provides
information that aids in tracking contracted services to the user. Global monitoring aids in
maintaining the federated cloud.
5. The providers who participate in the federation publish their offers to a central entity. The user
interacts with this central entity to verify the prices and propose an offer.
6. The marketing objects like infrastructure, software, and platform have to pass through federation
when consumed in the federated cloud.

Benefits of Federated Cloud:

1. It minimizes the consumption of energy.
2. It increases reliability.
3. It minimizes the time and cost of providers due to dynamic scalability.
4. It connects various cloud service providers globally. The providers may buy and sell services on
demand.
5. It provides easy scaling up of resources.

Challenges in Federated Cloud:

1. In cloud federation, it is common to have more than one provider for processing the incoming
demands. In such cases, there must be a scheme needed to distribute the incoming demands equally
among the cloud service providers.
2. The increasing requests in cloud federation have resulted in more heterogeneous infrastructure,
making interoperability an area of concern. It becomes a challenge for cloud users to select relevant
cloud service providers and therefore, it ties them to a particular cloud service provider.
3. A federated cloud means constructing a seamless cloud environment that can interact with people,
different devices, several application interfaces, and other entities.

Federated Cloud technologies:

 The technologies that aid the cloud federation and cloud services are:
1. OpenNebula
2. Aneka coordinator
3. Eucalyptus
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 *****************UNIT –IV COMPLETED*******************
Reference Book:
1) ”Distributed and Cloud Computing” Kai Hwang Geoffrey C. Fox Jack J. Dongarra.
2) Cloud Computing Implementation, Management, and Security John W. Rittinghouse James F.
Ransome

UNIT V
MICROSERVICES AND DEVOPS
DEFINING MICROSERVICES
 Microservices are self-contained software components that are no more than 100 lines of code
 Microservices are independently deployable processes communicating asynchronously using lightweight
mechanisms focused on specific business capabilities running in an automated but platform- and
language-independent environment
 Microservices are mini web servers offering a small REST-based HTTP API that accepts and returns
JSON documents
 A microservice is an independent software component that takes no more than one iteration to build and
deploy
 The term "micro web services" was first used by Dr. Peter Rogers during a conference on cloud
computing in 2005.

EMERGENCE OF MICROSERVICE ARCHITECTURE

 Micro service architecture, are a specific method of designing software systems to structure a single
application as a collection of loosely coupled services.
 Applications tend to begin as a monolithic architecture (more on that below), and over time grow into a
set of interconnected micro services.
 The main idea behind micro services is that some types of applications are easier to build and maintain
when they are broken down into many small pieces that work together.
 Though the architecture has increased complexity, micro services still offer many advantages over the
monolithic structure.
 Instead of a monolithic architecture, each component of a micro service architecture has:
 Its own CPU
 Its own runtime environment
 Often, a dedicated team working on it, ensuring each service is distinct from one another

Monolithic architecture vs micro service architecture:

 The monolithic architecture pattern has been the architectural style used in the past, pre-Kubernetes and
cloud services days.

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 In a monolithic architecture, the software is a single application distributed on a CD-ROM, released once
a year with the newest updates.
 Examples are Photoshop CS6 or Microsoft 2008.

Architecutre:
 Microservices is an architecture wherein all the components of the system are put into
individual components, which can be built, deployed, and scaled individually.

 The components of the microservice architecture are:

 Clients – Different users from various devices send requests.
 Identity Providers – Authenticates user or clients identities and issues security tokens.
 API Gateway – Handles client requests.
 Static Content – Houses all the content of the system.
 Management – Balances services on nodes and identifies failures.
 Service Discovery – A guide to find the route of communication between microservices.
 Content Delivery Networks – Distributed network of proxy servers and their data centers.
 Remote Service – Enables the remote access information that resides on a network of IT devices.

How do these microservices find each other?

 Microservices use service discovery which acts as a guide to find the route of communication between
each of them.
 Microservices then communicate with each other via a stateless server i.e. either by HTTP
Request/Message Bus.

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 These microservices communicate with each other using an Application Program Interface(API).
 After the Microservices communicate within themselves, they deploy the static content to a cloud-based
storage service that can deliver them directly to the clients via Content Delivery Networks (CDNs).

DESIGN PATTERNS OF MICROSERVICES

Aggregator Pattern
 Aggregator in the computing world refers to a website or program that collects related items of data and
displays them.
 So, even in Microservices patterns, Aggregator is a basic web page which invokes various services to get
the required information or achieve the required functionality.
 So, for example, if you consider two services: Service A and B, then you can individually scale these
services simultaneously by providing the data to the composite microservice.

API Gateway Design Pattern

 Microservices are built in such a way that each service has its own functionality.
 But, when an application is broken down into small autonomous services, then there could be few
problems that a developer might face.
 With the help of the API Gateway design pattern, the API gateways can convert the protocol request
from one type to other.
 Similarly, it can also offload the authentication/authorization responsibility of the microservice.

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Chained or Chain of Responsibility Pattern
 Chained or Chain of Responsibility Design Patterns produces a single output which is a combination of
multiple chained outputs.
 So, if you have three services lined up in a chain, then, the request from the client is first received by
Service A.
 Then, this service communicates with the next Service B and collects data. Finally, the second service
communicates with the third service to generate the consolidated output.
 All these services use synchronous HTTP request or response for messaging.

Asynchronous Messaging Design Pattern

 In this type of microservices design pattern, all the services can communicate with each other, but they
do not have to communicate with each other sequentially.
 So, if you consider 3 services: Service A, Service B, and Service C.
 The request from the client can be directly sent to the Service C and Service B simultaneously.
 These requests will be in a queue.
 Apart from this, the request can also be sent to Service A whose response need not have to be sent to the
same service through which request has come.

Database or Shared Data Pattern

 For every application, there is humongous amount of data present. So, when we break down an
application from its monolithic architecture to microservices, it is very important to note that each
microservice has sufficient amount of data to process a request.

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 So, either the system can have a database per each service or it can have shared database per service.
You can use database per service and shared database per service to solve various problems.

Event Sourcing Design Pattern

 The event sourcing design pattern creates events regarding the changes in the application state.
 Also, these events are stored as a sequence of events to help the developers track which change was
made when.

Branch Pattern
 Branch microservice design pattern is a design pattern in which you can simultaneously process the
requests and responses from two or more independent microservices.
 This design pattern extends the Aggregator design pattern and provides the flexibility to produce
responses from multiple chains or single chain.

Command Query Responsibility Segregator (CQRS) Design Pattern

 Every microservices design has either the database per service model or the shared database per service.
 But, in the database per service model, we cannot implement a query as the data access is only limited to
one single database.

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Circuit Breaker Pattern
 Circuit Breaker design pattern is used to stop the process of request and response if a service is not
working.
 With the help of this pattern, the client will invoke a remote service via a proxy.
 This proxy will basically behave as a circuit barrier. So, when the number of failures crosses the
threshold number, the circuit breaker trips for a particular time period.

Decomposition Design Pattern

 With the help of this pattern, either you can decompose an application based on business capability or on
based on the sub-domains.
 Though these patterns may sound feasible to you, they are not feasible for big monolithic applications.
 This is because of the fact that identifying sub-domains and business capabilities is not an easy task for
big applications.
THE MINI WEB SERVICE ARCHITECTURE
 In the mini web servers architecture, micro-services are nothing more than web servers that offer small
REST interfaces.
 Messages are HTTP requests and responses. Message content is JSON or XML documents, or simple
queries. This is a synchronous architecture.
 HTTP requests require a response. Each microservice needs to know the location of other services that it
wants to call.
 The standard solution is a service-discovery mechanism. To provide service discovery, you need to run a
service in your system that keeps a list of all microservices and their locations on the network.
 Each microservice must query the discovery service to find the services it wants to talk to.
 The Web Services Architecture consists of three distinct roles as given below :
1. Provider - The provider creates the web service and makes it available to client application who
want to use it.
2. Requestor - A requestor is a client application that needs to contact a web service. The client
application can be a .Net, Java, or any other language.
3. Broker - The broker is nothing but the application which provides access to the UDDI. The UDDI,
as discussed in the earlier topic enables the client application to locate the web service.
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 The diagram below showcases how the Service provider, the Service requestor and Service registry
interact with each other.

 Publish - A provider informs the broker (service registry) about the existence of the web service by
using the broker's publish interface to make the service accessible to clients
 Find - The requestor consults the broker to locate a published web service
 Bind - With the information it gained from the broker(service registry) about the web service, the
requestor is able to bind, or invoke, the web service.

MICROSERVICE DEPENDENCY TREE

 Microservices are dependent on each other by design, because each performs only a small part of the
work for any given HTTP request or other task in the system.
 In the point-to-point synchronous architecture, which we might call entry-level microservices, the
dependency tree can become difficult to manage as it grows.
Example:
 Viewing a newspaper article involves more activities than retrieving the article data and formatting it.
 Some of these activities are shown in figure:

 You probably have an active logged-in user, where the user can log out or choose to manage their
account. That suggests a microservice with responsibility for users.
 You’ll have an advertising service, because that’s part of the business model for the newspaper.
 The article-page service pulls in content from the adverts, user, and article services.
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 You need to send out all the requests at the same time and combine the responses once they come in.
 You need to develop some abstractions around message sending and receiving so that you can make the
transportation of messages between services uniform.
 The article-page service emits a message that announces the event that an article has been read, but
article-page doesn’t care how many people receive it or need a response.
 In this case, the analytics and recommend services don’t consume messages sent to them.

 As your system grows over time, the dependency tree of services also grows, both in breadth and depth.

CHALLENGES WITH MICROSERVICES

Design
 Compared to monolithic apps, organizations face increased complexity when designing microservices.
 Designing microservices requires creating them within a bounded context. Therefore, each microservice
should clarify, encapsulate, and define a specific responsibility.

Security
 Microservices are often deployed across multi-cloud environments, resulting in increased risk and loss of
control and visibility of application components—resulting in additional vulnerable points.

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 Due to its distributed framework, setting up access controls and administering secured authentication to
individual services poses not only a technical challenge but also increases the attack surface
substantially.

Testing:
 The testing phase of any software development lifecycle (SDLC) is increasingly complex for
microservices-based applications.

Increased operational complexity

 Each microservice’s team is usually tasked with deciding the technology to use and manage it.
 As each service should be deployed and operated independently, maintaining operations may open a can
of worms for those who are not prepared.

Communication
 Independently deployed microservices act as miniature standalone applications that communicate with
each other. To achieve this, you have to configure infrastructure layers that enable resource sharing
across services.

SOA VS MICROSERVICE

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 SOA MSA
Follows “share-as-much-as-possible” architecture Follows “share-as-little-as-possible” architecture
approach approach
Importance is on business functionality reuse Importance is on the concept of “bounded context”
They focus on people collaboration and freedom
They have common governance and standards
of other options
Uses Enterprise Service bus (ESB) for
Simple messaging system
communication

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 SOA MSA
They use lightweight protocols such
They support multiple message protocols
as HTTP/REST etc.
Single-threaded usually with the use of Event
Multi-threaded with more overheads to handle I/O
Loop features for non-locking I/O handling
Maximizes application service reusability Focuses on decoupling
Traditional Relational Databases are more often Modern Relational Databases are more often
used used
A systematic change requires modifying the monolith A systematic change is to create a new service
DevOps / Continuous Delivery is becoming popular,
Strong focus on DevOps / Continuous Delivery
but not yet mainstream

MICROSERVICE AND API

 Application Program Interface or most commonly known as APIs’ is a way through which you can make
sure two or more applications communicate with each other to process the client request.
 So, you can understand APIS’ as a point of contact, through which all the services communicate with
each other to process the client’s request and send the response.
 APIs’ are generally developed by using the RESTful style, and these methods are nothing but the
methods of HTTP.
HTTP Methods
 The methods associated with the HTTP actions are, as you can see in the below image:

 The above methods help us standardize a way in which actions will be performed on various applications
having different interfaces.
 Also, with the help of these methods, you as a developer can easily understand the inference of the
actions taken across the different interfaces.

Where are APIs’ used in Microservices?

 Consider a scenario, where you have built the above-considered e-commerce application using
Microservices.
 Then you will basically see three services, i.e. the customer service, cart service, and products service.
 Now, how do you think these services communicate with each other to process the client’s request?
 Well, that is through the APIs’. So, each of these microservices will have their own APIs’ to
communicate with the other services. Refer to the below image:

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 Now, even if one microservice, does not work, then the application will not go down. Instead, only that
particular feature will not be working, and once it starts working,
 APIs’ can process the request again and send the required response, back to the client.

Microservices vs API:

Microservices API
An architectural style through which, you can A set of procedures and functions which allow
build applications in the form of small the consumer to use the underlying service of
autonomous services. an application.

DEPLOYING AND MAINTAINING MICROSERVICES

 We are going to see how to deploy our node.js application as a set of interconnected services behind an
Application Load Balancer (ALB).
 Then, you will use the ALB to seamlessly shift traffic from the monolith to the microservices.

Architecture Overview
 This is the process that you will follow to stand up microservics and safely transition the application's
traffic away from the monolith.

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Deployed Monolith:
 This is the starting configuration. The monolithic node.js app running in a container on Amazon ECS.

Start Microservices
 Using the three container images you built and pushed to Amazon ECR in the previous module, you will
start up three microservices on your existing Amazon ECS cluster.

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Configure Target Groups
 Like in Module 2, you will add a target group for each service and update the ALB Rules to connect the
new microservices.

Switch Traffic & Shut Down Monolith

 By changing one rule in the ALB, you will start routing traffic to the running microservices. Once
everything is healthy, shut down the monolith.

REASON FOR HAVING DEVOPS

 The DevOps is the combination of two words, one is Development and other is Operations.

 The DevOps is a combination of two words, one is software Development, and second is Operations.
 This allows a single team to handle the entire application lifecycle, from development to testing,
deployment, and operations.
 DevOps helps you to reduce the disconnection between software developers, quality assurance (QA)
engineers, and system administrators.

 DevOps promotes collaboration between Development and Operations team to deploy code to
production faster in an automated & repeatable way.

How DevOps Help?

1. Predictability: DevOps offers significantly lower failure rate of new releases
2. Reproducibility: Version everything so that earlier version can be restored anytime.
3. Maintainability: Effortless process of recovery in the event of a new release crashing or disabling
the current system.
4. Time to market: DevOps reduces the time to market up to 50% through streamlined software
delivery. This is particularly the case for digital and mobile applications.
5. Greater Quality: DevOps helps the team to provide improved quality of application development as
it incorporates infrastructure issues.
6. Reduced Risk: DevOps incorporates security aspects in the software delivery lifecycle. It helps in
reduction of defects across the lifecycle.
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 7. Resiliency: The Operational state of the software system is more stable, secure, and changes are
auditable.
8. Cost Efficiency: DevOps offers cost efficiency in the software development process which is always
an aspiration of IT companies' management.
9. Breaks larger code base into small pieces: DevOps is based on the agile programming method.
Therefore, it allows breaking larger code bases into smaller and manageable chunks.

OVERVIEW OF DEVOPS
Key Features
 Here are some key features of DevOps architecture, such as:

Automation
 Automation can reduce time consumption, especially during the testing and deployment phase.
 The productivity increases, and releases are made quicker by automation. This will lead in catching bugs
quickly so that it can be fixed easily.

Collaboration
 The Development and Operations team collaborates as a DevOps team, which improves the cultural
model as the teams become more productive with their productivity, which strengthens accountability
and ownership.
 The teams share their responsibilities and work closely in sync, which in turn makes the deployment to
production faster.

Integration
 Applications need to be integrated with other components in the environment.
 The integration phase is where the existing code is combined with new functionality and then tested.

Configuration management
 It ensures the application to interact with only those resources that are concerned with the environment
in which it runs. T
 he configuration files are not created where the external configuration to the application is separated
from the source code.
Advantages
1. DevOps is an excellent approach for quick development and deployment of applications.
2. It responds faster to the market changes to improve business growth.
3. DevOps escalate business profit by decreasing software delivery time and transportation costs.
4. DevOps clears the descriptive process, which gives clarity on product development and delivery.
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 5. It improves customer experience and satisfaction.
6. DevOps simplifies collaboration and places all tools in the cloud for customers to access.
7. DevOps means collective responsibility, which leads to better team engagement and productivity.

Disadvantages
1. DevOps professional or expert's developers are less available.
2. Developing with DevOps is so expensive.
3. Adopting new DevOps technology into the industries is hard to manage in short time.
4. Lack of DevOps knowledge can be a problem in the continuous integration of automation projects.

HISTORY OF DEVOPS
 In 2009, the first conference named DevOpsdays was held in Ghent Belgium. Belgian consultant and
Patrick Debois founded the conference.
 In 2012, the state of DevOps report was launched and conceived by Alanna Brown at Puppet.
 In 2014, the annual State of DevOps report was published by Nicole Forsgren, Jez Humble, Gene Kim,
and others. They found DevOps adoption was accelerating in 2014 also.
 In 2015, Nicole Forsgren, Gene Kim, and Jez Humble founded DORA (DevOps Research and
Assignment).
 In 2017, Nicole Forsgren, Gene Kim, and Jez Humble published "Accelerate: Building and Scaling High
Performing Technology Organizations".

CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY IN DEVOPS

 The main principles of DevOps are Continuous delivery, automation, and fast reaction to the feedback.
1. End to End Responsibility: DevOps team need to provide performance support until they become
the end of life. It enhances the responsibility and the quality of the products engineered.
2. Continuous Improvement: DevOps culture focuses on continuous improvement to minimize waste.
It continuously speeds up the growth of products or services offered.
3. Automate Everything: Automation is an essential principle of the DevOps process. This is for
software development and also for the entire infrastructure landscape.
4. Custom Centric Action: DevOps team must take customer-centric for that they should continuously
invest in products and services.
5. Monitor and test everything: The DevOps team needs to have robust monitoring and testing
procedures.
6. Work as one team: In the DevOps culture role of the designers, developers, and testers are already
defined. All they needed to do is work as one team with complete collaboration.

CORE ELEMENTS OF DEVOPS

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Java Try Catch

Build
 Without DevOps, the cost of the consumption of the resources was evaluated based on the pre-defined
individual usage with fixed hardware allocation.

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 And with DevOps, the usage of cloud, sharing of resources comes into the picture, and the build is
dependent upon the user's need, which is a mechanism to control the usage of resources or capacity.

Code:
 Many good practices such as Git enables the code to be used, which ensures writing the code for
business, helps to track changes, getting notified about the reason behind the difference in the actual and
the expected output, and if necessary reverting to the original code developed.

Test
 The application will be ready for production after testing.
 In the case of manual testing, it consumes more time in testing and moving the code to the output.
 The testing can be automated, which decreases the time for testing so that the time to deploy the code to
production can be reduced as automating the running of the scripts will remove many manual steps.

Plan
 DevOps use Agile methodology to plan the development. With the operations and development team in
sync, it helps in organizing the work to plan accordingly to increase productivity.

Monitor
 Continuous monitoring is used to identify any risk of failure. Also, it helps in tracking the system
accurately so that the health of the application can be checked.
 The monitoring becomes more comfortable with services where the log data may get monitored through
many third-party tools such as Splunk.

Deploy
 Many systems can support the scheduler for automated deployment.
 The cloud management platform enables users to capture accurate insights and view the optimization
scenario, analytics on trends by the deployment of dashboards.

Operate
 DevOps changes the way traditional approach of developing and testing separately.
 The operation team interacts with developers, and they come up with a monitoring plan which serves the
IT and business requirements.

Release
 Deployment to an environment can be done by automation. But when the deployment is made to the
production environment, it is done by manual triggering.
 Many processes involved in release management commonly used to do the deployment in the production
environment manually to lessen the impact on the customers.

LIFE CYCLE OF DEVOPS

 DevOps defines an agile relationship between operations and Development.
 It is a process that is practiced by the development team and operational engineers together from
beginning to the final stage of the product.

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Continuous Development
 This phase involves the planning and coding of the software. The vision of the project is decided during
the planning phase.
 And the developers begin developing the code for the application. There are no DevOps tools that are
required for planning, but there are several tools for maintaining the code.

Continuous Integration
 This stage is the heart of the entire DevOps lifecycle. It is a software development practice in which the
developers require to commit changes to the source code more frequently.
 Then every commit is built, and this allows early detection of problems if they are present.
 Building code is not only involved compilation, but it also includes unit testing, integration testing,
code review, and packaging.
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Continuous Testing
 This phase, where the developed software is continuously testing for bugs.
 For constant testing, automation testing tools such as TestNG, JUnit, Selenium, etc are used.
 These tools allow QAs to test multiple code-bases thoroughly in parallel to ensure that there is no flaw in
the functionality. I
 n this phase, Docker Containers can be used for simulating the test environment.

 Selenium does the automation testing, and TestNG generates the reports. This entire testing phase can
automate with the help of a Continuous Integration tool called Jenkins.

Continuous Monitoring
 Monitoring is a phase that involves all the operational factors of the entire DevOps process, where
important information about the use of the software is recorded and carefully processed to find out trends
and identify problem areas.
 Usually, the monitoring is integrated within the operational capabilities of the software application.

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Continuous Feedback
 The application development is consistently improved by analyzing the results from the operations of the
software.
 This is carried out by placing the critical phase of constant feedback between the operations and the
development of the next version of the current software application.

Continuous Deployment
 In this phase, the code is deployed to the production servers. Also, it is essential to ensure that the code
is correctly used on all the servers.

 The new code is deployed continuously, and configuration management tools play an essential role in
executing tasks frequently and quickly.
 Here are some popular tools which are used in this phase, such as Chef, Puppet, Ansible,
and SaltStack.

Continuous Operations
 All DevOps operations are based on the continuity with complete automation of the release process and
allow the organization to accelerate the overall time to market continuingly.

ADOPTION OF DEVOPS
People in DevOps
DevOps Culture:

DevOps is a cultural movement; it’s all about people. An organization may adopt the most efficient
processes or automated tools possible, but they’re useless without the people who eventually must execute
those processes and use those tools. Building a DevOps culture, therefore, is at the core of DevOps adoption.

Building a DevOps culture requires the leaders of the organization to work with their teams to create an
environment and culture of collaboration and sharing.
DevOps team

The arguments for and against having a separate DevOps team are as old as the concept itself. Some
organizations, such as Netflix, don’t have separate development and operations teams; instead, a single
“NoOps” team owns both sets of responsibilities. Other organizations have succeeded with DevOps liaison
teams, which resolve any conflicts and promote collaboration. Such a team may be an existing tools group
or process group, or it may be a new team staffed by representatives of all teams that have a stake in the
application being delivered.

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 If you choose to have a DevOps team, your most important goal is to ensure that it functions as a center of
excellence that facilitates collaboration without adding a new layer of bureaucracy or becoming the team
that owns addressing all DevOps related problems — a development that would defeat the purpose of
adopting a DevOps culture.

DEVOPS TOOLS
 Here are some most popular DevOps tools with brief explanation shown in the below image, such as:

Puppet
 Puppet is the most widely used DevOps tool. It allows the delivery and release of the technology
changes quickly and frequently.
 Features
1. Real-time context-aware reporting.
2. Model and manage the entire environment.
3. It eliminates manual work for the software delivery process.
4. It helps the developer to deliver great software quickly.

Ansible
 Ansible is a leading DevOps tool. Ansible is an open-source IT engine that automates application
deployment, cloud provisioning, intra service orchestration, and other IT tools.
 It makes it easier for DevOps teams to scale automation and speed up productivity.
 Features
1. It is easy to use to open source deploy applications.
2. It helps in avoiding complexity in the software development process.
3. It eliminates repetitive tasks.
4. It manages complex deployments and speeds up the development process.

Docker
 Docker is a high-end DevOps tool that allows building, ship, and run distributed applications on multiple
systems.
 It also helps to assemble the apps quickly from the components, and it is typically suitable for container
management.
 Features
 It configures the system more comfortable and faster.
 It increases productivity.
 It provides containers that are used to run the application in an isolated environment.
 It routes the incoming request for published ports on available nodes to an active container. This
feature enables the connection even if there is no task running on the node.
 It allows saving secrets into the swarm itself.

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Nagios
 Nagios is one of the more useful tools for DevOps. It can determine the errors and rectify them with the
help of network, infrastructure, server, and log monitoring systems.
 Features
 It provides complete monitoring of desktop and server operating systems.
 The network analyzer helps to identify bottlenecks and optimize bandwidth utilization.
 It helps to monitor components such as services, application, OS, and network protocol.
 It also provides to complete monitoring of Java Management Extensions.

CHEF
 A chef is a useful tool for achieving scale, speed, and consistency. The chef is a cloud-based system and
open source technology.
 Chef has got its convention for different building blocks, which are required to manage and automate
infrastructure.
 Features
 It maintains high availability.
 It can manage multiple cloud environments.
 It uses popular Ruby language to create a domain-specific language.
 The chef does not make any assumptions about the current status of the node. It uses its mechanism
to get the current state of the machine.

Jenkins
 Jenkins is a DevOps tool for monitoring the execution of repeated tasks. Jenkins is a software that allows
continuous integration.
 It helps to integrate project changes more efficiently by finding the issues quickly.
 Features
 Jenkins increases the scale of automation.
 It can easily set up and configure via a web interface.
 It supports continuous integration and continuous delivery.
 It requires little maintenance and has a built-in GUI tool for easy updates.

Git
 Git is an open-source distributed version control system that is freely available for everyone.
 It is designed to handle minor to major projects with speed and efficiency. It is developed to co-ordinate
the work among programmers.
 Features
 It is a free open source tool.
 It allows distributed development.
 It supports the pull request.
 It enables a faster release cycle.
 Git is very scalable.
 It is very secure and completes the tasks very fast.

SALTSTACK
 Stackify is a lightweight DevOps tool. It shows real-time error queries, logs, and more directly into the
workstation.
 SALTSTACK is an ideal solution for intelligent orchestration for the software-defined data center.
 Features
 It eliminates messy configuration or data changes.
 It can trace detail of all the types of the web request.
 It allows us to find and fix the bugs before production.
 It provides secure access and configures image caches.

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Splunk
 Splunk is a tool to make machine data usable, accessible, and valuable to everyone. It delivers
operational intelligence to DevOps teams.
 It helps companies to be more secure, productive, and competitive.
 Features
 It has the next-generation monitoring and analytics solution.
 It delivers a single, unified view of different IT services.
 Extend the Splunk platform with purpose-built solutions for security.
 Data drive analytics with actionable insight.

Selenium
 Selenium is a portable software testing framework for web applications. It provides an easy interface for
developing automated tests.
 Features
 It is a free open source tool.
 It supports multiplatform for testing, such as Android and ios.
 It is easy to build a keyword-driven framework for a WebDriver.
 It creates robust browser-based regression automation suites and tests.

BUILD, PROMOTION AND DEPLOYMENT IN DEVOPS

Build
 Without DevOps, the cost of the consumption of the resources was evaluated based on the pre-defined
individual usage with fixed hardware allocation.
 And with DevOps, the usage of cloud, sharing of resources comes into the picture, and the build is
dependent upon the user's need, which is a mechanism to control the usage of resources or capacity.

Code:
 Many good practices such as Git enables the code to be used, which ensures writing the code for
business, helps to track changes, getting notified about the reason behind the difference in the actual and
the expected output, and if necessary reverting to the original code developed.

Test
 The application will be ready for production after testing.
 In the case of manual testing, it consumes more time in testing and moving the code to the output.
 The testing can be automated, which decreases the time for testing so that the time to deploy the code to
production can be reduced as automating the running of the scripts will remove many manual steps.

Plan
 DevOps use Agile methodology to plan the development. With the operations and development team in
sync, it helps in organizing the work to plan accordingly to increase productivity.

Monitor
 Continuous monitoring is used to identify any risk of failure. Also, it helps in tracking the system
accurately so that the health of the application can be checked.
 The monitoring becomes more comfortable with services where the log data may get monitored through
many third-party tools such as Splunk.

Deploy
 Many systems can support the scheduler for automated deployment.
 The cloud management platform enables users to capture accurate insights and view the optimization
scenario, analytics on trends by the deployment of dashboards.

Operate
 DevOps changes the way traditional approach of developing and testing separately.
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 The operation team interacts with developers, and they come up with a monitoring plan which serves the
IT and business requirements.

Release
 Deployment to an environment can be done by automation. But when the deployment is made to the
production environment, it is done by manual triggering.
 Many processes involved in release management commonly used to do the deployment in the production
environment manually to lessen the impact on the customers.

DEVOPS IN BUSINESS ENTERPRISES

 First, let’s define what we mean by Enterprise. We’re not using this as a catch-all phrase to talk about all
businesses; when we say “enterprise” we mean it.
 These are companies like international banks moving billions a day or massive retailers tracking
inventory in the hundreds of billions.
 In these environments, a good metaphor to describe the difference between Development and Operations
is a satellite.
 Development groups are busy manufacturing satellites in a hangar while operations is responsible for
maintaining these systems in orbit.
 Change Control – There is a change control process for a release and it needs to be completed for
every change, no matter how small.
 Approval Gates – The DevOps promise of self-service deployments driven by development on-
demand may be impossible. There is a release team.
 Massive Environments – If your software deals with billions of transactions or customers, it is very
likely that your environments are similarly massive and likely not amenable to rapid automation
with tools like Chef and Puppet.
 Orchestration with Multiple Groups – Large organizations tend to have releases across multiple
departments at the same time.

Scaling DevOps to the Enterprise

 DevOps and Change Management – Someone practicing continuous deployment may view a tool like
BMC Remedy as a waste of time, but to an application support team or a network operations center, this
information is critical.
 DevOps and Approval Gates – Application teams should be able to automate and control deploys
without lengthy delays and process, but at a large organization developing high-risk
software, governance gates are there for a good reason.
 DevOps and Non-automated Environments – Developers can be given the reigns to spin up and spin
down cloud infrastructure, but the organization is often resource constrained for infrastructure and it can
take days to prepare and qualify a new environment.
 DevOps and Orchestration – DevOps emphasizes single-team efficiency from a developer’s
perspective, but it doesn’t account for some of the cross-team orchestration challenges that happen with
the largest software releases.

Enterprise DevOps Strategy

 Yes, DevOps is about automation and technology, but it’s mostly about communication. It’s about
making communication between development and operations non-adversarial and less formal.
 Enterprise DevOps is a bit different. You can think of Enterprise DevOps as “DevOps when your IT
department is still focused on ITSM and ITIL.”
 Enterprise DevOps shifts some of the infrastructure automation requirements out of the Dev side of
DevOps and into the Ops side of DevOps.

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