General Knowledge & General Awareness 37

GENERAL SCIENCE

PHYSICS

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES  The motion of a car on a road is translational whereas the

 Physical quantities may be divided in two classes: motion of a top, spinning on its axis is rotational.
1. Scalar Quantities 2. Vector Quantities
SPEED
 A scalar quantity is one which has only magnitude.
 It is a scalar form of velocity and is defined as the distance
 A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction.
travelled in one second.
 Force, Velocity, Momentum, Acceleration are examples of
vector quantities. distance travelled
 Speed =
 Mass, length, time, volume, speed, energy, work are time required
examples of scalar quantities.  SI unit of speed is m/s.
UNITS VELOCITY
 All measurements in physics require standard units.
 The distance covered by an object in a specified direction
 In 1960, the General Conference of Weights and Measures
in unit time interval is called velocity.
recommended that a metric system of measurements called
the International System of Units, abbreviated as SI units,  The SI unit of velocity is m/s.
be used.  Velocity is a vector quantity.

Some Important Units ACCELERATION

 The velocity of a body changes due to change in its
S.No. Units Quantity
speed or direction or both. The rate of change of the
1. Metre Length velocity of a body is called its acceleration.
2. Kilogram Mass
3. Second Time change in velocity
 Acceleration =
4. Ampere Electric Current time taken
5. Candela Luminous Intensity
6. Newton Force
FORCE AND MOTION
7. Joule Workdone
8. Watt Power GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
9. Coulomb Electric Charge
 It is the force of attraction between two masses.
10. Volt Potential Difference
11. Ohm Electrical Resistance  It is gravitational force that holds the moon in its orbit
12. Farad Capacitance round the earth and the earth in its orbit round the sun.
13. Henry Inductance  Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation states that every
14. Lumen Luminous Flux particle in the universe attracts every other particle with
 Very small distances are measured in micro-meters or a force that is directly proportional to the product of their
(microns) (µm), angstroms (Å), nanometers (nm) and masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
femtometres (fm). distance between them.
 The value of G is 6.67 × 10–11 SI units.
MOTION
 When a body changes its position with respect to something CENTRIPETAL FORCE
else as time goes on, we say the body is in motion.  The force acting towards the centre on a particle executing
 There are two types of motion—translational (linear) and uniform circular motion is called centripetal force and is
rotational (spin). given by
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mv
2 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
F
r First Law
where, m = Mass of the object
 Every object continues in its state of rest or of uniform
v = Speed
motion in a straight line if no net force acts upon it. It is
r = Radius of the Circular Path also known as law of inertia.
 In case of the moon, gravitational force between the earth  Examples: 1. An unwary passenger in a fast-moving bus
and the moon acts as the centripetal force. falls forward when it stops suddenly. This happens because
 Centripetal force always acts on the particle performing the feet of the passenger come to rest suddenly whereas
circular motion. his upper part of body continues to be in motion. 2. A
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE person getting down from a moving bus has to run some
distance, in the direction of the bus, before stopping. If
 The pseudo force that balances the centripetal force in
he does not run he is bound to fall because his feet come
uniform circular motion is called centrifugal force.
to rest whereas his body continues to be in motion.
 Centrifugal force is directed away from the centre along
the radius. Momentum
 The centrifugal force is zero exactly at the poles and  The momentum of a body is defined as the product of its
maximum at the equator. mass and velocity.
WEIGHT Second Law
 The weight of a body is the force with which the earth
 This law states that “the rate of change of momentum of
attracts the body towards its centre.
a body is proportional to the applied force and takes
 The mass of a body is a constant quantity whereas its place in the direction of the force.”
weight varies slightly from place-to-place on the earth.
 If we express force (F) in Newtons, mass (m) in kilograms
 The weight of a body is maximum at the poles and and acceleration (a) in metres per second squared, we can
minimum at the equator. This variation in weight is due
write the second law as; F = ma.
to:
 In travelling the same distance, a car consumes more fuel
1. the shape of the earth.
on a crowded road than on a free road. This happens
2. the rotation of the earth about its axis. because the car has to stop and start quite often on a
 The weight of an object is less at high elevations than at crowded road. The repeated acceleration requires a force
sea level. (second law), which ultimately comes from the fuel. On
 At the centre of the earth, the weight of a body would be a free road the car runs at almost uniform speed requiring
zero. fewer accelerations and hence less fuel consumption.
 On the surface of the moon the value of the acceleration
Third Law
due to gravity is nearly one-sixth of that on earth and,
therefore, an object on the moon would weigh only one-  This law states that “to every action there is an equal and
sixth its weight on the earth. The mass of an object on the opposite reaction.”
moon would be the same as on earth.  When a bullet is fired from a gun, equal and opposite
 The weight of a body would be more if the earth stopped forces are exerted on the bullet and the gun.
rotating. Conversely, if the speed of rotation were higher,  The engine in a jet aeroplane works on the same principle
the weight would be less. as a rocket but there is a difference in the method of
 A person weighs more in a lift, which is accelerating upward. obtaining the high velocity as jet.
 An astronaut feels weightless in a spaceship because he
IMPULSE
is not pushing against anything.
 If a force acts on a body for a very short time, then the
FRICTION product of force and time is called the impulse.
 Friction is the force which opposes the relative motion of Impulse= Change in momentum
two surfaces in contact. = Force × Time
 It is friction between the ground and the soles of our
shoes that makes walking possible and it is lack of friction Application of Impulse
that makes our feet slip on highly polished surfaces. 1. A cricket player draws his hand back while catching.
 Friction in machines wastes energy and also causes wear 2. A person jumping on hard cement floor receives more
and tear. This friction is reduced by using (1) lubricants, injuries than a person jumping on muddy or sandy
and (2) ball bearings. floor.
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 Racing cars are build low and with wide wheel bases to
WORK, POWER AND ENERGY reduce the risk of overturning at sharp bends.
WORK  While crossing a river in a boat, passengers are not allowed
 Whenever a force acting on a body displaces it, work is to stand. This keeps the CG of the system (boat and
said to be done. passengers) low and ensures stability.
Work = Force × Distance moved in the direction of force. ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES
 Work is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is Joule (J).  In the case of a satellite, the centripetal force is provided
POWER by the gravitational pull of the earth.
 Power is defined as the rate of doing work.  If the speed of a satellite is more than 11.2 km/s or 25,000
miles/hour, the satellite would escape the earth entirely
Work done and would never come back. This is called escape velocity.
Power =
Time taken  The existence of gaseous atmosphere on the earth is due
 The SI unit of power is Watt (W) and is also measured in to the high value of its escape velocity.
horse power.
Geostationary Satellites
1 HP = 746 W
 Geostationary satellites are stationary with respect to an
ENERGY observer on the earth. Their time period is 24-hour. There
 Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. height above the surface of earth is 36,000 km. They are
always in equatorial plane and their orbits are circular.
Kinetic Energy They are also called parking orbits.
 The energy possessed by an object due to its motion is
called kinetic energy and is described by the expression DENSITY AND RELATIVE DENSITY
1 2 DENSITY
KE = mv ; where, m = mass of the object
2  The mass per unit volume of a substance is called its
v = speed density.

Potential Energy Mass

Density =
 Potential energy is the energy possessed by the body by Volume
virtue of its position, configuration or any condition of  The SI unit of density is kilogram per metre cubed
stress or strain. (kg/m3).
 There are many examples of potential energy. A stone  The relative density of a substance is the ratio of the
held at some height above the ground has potential energy. density of the substance to the density of water.
Water in an elevated reservoir possesses potential energy.  Relative density has no unit.
Transformation of Energy PRESSURE
S.No. Equipment Transformation  Pressure is defined as force acting per unit area.
1. Dynamo Mechanical energy into electrical Force
energy Pressure =
Area
2. Microphone Sound energy into electrical
 The SI unit of pressure is newton per metre squared or
energy
pascal.
3. Loud Speaker Electrical energy into sound
energy  Broad wooden sleepers are placed below the rails to reduce
4. Electric Bulb Electrical energy into light and the pressure exerted by the weight of a train.
heat energy  The pressure of water increases with depth, therefore
5. Battery Chemical energy into electrical bottom of a dam is made much thicken than the top.
energy  The pressure exerted on an enclosed liquid at one place
6. Electrical Motor Ele ctrical energy into is transmitted equally throughout the liquid. This is called
mechanical energy Pascal’s Principle.
 Hydraulic presses, hydraulic brakes, hydraulic door
CENTRE OF GRAVITY closers, etc. are applications of the Pascal’s Principle.
 The centre of gravity of a body is the point where the  At high attitudes where atmosphere pressure is less nose
whole weight of the body can be considered to act. bleeding may occur due to the greater pressure of blood.
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 In an aircraft flying at high altitude, normal atmospheric  The melted wax of a candle is drawn up into the wick by
pressure is maintained by the use of air pumps. If this capillary action. Oil rises up a lamp wick for the same
were not done, the crew and passengers would experience reason.
difficulty in breathing and consequently face dangers.  If one end of a sugar cube is dipped into tea, the entire
 Atmospheric pressure is measured with an instrument cube is quickly wet on account of capillary action.
called the Barometer.
VISCOSITY
ARCHIMEDE’S PRINCIPLE  The force which opposes the relative motion between
 This principle states that when a body is wholly or partially different layers of liquid or gases is called viscous force.
immersed in a fluid, it experiences an upthrust (upward  Viscosity is the property of liquids and gases both.
force) equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.
 An iron nail sinks in water whereas a ship made of iron BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
and steel floats. This is due to the fact that a ship is  According to Bernoulli’s theorem, in case of streamline
hollow and contains air and, therefore, its density is less flow of incompressible and non-viscous fluid (ideal fluid)
than that of water. through a tube, total energy (sum of pressure energy,
 The density of sea water is more than that of river water, potential energy and kinetic energy) per unit volume of
due to this a ship sinks less in sea water. It is for this fluid is same at all points.
reason that a ship rises a little when it enters a sea from 1. When a bowler spins a ball, it changes its direction
a river. (swings) in the air due to unequal pressure acting on it.
 It is because of the higher density of sea water that it is
easier to swim in the sea. HEAT
 A balloon filled with a light gas, such as hydrogen, rises  Heat is that form of energy which flows from one body
because the average density of the balloon and the gas is to other body due to difference in temperature between
less than that of air. The balloon cannot rise indefinitely the bodies. The amount of heat contained in a body
because the density of the air decreases with increasing depends upon the mass of the body.
altitude. At a certain height, where the density of air is
equal to the average density of the balloon, it ceases to TEMPERATURE
rise and drifts sideways with the wind.  The temperature of a body is the quantity that tells how
 When an ice block floats in water the water level will hot or cold it is with respect to some standard body.
remain the same when all the ice melts into water. MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE
 A hydrometer is an instrument used for measuring the  Temperature is measured by a thermometer.
relative density of liquids.
 A thermometer may be graduated in following scales—
 A special type of a hydrometer called Lactometer is used
1. The upper and lower points of centigrade scale are
for testing milk by measuring its density.
100°C and 0°C.
SURFACE TENSION 2. The upper and lower points of Fahrenheit scale are
 Surface tension is that property of liquids owing to which 212°F and 32°F.
they tend to acquire minimum surface area. 3. The upper and lower points of Reaumur scale are 80°R
 Surface tension is caused by molecular attractions. and 0°R.
 When a paint brush is dipped in water all its hair spread 4. The upper and lower points of Kelvin scale are 373K
out but when it is taken out it is covered with a thin film and 273K.
of water which contracts due to surface tension and pulls 5. The upper and lower points of Rankine scale are 672°
the hair together. Ra and 460° Ra.
 Liquid drops, such as raindrops, oildrops, drops of molten  At –40 degrees both celsius and Fahrenheit scales will
metals, dewdrops etc. are all spherical because their surface show identical readings.
tend to contract in order to have minimum surface area.  Water cannot be used in a thermometer becaues it freezes
For a given volume, a sphere has the minimum surface at 0°C and also because of its irregular expansion.
area.
THERMAL EXPANSION
 Soaps and detergents lower the surface tension of water.
This increases the wetting power of water or its ability to  Solids, liquids and gases generally expand when heated
detach dirt particles from clothes and untensils. and contract when cooled.
 The force of attraction between unlike molecules is called  Gaps have to be left in railway tracks to make allowance
adhesion and that between like molecules cohesion. for expansion, otherwise the rails will buckle. Allowance
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is made for the expansion of long steel bridges. One end  When sweat evaporates from the skin it draws much heat
of such bridge is fixed while the other rests on rollers. from the body and produces a cooling sensation.
 Telephone wires sag more in summer than in winter due  In summer, water is stored in pitchers for cooling. Water
to thermal expansion. oozes out of the pores of the pitchers and cools on
evaporation.
EXPANSION OF WATER
 The rate of evaporation increases with increase in
 Water has its minimum volume and maximum density at temperature.
4°C.
REFRIGERATOR
TRANSMISSION OF HEAT
 In a refrigerator, cooling is produced by the evaporation
 There are three ways of heat transm ission: of a volatile liquid, freon, inside a copper coil (evaporator),
1. Conduction; 2. Convection; 3. Radiation. which surrounds the freezer.
Conduction  The cooling unit (freezer) in a refrigerator is fitted near
the top to cool the whole of the interior.
 In this process, heat is transferred from one place to other
place by the successive vibration of the particles of the RELATIVE HUMIDITY
medium without bodily movement of the particles of the  Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the mass of
medium. water vapour in a given volume of air to the mass required
 Conduction takes place mainly in solids. for saturating the same volume of air at the same
 Air is a very bad conductor of heat. The good insulating temperature.
properties of wool, cotton, etc. are mainly due to the air  Relative humidity is measured with an instrument called
spaces they contain. the hygrometer.

Convection PRESSURE COOKER

 In this process, heat is transferred by the actual movement  The boiling point of a liquid depends on external pressure.
of particles of the medium from one place to other place.  When the atmospheric pressure is 76 cm of mercury, water
 In liquids and gases heat is transmitted by convection. boils at 100°C. But when the pressure is increased, the
boiling point of water is raised.
Radiation  In a pressure cooker, water boils at temperatures higher
 In this mode of heat transmission heat is transferred from than 100°C due to increased pressure. The increased boiling
one place to another without effecting the intervening temperature allows water to hold more heat which cooks
medium. food faster.
 At higher altitudes, atmospheric pressure is reduced. This
HEAT CAPACITY lowers the boiling point of water and food takes much
 The heat capacity of a body is defined as the heat required longer to cook.
to raise the temperature of the body by 1K. Its SI unit is
J/K. WAVE MOTION
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY  Wave motion may be defined as the transfer of energy
 The specific heat capacity of a substance is the heat without the net transfer of matter.
required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the  If the particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the
substance by 1K. direction of propagation of wave, the wave is called
 Its SI unit is J/kg K. transverse wave.
 It is because of its high specific heat capacity that water  Light waves are transverse waves.
is used as a cooling liquid in car engine.  If the particles of the medium vibrate in the direction of
propagation of wave, the wave is called longitudinal
LATENT HEAT wave.
 It is defined as the amount of heat absorbed or given out  Sound waves are longitudinal waves.
by a body during the change of state.
 Each gram of ice that melts absorbs 336 J of heat. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
 Electromagnetic waves include an enormous range of
EVAPORATION frequencies—from radio waves with frequencies less than
 Water can change into the vapour state either by boiling 105 Hz to gamma rays having frequencies greater than
or by evaporation at lower temperatures. 1020 Hz.
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 All electromagnetic wave have the same speed (3 × 108  Small concave mirrors are used by dentists for examining
m/s) in vacuum. The relation v = n holds good for all teeth.
electromagnetic waves.  Concave parabolic mirrors are used in searchlight and
RADIO AND TELEVISION TRANSMISSION headlamps of cars.
 Radio waves sent out by radio stations are reflected by  Convex mirrors are also used as rear view mirrors in
the ionosphere and can be received anywhere on the vehicles.
earth. REFRACTION
 At night the radio reception improves because the layers
 When a ray of light passes from one medium to other it
of the ionosphere are not exposed to sunlight and are
suffers a change in direction at the boundary of separation
more settled.
of two media. This phenomenon is called refraction.
 Radar (Radio detection and ranging) employs high
 When a ray passes from one medium to another optically
frequency radio waves for detecting objects like ships
denser medium, e.g., from air to water or glass, it bends
and aeroplanes.
towards the normal. Conversely, a ray passing from water
 In microwave oven, when the waves fall on the food,
or glass into air is bent away from the normal.
these are absorbed by water, fats, sugars and certain other
molecules whose consequent vibrations produce heat.  Rivers appear shallow, coin in a beaker filled with water
Since heating occurs inside the food, without warming appears raised, due to refraction.
the surrounding air, the cooking time is greatly reduced.  Another effect of refraction is the apparent upward bending
 In microwave oven, food cannot be cooked in metal of the immersed portion of a stick when dipped in water.
vessels because the metal blocks out the microwaves.  It is due to refraction, produced by the earth’s atmosphere,
that the sun is visible for several minutes after it has set
LIGHT below the horizon. Thus, atmospheric refraction tends to
lengthen the day.
 Light is a form of energy which is propagated as
electromagnetic waves.  When the sun (or moon) is near the horizon, it appears
elliptical, i.e., with the vertical diameter less than the
 Light is a transverse wave.
horizontal diameter. This happens because rays from the
 Speed of light in vacuum is 3 × 108 m/s. lower edge of the sun are bent more than those from the
 Light takes 8 minute 16.6 second to reach from sun to upper edge (Atmospheric Refraction).
earth.
 One of the most interesting effects of atmospheric refraction
REFLECTION and Mirage is a combined effect of atmospheric refraction
 When light is incident upon a surface, part of it is reflected. and total internal reflection.
But certain surfaces like mirrors and polished metals reflect DISPERSION
almost all the light incident upon them.
 White light consists of seven colours—violet, indigo,
 The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence is
blue, green, yellow, orange and red. These colours are
equal to the angle of reflection.
called the spectrum of the white light.
 To see full image in a plane mirror, a person requires a
 Violet has the minimum wavelength (or maximum
mirror of at least half of his height.
frequency) and red the maximum wavelength (or minimum
INCLINED MIRROR (NO. OF IMAGES) frequency).
 When an object is placed between two inclined mirrors,  Due to different speeds, the colours are refracted through
several images of the object are formed. different angles and therefore, when a narrow beam of
white light passes through a glass prism, it is split up into
CURVED MIRRORS its constituent colours. This separation of light into
 There are two types of curved spherical mirrors—1. colours is called dispersion.
Concave Mirror, 2. Convex Mirror.
 Concave mirror can concentrate the sun’s radiation falling COLOUR OF OBJECTS
on it at one point, it can be used as a burning glass.  We see objects because of the light they reflect.
 Concave mirrors are also used in solar cookers.  When a rose is viewed in white light, its petals appear red
 Large concave mirrors are used in reflecting telescopes and the leaves appear green, because the petals reflect the
for observing and photographing distant stars and other red part of the white light and leaves reflect the green
heavenly bodies. part. The remaining colours are absorbed. When the same
 Concave mirror is also used as a shaving or make-up mirror. rose is viewed in green light, the petals will appear black
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and the leaves green. In blue or yellow light both the reach an observer. Thus, at sunset, blue, green and other
petals and leaves will appear black. colours having been scattered only red and some orange
 Red, blue and green are primary colours. light reach us and the sun appears a deep orange-red.
 In outerspace, i.e., beyond the atmosphere, there is nothing
LENSES to scatter the sunlight and therefore the sky appears dark
 There are mainly two types of lenses: and stars are visible even in the presence of the sun.
1. Convex or Converging Lens
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
2. Concave or Diverging Lens
 The superposition of two (or more) waves of the same
 Converging or convex lens is used as a magnifying glass.
kind that pass the same point in space at the same time
 Power of a lens is its capacity to deviate a ray. Power of is called interference.
a lens is measured as the reciprocal of the focal length.
 Beautiful colours seen in soap bubbles and oil films on
1 water are produced due to the interference of white light
P=
f reflected by these surfaces.
 SI unit of power of lens is dioptre (D).  LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
 The power of a converging lens is positive and that of a Radiation) is an optical device which produces an intense
diverging lens is negative. beam of coherent monochromatic light.
 For all positions of the object, the images formed by  Examples of Interference of Light: Holography, Laser.
diverging (concave) lens are virtual, erect and diminished.
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
EYE
 When a beam of light passes through a narrow slit or an
 The light entering the eye is focused by the eye-lens to
aperture, it spreads out to a certain extent into the region
form an image on the retina.
of geometrical shadow. This is an example of diffraction,
 In front of the eye, lens is the coloured part of eye, called
i.e., of the failure of light to travel in a straight line.
the iris, which automatically adjusts the size of the pupil
to the intensity of light falling on it.
 In bright light the iris automatically shuts tighter, reducing SOUND
the amount of light entering the pupil. This protects the  Sound waves are longitudinal and cannot travel in
retina from getting damaged. vacuum. The transmission of sound requires a medium :
 When a person enters a dark room after being in bright air, liquid or solid.
light, he is not able to see clearly for a while because the
 The longitudinal mechanical waves which lie in the
iris is unable to dilate the pupil immediately.
frequency range 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz are called audible or
 Least distance of distinct vision is 25 cm. sound waves. These waves are sensitive to human ear.
DEFECTS OF VISION  The longitudinal mechanical waves having frequencies
 A person suffering from long sight (hyper-metropia) can less than 20 Hz are called Infrasonic. These waves are
clearly see objects at infinity but cannot see near objects produced by sources of bigger size such as earthquakes,
clearly. This defect is caused by the eyeball being too volcanic eruptions, ocean waves etc.
short and can be corrected by wearing converging lenses.  The longitudinal waves having frequencies greater than
 In the case of a person suffering from short sight (myopia), 20,000 Hz are called ultrasonic waves. Human ear cannot
the eye ball is too long and distant objects are focused detect these waves. But some animals such as cats, dogs,
in front of the retina. This defect can be corrected by bats can detect these waves.
wearing diverging lenses.
 Astigmatism: Curvature of cornea becomes irregular and PITCH
image is not clear. Cylindrical lens is used.  The pitch (shrillness of a sound) depends on its frequency.
SCATTERING OF LIGHT  A sound of higher frequency has a higher pitch.
 When light falls on atoms and molecules, it is scattered  The pitch of a woman’s voice is higher than that of a man.
in all directions.
LOUDNESS
 Scattering of light is maximum for violet colour and
minimum for red colour.  The relative loudness of a sound is measured in decibels
 Blue colour of sky is due to scattering of light. (db).
 In the evening, the sun is lower in the sky and its light  All stringed instruments, such as the violin, sitar, guitar,
has to traverse a longer path through the atmosphere to etc. have sound boxes attached to increase the loudness.
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SPEED OF SOUND SUPER CONDUCTORS

 The presence of water vapour in the air increases the  The resistance of metals to flow of electricity reduces
speed of sound. with decreasing temperature. At temperatures near absolute
 Sound travels faster through warm air than through cold zero, metals have almost zero resistance and became super
air. The speed of sound is higher on a hot day than on conductors.
a cold day.
SEMI-CONDUCTORS
 Thunder is heard much after the flash of lightning is seen
 Certain materials, such as silicon and germanium, have
because of the wide difference in the speeds of light and
electrical resistivity intermediate between those of
sound.
conductors and insulators. These materials are termed as
REFLECTION OF SOUND semi-conductors.
 When a sound wave is reflected by a distant obstacle,  Semi-conductors are good insulators in their pure
such as a wall or a cliff, an echo is heard. crystalline form but their conductivity increases when
 To hear echo, the minimum distance between the observer small amounts of impurities are added to them.
and reflector should be 17 m.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
 Exploration of underwater gas and oil is done by detecting
 Electric current is simply the flow of electric charge. In
the echoes of shock waves produced by explosions on the
solid conductors the flow of electrons and in fluids the
water surface.
flow of ions as well as electrons constitute the current.
 Bats emit ultrasonic waves of frequencies up to 80,000
 SI units of electric current is Ampere (A).
Hz and use the reflection of these waves (echoes) to
determine the presence and distance of objects on their ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
way and from them respectively.  When electric current flows through a conductor, e.g., a
DOPPLER EFFECT metallic wire, it offers some obstruction to the current.
This obstruction offered by the wire is called its electrical
 The Doppler effect is the change in frequency of a wave
resistance.
(sound or light) due to the motion of the source or
observer.  SI unit of Resistance is ohm.
 It is due to the Doppler effect that the whistle of a train OHM’S LAW
appears shriller when it approaches a listener than when  If physical conditions like temperature, intensity of light
it moves away from him. etc. remains unchanged then electric current flowing
through a conductor is directly proportional to the
ELECTRICITY potential difference across its ends.
 Electricity produced by friction between two dissimilar ELECTRIC MOTOR
objects is known as static electricity. Depending on the  In an electric motor, electrical energy is converted into
nature of the objects, one acquires a positive charge and mechanical energy.
the other an equal negative charge. For example, if a glass  Electric fans, mixers, washing machines, etc. work on
rod is rubbed with silk, the rod acquires positive charge electric motors.
and the silk an equal negative charge.
 Lightning is a gigantic electric discharge occurring INVERTER
between two charged clouds or between a charged cloud  An inverter is a device which converts DC to AC. The
and the earth. inverters used in homes and offices are specially designed
to:
CONDUCTOR 1. Convert DC from a battery to AC, and
 Conductors are those materials which allow electricity 2. Charge the battery.
(charge) to pass through themselves.
FUSE
 Metals conduct electricity because they have a large
 Electric fuse is a protective device used in series with an
number of conduction or free electrons.
electric appliance to save it from being damaged due to
INSULATORS high current.
 Insulators are those materials which do not allow  A fuse is a short piece of wire made of a tin-lead alloy,
electricity to flow through themselves. Insulators have no which has a low melting point.
free electrons.  Fuses are always connected in the live wire in series.
 45

COST OF ELECTRICITY ATOMIC ENERGY

 The consumption of electrical energy in a house is  India today ranks sixth in the atomic energy programmes.
measured in the unit kWh. It has developed the required know-how and expertise to
 Kilowatt hour is equal to the energy consumed in the manufacture nuclear weapons, but it believes in the
circuit at the rate of 1 kilowatt for 1 hour. peaceful uses of atomic power. The Atomic Energy
Commission was set-up in the country in 1948 under the
MAGNETISM Chairmanship of Dr. H. J. Bhabha.
 A magnet attracts and holds pieces of iron but does not  Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC): The Bhabha
attract pieces of copper. Atomic Research Centre at Trombay near Mumbai
 Iron, cobalt, nickel and certain alloys are strongly magnetic (Maharashtra) has four research reactors: (i) APSARA—
whereas copper, wood, glass, etc. are non-magnetic. It is the first atomic reactor in Asia; (ii) CIRUS—It is a
joint Indo-Canadian project; (iii) PURNIMA II—a zero
 Our earth behaves as a powerful magnet whose south pole
is near the geographical north pole and whose north pole energy fast reactor, and (iv) DHRUVA—a high power
is near the geographical south pole. completely indigenous nuclear research reactor with most
advanced laboratories in the world. Another fast breeder
reactor KAMINI at Kalpakkam has been constructed.
ATOMIC & NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Today India is the seventh country in the world and the
 Atom consists of three fundamental particles electron, first developing nation to have mastered the fast breeder
proton and neutron. All the protons and neutrons are reactor technology.
present in the central core of atom called nucleus. Electrons  Nuclear Power: Under Nuclear Power Corporation
revolve around the nucleus. of India Limited (NPCIL) there are seven nuclear
 The total number of protons in the nucleus is called power stations in operation in six States:
atomic number (Z). (i) Tarapur—Maharashtra, (ii) Rawatbhata —Rajasthan,
 The total number of proton and neutrons in the nucleus (iii) Kalpakkam—Tamil Nadu, (iv) Narora—U.P.,
is called mass number (A). (v) Kakrapara—Gujarat, (vi) Kaiga—Karnataka and
 Ernest Rutherford, discovered nucleus by the scattering (vii) Kudankulam—Tamil Nadu.
of -particles from gold foil.  Heavy Water: Heavy water is one of the essential input
RADIOACTIVITY for Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) used both
as a coolant and moderator. The first heavy water plant
 Henry Bacquerel (1896) observed that a photographic
was set-up in 1962 in Nangal. Subsequently 7 more plants
plate blackened, when placed near double sulphate of
have been set-up at (i) Baroda, (ii) Tuticorin, (iii) Kota,
potassium and uranium. He further observed that uranium
(iv) Talcher, (v) Thal, (vi) Hazira and (vii) Manuguru.
emitted special kind of rays. They were called Becqueral
rays.  Research and Development Centres: Four research centres
namely (i) Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay
 Pierre and Marie Curie observed that the radiation from
(Maharashtra), (ii) Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic
pitchblende was four times stronger than uranium. In
Research, Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), (iii) Centre for
1898, they finally discovered two new substances—
Advanced Technology, Indore (Madhya Pradesh),
Polonium and Radium. These newly discovered substances
(iv) Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre at Kolkata (West
were called radioactive substances and this property of
Bengal) are focal points of research and development
these substances was named radioactivity.
work in nuclear energy and related discipline.
 No radioactive substance emits both  and  particles
simultaneously.  India’s Nuclear Explosions: On May 18, 1974 India
conducted her first underground nuclear explosion at
X-RAYS Pokhran (Rajasthan) in the Thar desert, 20 km. away from
 X-rays are electromagnetic radiations having wavelength Jaisalmer, at a depth of more than 100 metres. The
from a fraction of an Angestrom to about 100Å. They successful explosion made India the sixth nuclear nation
were discovered by Rontgen during his studies on the in the world.
electrical discharge phenomena in gases—he found that  India conducted 5 nuclear explosion tests at Pokhran in
an unknown radiation was produced when electrons two phases on May 11 and May 13, 1998 and became a
collided with the walls of the tubes. nuclear power state.
46

IMPORTANT INVENTIONS
Name of Invention Inventor Nationality Year
Aeroplane Orville & Wilbur Wright U.S.A. 1903
Ball-Point Pen John J. Loud U.S.A. 1888
Barometer Evangelista Torricelli Italy 1644
Bicycle Kirkpatrick Macmillan Britain 1839-40
Bifocal Lens Benjamin Franklin U.S.A. 1780
Car (Petrol) Karl Benz Germany 1888
Celluloid Alexander Parkes Britain 1861
Cinema Nicolas & Jean Lumiere France 1895
Clock (mechanical) I-Hsing & Liang Ling-Tsan China 1725
Diesel Engine Rudolf Diesel Germany 1895
Dynamo Hypolite Pixii France 1832
Electric Lamp Thomas Alva Edison U.S.A. 1879
Electric Motor (DC) Zenobe Gramme Belgium 1873
Electric Motor (AC) Nikola Tesla U.S.A. 1888
Electro-magnet William Sturgeon Britain 1824
Electronic Computer Dr. Alan M. Turing Britain 1943
Film (moving outlines) Louis Prince France 1885
Film (musical sound) Dr. Le de Forest U.S.A. 1923
Fountain Pen Lewis E. Waterman U.S.A. 1884
Gramophone Thomas Alva Edison U.S.A. 1878
Helicopter Etienne Oehmichen France 1924
Jet Engine Sir Frank Whittle Britain 1937
Laser Charles H. Townes U.S.A. 1960
Lift (Mechanical) Elisha G. Otis U.S.A. 1852
Locomotive Richard Trevithick Britain 1804
Machine Gun James Puckle Britain 1718
Microphone Alexander Graham Bell U.S.A. 1876
Microscope Z. Janssen Netherlands 1590
Motor Cycle G. Daimler Germany 1885
Photography (on film) John Carbutt U.S.A. 1888
Printing Press Johann Gutenberg Germany c.1455
Razor (safety) King C. Gillette U.S.A. 1895
Refrigerator James Harrison & Alexander Catlin U.S.A. 1850
Safety Pin Walter Hunt U.S.A. 1849
Sewing machine Barthelemy Thimmonnier France 1829
Ship (steam) J.C. Perier France 1775
Ship (turbine) Hon. Sir C. Parsons Britain 1894
Skyscraper W. Le Baron Jenny U.S.A. 1882
Slide Rule William Oughtred Britain 1621
Steam Engine (condenser) James Watt Britain 1765
Steel Production Henry Bessemer Britain 1855
Steel (stainless) Harry Brearley Britain 1913
Submarine David Bushnell U.S.A. 1776
Tank Sir Ernest Swinton Britain 1914
Telegraph M. Lammond France 1787
Telegraph Code Samuel F.B. Morse U.S.A. 1837
Telephone (perfected) Alexander Graham Bell U.S.A. 1876
Television (mechanical) John Logie Baird Britain 1926
Television (electronic) P.T. Farnsworth U.S.A. 1927
Thermometer Galileo Galilei Italy 1593
Transformer Michael Faraday Britain 1831
Transistor Bardeen, Shockley & Brattain U.S.A. 1948
Washing Machine (elec.) Hurley Machine Co. U.S.A. 1907
Zip-Fastener W.L. Judson U.S.A. 1891
 47

Important Discoveries

Discovery Discoverer Nationality Year

Aluminium Hans Christian Oerstedt Denmark 1827

Atomic number Henry Moseley England 1913
Atomic structure of matter John Dalton England 1803
Chlorine C.W. Scheele Sweden 1774
Electromagnetic induction Michael Faraday England 1831
Electromagnetic waves Heinrich Hertz Germany 1886
Electromagnetism Hans Christian Oersted Denmark 1920
Electron Sir Joseph Thomson England 1897
General theory of relativity Albert Einstein Switzerland 1915
Hydrogen Henry Cavendish England 1766
Law of electric conduction Georg Ohm Germany 1827
Law of electromagnetism Andre Ampere France 1826
Law of falling bodies Galileo Italy 1590
Laws of gravitation & motion Isaac Newton England 1687
Laws of planetary motion Johannes Kepler Germany 1609-10
Magnesium Sir Humphry Davy England 1808
Neptune (Planet) Johann Galle Germany 1846
Neutron James Chadwick England 1932
Nickel Axel Cronstedt Sweden 1751
Nitrogen Daniel Rutherford England 1772
Oxygen Joseph Priestly, C.W. Scheele England, Sweden 1772
Ozone Christian Schonbein Germany 1839
Pluto Clyde Tombaugh U.S.A 1930
Plutonium G.T. Seaborg U.S.A 1940
Proton Ernest Rutherford England 1919
Quantum Theory Max Planck Germany 1900
Radioactivity Antoine Bacquerel France 1896
Radium Pierre & Marie Curie France 1898
Silicon Jons Berzelius Sweden 1824
Special theory of relativity Albert Einstein Switzerland 1905
Sun as centre of solar system Copernicus Poland 1543
Uranium Martin Klaproth Germany 1789
Uranus (Planet) William Herschel England 1781
X-rays Wilhelm Roentgen Germany 1895

Scientific Instruments

Name of Instrument Used for

Altimeter measuring altitude
Ammeter measuring strength of an electric current
Anemometer measuring the velocity of wind
Audiometer measuring level of hearing
Barometer measuring atmospheric pressure
 48

Name of Instrument Used for

Callipers measuring the internal and external diameters of tubes
Calorimeter measuring quantity of heat
Compass finding out direction
Dynamo converting mechanical energy into electrical energy
Galvanometer detecting and determining the strength of small electric currents
Hydrometer measuring specific gravity of a liquid
Hygrometer measuring the humidity in the atmosphere
Lactometer measuring the purity of milk
Manometer measuring the gaseous pressure
Micrometer measuring minute distances, angles, etc.
Microscope seeing magnified view of very small objects
Photometer measuring intensity of light from distant stars
Pyrometer measuring high temperatures
Radar detecting and finding the presence and location of moving objects like aircraft, missile, etc.
Radiometer measuring the emission of radiant energy
Rain Gauge measuring the amount of rainfall
Seismograph measuring and recording the intensity and origin of earthquake shocks
Sextant measuring altitude and angular distances between two objects or heavenly bodies
Spectrometer measuring the refractive indices
Spherometer measuring the curvature of spherical objects/surface
Sphygmomanometer measuring blood pressure
Stethoscope ascertaining the condition of heart and lungs by listening to their function
Stroboscope viewing objects that are moving rapidly with a periodic motion as if they were at rest
Tachometer measuring the rate of revolution or angular speed of a revolving shaft
Telescope viewing magnified images of distant objects
Thermocouple measuring the temperature inside furnaces and jet engines
Thermometer measuring human body temperature
Thermostat regulating constant temperature
Ultrasonoscope measuring utrasonic sounds
Viscometer measuring the viscosity of a fluid
Voltmeter measuring potential difference between two points.

CHEMISTRY
ELEMENTS MIXTURES
 An element may be defined as a substance which is made  A material containing two or more elements or compounds
by same type of atoms and it can neither be broken into, in any proportion is a mixture.
nor built from two or more simpler substances by any  The components of a mixture can be separated by physical
known physical or chemical methods, e.g., copper, silver, means like filtration, sublimation and distillation.
hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, gold, iron etc.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
COMPOUNDS
ATOM
 A compound may be defined as a substance which contains
two or more elements combined in some fixed proportion  Atom is the smallest part of the element that takes part in
by weight and which can be decomposed into two or a chemical reaction. Atom of an element can not be
more elements by any suitable method. changed into that of another element by a chemical or
physical means. It does not exist in free state.
 The properties of a compound are entirely different from
those of the elements from which it is made. MOLECULE
 Some common examples of compounds are water, sugar,  A molecule is the smallest part of an element or compound
salt, aspirin, chloroform, alcohol and ether. that is capable of existing independently.
(2123) G.K.—7
49

ATOMIC WEIGHT (OR ATOMIC MASS) positive metallic ion. According to modern theory, an
 The atomic mass of an element is the number of times its acid is a compound which yields hydrogen ions (protons)
atom is heavier than 1/12th of the mass of carbon (C12) to a base in a chemical reaction. In a water solution, an
atom. acid tastes sour, turns blue litmus red and produces free
 The unit used to measure atomic mass is called atomic hydrogen ions.
mass unit, i.e., amu. Acid Sources
ELECTRON Citric Acid Lemons or Oranges
 The electron is a fundamental particle of an atom which (Citrus Fruits)
carries a unit negative charge. It was discovered by J.J. Lactic acid Sour milk
Thomson in 1897. Tartaric acid Grapes
Acetic acid Vinegar
PROTON
Maleic acid Apples
 It is a fundamental particle of an atom carrying a unit Oxalic acid Tomato
positive charge. It was discovered by Rutherford and Formic acid Red ants
Goldstein in 1886.
NEUTRON BASES
 It is a fundamental particle of an atom carrying no charge.  Such compounds which gives salt and water with acid
It was discovered by Chadwick in 1932. known as bases. Bitter in taste, turns red litmus paper into
blue, contains replaceable hydroxyl group.
ISOTOPES  Some important bases are sodium hydroxide, potassium
 The atoms of the same element having different mass hydroxide, sodium carbonate and ammonium hydroxide.
numbers are called isotopes.  All alkalies are bases but all bases are not alkalies because
ISOBARS all bases are not soluble in water.
 Elements having the same atomic mass but differ in atomic
SALTS
number are called isobars.
 Salts are ionic compounds containing a positive ion
ISOTONES (cation) and a negative ion (anion).
 Elements having the same number of neutrons are called  When an acid reacts with a base, a salt and water are
isotones. formed. This reaction is called neutralization since the
acid and base neutralize each other’s effect.
OXIDATION AND REDUCTION
 Oxidation is a process in which a substance adds on ELECTROLYSIS
oxygen or loses hydrogen. In modern terms, oxidation is  The process of decomposition of an electrolyte by the
the process in which a substance loses electrons. passage of an electric current through its molten state or
 Reduction is a process in which a substance adds on its aqueous solution is called electrolysis.
hydrogen or loses oxygen. In modern terms, reduction is  Device through which electric current is passed known as
the process in which a substance gains electrons. electrodes.
 Oxidation and reduction always occur simultaneously. If
one substance is oxidised, another is reduced. The reaction METALLURGY
in which this oxidation-reduction process occurs is called
a redox reaction.  Metals occur in nature, in the native (in free state) as well
as in the combined state.
 Oxidising agents are substances which bring about the
oxidation of other substances, e.g., Potassium  Naturally occurring materials containing metals are called
Permanganate, Potassium Dichromate, Nitric Acid, minerals.
Hydrogen Peroxide, etc.  A mineral from which a given metal is obtained
 Reducing agents are substances which bring about the economically is called an ore.
reduction of other substances, e.g., hydrogen sulphide,  The process of extraction of a metal in a pure state on a
hydrogen, carbon, sulphur dioxide, etc. large scale from its ore by Physical and Chemical means
is called metallurgy.
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS  The rocky and siliceous matter that associated with the
ACID ore is known as gangue.
 An acid is any compound that can react with a base to  Substance that is added to ore to remove the gangue is
form a salt, the hydrogen of the acid being replaced by known as flux.
 50

 The process of removal of gangue from the ore is known to form carbo-xyhaemoglobin, which is not decompassed
as concentration. by any of the processes in the body.
 Calcination is the heating of the ore in the absence of air. HYDROCARBONS
This method is employed for obtaining the metal oxides
from carbonates and hydroxides.  Compounds of carbon and hydrogen are called
hydrocarbon.
 Roasting is the heating of the ore in the presence of air.
On roasting, part of the ore is oxidised to form an oxide.  A natural source of hydrocarbon is petroleum obtained
This oxide is then reduced to the metal. from sedimentary rocks.
 The industrial reduction process for obtaining metal from  Compounds having the same molecular formula but differ
the treated ore is called smelting. in properties due to different structural formula known as
isomers and this property is called isomerism.
AMALGUM
SATURATED HYDROCARBONS (ALKANES)
 An alloy in which one of the component metals is mercury
is known as amalgum.  Containing single covalent bonds only.
 Such compounds are, in general, called alkanes for
IRON AND STEEL instance, Methane, Ethane, Propane, Butane.
 Iron is extracted from its ores by the blast furnace process.
UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS
 Iron obtained from blast furnace is called pig iron or cast
iron containing about 5% carbon.  Containing multiple bonds.
 Pure iron is called wrought iron which does not contain  Compounds with double bonds are called alkenes, e.g.
carbon more than 0.2%, or any other impurities or ethylene, propyene etc. and triple bond containing
constituents. compounds are called alkynes, e.g. acetylene, propyne etc.
 Steel contains 0.25% – 2% carbon and varying amounts  Benzene is an unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbon with the
of other elements. structure.
 Compounds derived from benzene are called aromatic
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS compounds.
ALLOTROPY FUELS
 Such substances which having the same chemical
properties, but differ in physical properties, known as Solid Fuels
allotropes and this property is called allotropy.  These contain carbon and, during combustion, form mainly
DIAMOND carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide with a large amount
of heat.
 Diamond is the purest form of carbon.
 Examples of solid fuels are wood, coal, coke and paraffin
 It is non-conductor of heat and electricity.
wax.
 It is the hardest natural substance.
 It burns in air at 900°C and gives out CO 2. Liquid Fuels

GRAPHITE (BLACK LEAD)  These are basically mixtures of several hydrocarbons.

During combustion, they form carbon dioxide and water.
 It is good conductor of heat and electricity.
 Liquid fuels are obtained as different fractions during the
 Graphite is used in making lead pencils.
distillation of petroleum.
 Graphite is also used as electrodes, lubricant, moderators,
electrotyping and carbon arc.  Examples of liquid fuels are kerosene oil, petrol, diesel
oil and alcohol.
AMORPHOUS FORMS OF CARBON
Gaseous Fuels
1. Wood Charcoal – Obtained from wood
2. Sugar Charcoal – Obtained from cane sugar  Gaseous fuels do not leave ash on burning and have high
3. Bone or Animal Charcoal – Obtained from animal bones content of heat.
4. Coke Charcoal – Obtained from coal  The main gaseous fuels are liquefied petroleum gas (LPG,
mainly a mixture of propane and butane and used in
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) homes for cooking, water gas (CO + H 2), producer gas (CO
 Carbon monoxide is an active poison and is very + N2), coal gas (mixture of hydrogen, methane, ethylene,
dangerous as it is a colourless and odourless gas and can carbon monoxide, nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide)
not, therefore, be easily detected. and natural gas (mixture of methane, ethane, propane and
 The extremely poisonous nature of carbon monoxide is a butane with traces of higher hydrocarbons obtained from
result of its combining with the haemoglobin of the blood oil well, above petroleum).
 51

PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS 2. Silica  22%

 Natural gas contains about 80% methane and 10% ethane, 3. Alumina  7.5%
the remaining 10% being a mixture of higher gaseous 4. Magnesia  2.5%
hydrocarbons. 5. Ferric Oxide  2.5%
 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is natural gas filled in  A small amount of gypsum is added to slow down the
cylinders under high pressure. setting of cement.
 The quality of petrol for use in car engines is denoted by  Cement containing excess amount of lime cracks during
their anti-knock properties. setting while cement containing less amount of lime is
 To increase octane number, tetra ethyl lead (TEL) is added weak in strength.
to petrol.  Cement containing no iron is white but hard to burn.
HEAVY WATER POLYMERS AND PLASTICS
 Chemically heavy water is deuterium oxide.  A polymer is a large molecule, built up from many
 Heavy water is used in nuclear reactors as a moderator hundreds of thousands of small unit called monomeric
because it slows the fast moving neutrons. units or monomers.
Hard and Soft Water  The process of formation of polymers from monomers is
called polymerization.
 Water which produces lather with soap solution readily is
called soft water.  Plastics are cross-linked polymers and very tough.
 Water which does not produce lather with soap solution  Some examples of plastics are — Celluloid, Bakelite and
readily is called hard water. Vinyl Plastics.
 The hardness of water is due to presence of the RUBBER
bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates of calcium and
magnesium.  Natural and Synthetic rubbers are examples of polymers.
 Temporary hardness of water is due to the presence of  Natural rubber is isomer of isoprene.
bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium.  When the natural rubber is heated along with sulphur
 Permanent hardness of water is due to presence of called vulcanisation. The resulting rubber is elastic, hard
sulphates, chlorides, nitrates of calcium and magnesium. and strong.
 Synthetic rubbers are made by polymerisation of
GLASS chloroprene, styrene and butadiene mixtures and
 Ordinary glass is solid mixture of silica, sodium silicate isobutylene.
and calcium silicate.
 Soft glass is a soda-lime silicate glass. It melts at low SOAPS
temperature. It is used in manufacturing of bottles, test  The soaps are sodium salts of higher fatty acids. They are
tubes etc. useful only in soft water as they form an insoluble
 Hard glass is potash lime silicate and melts at high precipitate in hard water. This precipitate consists of salts
temperature in comparison to soft glass and is used in of calcium and magnesium of higher fatty acids. No lather
manufacturing of flask etc. or emulsion is formed and washing is not possible.
 Flint glass is a lead potash silicate and is used in
manufacturing of prism, lens and optical instruments. Some Importants Alloys
 Pyrex glass is a mixture of sodium aluminium borosilicates.
Alloys Composition
It is used in manufacturing of high quality equipments in
laboratory because it does not melt at very high Brass Cu, Zn
temperature. Bronze Cu, Sn
 Safety glass is prepared by placing a layer of transparent Gun metal Cu, Sn, Zn
plastic glass between two layers of glass by means of a Bel metal Cu, Sn
suitable adhesive. It is used in making wind screen of German silver Cu, Zn, Ni
automobiles, aeroplanes, trains etc. Dutch metal Cu, Zn
CEMENT Aluminium Al, Cu
 The approximate composition of Portland cement is: Nichrome Ni, Fe, Cr, Mn
1. Calcium Oxide  62% Chromium steel Cr, C, Fe
 52

Chemical Formulae, Commercial Name of Chemical Compounds

Commercial Name Chemical Compounds Chemical formulae
Common salt Sodium chloride NaCl
Baking soda Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO 3
Washing soda Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 . 10H2O
Caustic soda Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Chilli salt peter Sodium nitrate NaNO 3
Soda ash Sodium carbonate Na 2CO 3
Hypo Sodium thiosulphate Na2S2O3 . 5H2O

BIOLOGY

BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY CELL THEORY

(a) Anthropology: Deals with the scientific study of man  Cell is the basic unit of structure of all living organisms.
and the mankind. According to the cell theory, all organism are composed
(b) Agronomy: Deals with the management of farms and of cells and cell products and growth and development
science of crop production. results from the division and differentiation of cells.
(c) Apiculture: Deals with the process of bee keeping for  Cells membrane surrounds all living cells.
commercial purposes.  Nucleus is the most important cell organelle which controls
(d) Entomology: Deals with the structure, habits and and coordinates all cell activities and also concerned
classification of insects. with the transmission of heredity characters.
(e) Eugenics: Deals with improving the human race.  Mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes and dictyosomes are
(f) Pathology: Deals with the nature of disease, their present in plant and animal cells.
causes, symptoms, effects, their cure and control.  Only plant cells have cell wall, chloroplast and vacuole.
(g) Physiotherapy: Deals with the treatment of diseases,  Viruses constitute a difficulty since in many ways they
body weakness or defects with the help of massage and are intermediate between living and dead matter.
exercise etc.  The cell is said to be made up of a substance called
(h) Sericulture: Deals with the production of raw silk Protoplasm which has two main constituents cytoplasm
from silkworm. and nucleus, and is bounded by a cell membrane on outside.
(i) Pharmacology: Deals with the knowledge and  Cells take up the raw materials for metabolism through
manufacture of drugs. the cell membrane from extracellular fluid surrounding
(j) Occupational therapy: Deals with treating the them.
physically handicapped or injured persons through  Cytoplasm inside is responsible for maintaining the
exercise etc. internal distribution of organelles and also for free cell
(k) Psychology: Deals with the study of human mind, its movements.
behaviour and mental qualities.  Mitochondria inside provides energy for reactions inside
(l) DNA finger printing: Technique to help identify a the cell. Ribosomes are responsible for the synthesis of
person on the basis of genes. proteins.
 The Endoplasmic Reticulum helps in addition of other
ANIMALS/PLANTS sugar units to proteins and their transportation to other
parts of the cell.
 The organisms that closely resemble one another are
placed in one group, the groups which have similarities
are combined together into larger groups, and these into
FOOD
still larger ones. The most inclusive category is kingdom.  It is a nutritive substance taken by an organism for growth,
Other major categories, in descending order are: phylum, work, repair and maintaining life processes. It provides
class, order, family, genus, and species. Man belongs to energy to do work and maintain body heat, provides
Animal kingdom, chordata division or phylum, Mammalia materials for the growth of the body, makes necessary
class, Primates order, Hominidae family, Homo genus and materials for reproduction and provides materials for the
Sapiens species. repair of damaged cells and tissues of our body.
 53

 Carbohydrates: For a normal person, 400 to 500 gms of  Minerals: Some of the important minerals needed by our
carbohydrates are required daily but for sportspersons, body are — iron, iodine, calcium, phosphorus, sodium,
growing children and nursing mothers, it is on higher potassium, zinc, copper, magnesium, chloride, fluoride
side. and sulphur.
 Proteins: They are complex organic compounds made up  We get most of the minerals in combined form from plant
of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. The building sources. Deficiency of these minerals causes many diseases.
blocks of Protein are Amino acids and there are large  Energy Requirements: The energy requirement of a body
number of amino acids.
varies according to age, sex, lifestyle, occupation, climate
 Proteins are essential for the growth of children and and special situations like pregnancy and lactation.
teenagers, and for maintenance and making good the wear
and tear of the body tissues in adults. Age Energy requirements
 An adult needs about 1 gm of protein per kg of body 5 years 6000 kJ per day
weight. 11 years 9000 kJ per day
 Fats: They are esters of long chain fatty acids and an 18 years 11000 kJ per day
alcohol called glycerol. Fats also contain atoms of carbon, Adult (normal work) 9600 kJ per day
hydrogen and oxygen. Adult (heavy work) 12000 kJ per day
 The main function of fats in the body is to provide a Adult (very heavy work) 16000 kJ per day
steady source of energy and for this purpose, they are
deposited within the body.  Vitamins: They act as catalysts in certain chemical
 One gm of fat gives 37 kilojoules of energy which is more reactions of metabolism in our body.
than double of that given by carbohydrates.  They don't provide energy to our body nor form body
 Fats, the richest source of energy to our body, can be tissues.
stored in the body for subsequent use. Fats, soluble in  More than 15 types of vitamins are known and only 2
organic solvents and insoluble in water, also supply fat- vitamins — D and K can be formed in our body.
soluble vitamins to our body.

Vitamin Necessity Source

Vitamin A For maintaining healthy eyesight, Cod liver oil, fish, eggs, milk,
normal skin and hair carrot, leafy vegetables.
Vitamin B 1 For growth, carbohydrate metabolism, Milk, soya-food, meat, whole
functioning of heart, nerves and muscles. cereals, green vegetables.
Vitamin C For keeping teeth, gums and joints healthy, for Citrus fruits, guava, tomatoes.
increasing resistance of body to infection
Vitamin D For normal growth of bones and teeth Milk, eggs, butter, cod liver oil, sun light.
Vitamin E For normal reproduction, functioning of Green leafy vegetables, milk,
muscles and protection of liver butter, tomato.
Vitamin K For normal clotting of blood and normal functioning of liver Green leafy vegetables, soyabean, tomato.

 Roughage: Though it does not provide any energy to the DEFICIENCY DISEASES
body, yet keeps the digestive system in order, by helping  These occur due to deficiency of some nutrients in the
in retaining water in the body and preserving constitution. diet or some hormone due to hypo activity or damage to
 The main source of roughage are salads, cabbage, corn endocrine glands.
cob, porridge, vegetables and fruits with stems. Diet Deficiency Disease
Protein Kwashiorkor
DISEASES Protein-energy Marasmus
COMMUNICABLE DISEASES malnutrition
Vitamin A Night-blindness,
 They are the diseases which can be transmitted from
Xerophthalmia
reservoirs of infection or infected person to the healthy
Vitamin B1 Beri-Beri
but susceptible persons.
Vitamin B2 Cheilosis
 The disease causing agent or the pathogen can be
Vitamin B5 Pellagra
transmitted directly or indirectly.
Vitamin C Scurvy
 54

Vitamin D Rickets (in children), Measles 10 days Droplet infection

(in adult) Osteomalacia Mumps 12-26 days Droplet infection
Vitamin K Hypothrombinemia Rabies 1-3 months Bite of rabied animal like
dogs, monkeys, cats
Iron Anaemia
Influenza 24-28 hours Air-borne
Iodine Goitre
Fluoride Dental caries DISEASES CAUSED BY PROTOZOA
Calcium and Affects formation  Amoebiasis (Amoebic dysentery), Malaria, Kala-azar,
phosphorus of bones and teeth Trypanosomiasis and Giardiasis are main diseases caused
Hormone Deficiency Disease by Protozoans.
Insulin Diabetes  Malaria is a parasitic infection.
Thyroxine Cretinism (child), Goitre
STH Dwarfism, Gigantism SYSTEM OF HUMAN BODY
ALLERGIC DISEASE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 In these diseases, body becomes hypersensitive to some  The digestive system consists of alimentary canal and
foreign agents, allergens, which cause inflammation when digestive glands. Alimentary canal is about 8-10 meters
come in contact with the body or enter inside the body. long tube of varying diameter. Food is taken in through
 Foreign agents can be dust, pollens, certain-foods, serum, mouth.
certain drugs or fabrics.  The tongue helps in ingestion, chewing, tasting and
 The unfavourable response of the body to allergens is swallowing of food and mixing of food and saliva.
called allergic reaction. Asthma and hay fever are allergic  Salivary glands secret saliva which helps in digestion of
diseases. starch. Gastric glands present in the mucosa of the stomach,
provide acidic medium for the food digestion.
BACTERIAL DISEASES
 Liver, the largest sized, reddish brown gland of body,
 Bacteria are minute organisms which are known to cause
secrets bile. Liver is present in the right upper part of the
a number of diseases:
abdomen. The bile secreted by the liver is stored in gall
Disease Incubation Spread bladder. It helps in the emulsification and digestion of
period through fats.
Tuberculosis 2-10 weeks Air-borne,droplet  Pancreas is the second largest gland in human body and
infection secretes pancreatic juices. Intestine also secret juices.
Diptheria 2-6 days Air-borne droplet
infection RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Cholera 6 hours to Contaminated food and  Oxygen is needed for the oxidation and expelling of
2-3 days water. House flies carbon dioxide is necessary to avoid its-accumulation.
are the vectors
This process of exchange of gases between the environment
Leprosy Upto 5 years Prolonged and
intimate contact and the body, is called respiration.
Whopping 7-14 days Droplet infection  In some unicellular organisms like aerobic bacteria,
cough amoeba, hydra, etc. there is direct exchange of gases
Tetanus 3-21 days Entry of cysts through between the carbon dioxide of the body and oxygen of
any wound made by water.
sharp object, dog bite
or fall on the road  There is no blood for transport of gases. However, in
Typhoid 1-3 weeks Directed and Contact larger and complex form of animals, specialised respiratory
Plague 2-6 days Rats and bed-bugs organs are developed.
transmit the germs  Amphibians respire through skin, fishes through gills and
Pneumonia 1-3 days Air-borne mammals, birds and reptiles through lungs.
 A normal adult inspires or expires about 500 ml of gas
VIRAL DISEASES with each breath and about 72 breathes per minutes.
Disease Incubation Spread
period through
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
 Main components of the circulatory system are heart,
Chicken-pox 12-20 days Direct contact with
infected persons or blood vessels and blood.
infected objects  Heart is a thick, muscular, contractile and automatic
Smallpox 12 days Droplet infection pumping organ. In birds and mammals, heart is divided
Poliomyalitis 7-14 days Direct and oral into four chambers.
 55

 Arteries are thick walled blood vessels which always carry  Bones contain organic as well as inorganic matters. With
the blood away from the heart to various body parts. advancing age, the inorganic matter's share increases,
 Veins are thin walled blood vessels which always carry causing the bones to become more brittle.
the blood from various parts generally to the heart.  Long bones such as humerus and femur are hollow while
 In an adult healthy person, the normal rate of heart beat small bones are solid.
at rest is about 70-72 times per minute.
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
BLOOD  In men, excretory system is formed of one pair of kidneys,
 It is red, opaque, somewhat sticky and viscous fluid in the one pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra. Kidney
body of animals. is about 10 cm long, bean shaped, dark-red and slightly
 It is slightly alkaline (pH = 7.4), heavier than water (sp flattened structure.
gr = 1.05) and five times more viscous than distilled  Sweet glands, oil glands, lungs and liver also act as
water. additional excretory organ.
 Blood forms 6 to 10% of the body weight.  In case of kidney failure, a man can treated by hemodialysis
 An adult, on average, has about 6.8 litres of blood. or transplantation of a kidney from a donor's body.
 Blood contains plasma and blood corpuscles with the
former occupying 55-60% of the volume. NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Plasma transports food components, metabolic wastes and  The system which controls and coordinates the body
hormones; keeps constant level of pH of blood, maintains functions, retains memory and receives and sends signals,
body temperature and helps in blood clotting. is called the nervous system.
 Erythrocytes or red blood corpuscles (RBCs), leukocytes  The nervous system comprises brain, spinal cord, nerves
or white blood corpuscles (WBCs) and blood platelets are and nerve fibres.
other parts of the blood.  Human brain weighs about 1200 to 1400 gm. Main parts
 Due to the presence of iron containing pigment of the brain are cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla
haemoglobin, RBCs are red in colour. The RBCs are oblongata.
crucial for ex-change of oxygen and carbon dioxide. WBCs  Cerebrum controls voluntary function and is site of
are nucleated and non-pigmented cells. They are larger in intelligence, will power, emotions, etc.
size than RBCs but far less in number (1 : 600).  Cerebellum controls involuntary functions like heart beat,
 WBCs play an important role in immune system of the respiration, etc.
body. Blood platelets cause the coagulation of blood and
 Spinal cord is about 45 cm long and about 35 gm in
clot formation to prevent excessive bleeding.
weight. It conducts impulses to and from the brain and
 Human blood is divided into four main Groups—A, B, controls reflex actions of the body.
AB and O.
 Various cranial (arising from ending into brain) and spinal
 The plasma of Group A blood contains an anti-B factor
nerves (arising from spinal cord) control smell, vision,
and vice-versa, so that people of Groups A and B cannot
movements of body parts, taste and hearing.
accept each other's blood.
 Group AB contains neither anti-A nor anti-B factor and REPRODUCTION SYSTEM
people with this group can receive transfusions from both  In this type of reproduction, there is formation and fusion
but can give to neither. of sex cells, called gametes.
 Group O contains both anti-A and anti-B and can receive  Organism develops from the zygote through embryo
blood only from Group O but can donate blood to all formation.
Groups. Group O is called universal donor because they
 It generally involves two parents — male and female.
can donate to all the Groups.
 The offsprings are different from the parent as variations
 Group AB is called universal acceptor because they can
appear due to new combinations of genes. So, it plays an
accept blood from all Groups.
important role in evolution.
SKELETON SYSTEM  All higher plants and animals reproduce sexually.
 The frame or the hard structure of the human body is
composed from the bones and the organs of making such CHROMOSOMES
frame are called skeleton system.  Plants and animals have fixed number of chromosomes
per cell.
Bones  Genes are located on chromosomes and are responsible
 Bone is the hardest tissue of the body and form the largest for transfer of characteristics from one cell to the next
section of the body weight. either in the same organism or from parents to offspring.
 hemophilia etc. Typhoid—Intestine
Eczema—Skin Malaria—Spleen
DNA FINGERPRINTING Goitre—Front of the neck Leukaemia—Blood
 It consists of examining repetitive DNA in the genome for (due to enlargement of Rickets—Bones
variations in the length of restriction fragments. thyroid gland)