REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY

www.csu.edu.ph

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

Photography plays a very vital role in both criminal and civil cases. Almost every
day, photography provides new evidence of its value as a powerful weapon in the war against
crime. Every police personnel realizes that even in routine incidents, simple pictures taken with
simple cameras can make an impressive difference in court. (PNPM- CLG-NSU-8-4-15).

The usefulness of Forensic Photography in criminal investigation is very important.

Small objects but of great importance in a crime committed may escape in the first phase of
investigation but may be seen and recovered only after closed examination of the photographs
at the crime scene.

A good photograph of the scene is a permanent record, which is always available,

especially in court presentation. In court proceeding, judges, fiscal and defense lawyers,
generally never visited the crime scene. Photographs greatly facilitate them in interpreting the
scene. Therefore, photographers should bear in mind to obtain a NORMAL, SHARP and
FREE OF DISTORTION PHOTOGRAPHS of the crime scene.

“As a general rule take many photographs of the crime scene and select the
best”. But generally for purposes of considering the financial capability of a police agency,
one may wisely select the best shots in every sparks of the flashing system or every press of
the shutter of the camera.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHOTOGRAPHY

IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES

The basic principles of optics and cameras were first mentioned by Chinese and
Greek philosopher.

MOZI (4TH TO 5TH Century BC)

✓ The first person mentioned the basic principles behind the pinhole camera or
camera obscura. He referred this as a “collecting plate” or “locked treasure
room”.

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ARISTOTLE (347-322 BC)

◼ The Greek philosopher Aristotle noticed in 4th century that light from a sun eclipse
that passes through holes between the leaves, projects an image of an eclipsed sun on the
ground.

▪ CAMERA OBSCURA - A device used by early artists (centuries before

Christ) to display a scene on the wall of an otherwise- darkened room so
that it could be more-easily copied. In a manner similar to the pinhole
camera, a small hole placed in an opposite wall permitted light to enter
the room (the “camera”), and the scene outside became transmitted inside,
and was shown inverted on the rear wall or sometimes on a screen. The
camera obscura is the origin of the modern camera.

ALHAZEN (965-1039)
◼ An Arabian who found out that light entering a small hole on the wall or shuttered
window of a darkened room cast an upside down picture of the scene outside onto the
opposite wall.
◼ He was considered to be inventor of the camera obscura.

SIR ISAAC NEWTON (1666)

◼ He discovered and proved that the strongest light is “WHITE LIGHT”.
◼ He defended his theory by allowing white light to pass through prism thus
refracting and diffracting the light onto its component parts.
◼ White is consists of “ROYGIBV”

JEAN BABTISTE FORTA

◼ An artist and scientist who in his Pseudo Science Magic had made use of the Camera
Obscura and replaced the hole with a lens which made the image brighter and
sharper.
◼ He was the one who introduce the lens.

JOHANN HEINRICH SCHULZE

◼ A German scientist who discovered silver nitrate when he exposed it to light it turned
purple.
◼ He concluded that silver nitrate is sensitive to light and capable of producing
images.

THOMAS WEDGEWOOD (1802)

◼ He discovered that silver chloride is more sensitive than that of silver nitrate and
thus more capable of recording and producing images.

JOSEPH NICEPHORE NIEPCE (1816)

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◼ He experimented by combining photosensitive materials with Lithography to facilitate his

endeavor in printmaking.
◼ Achieves the first photographic image with camera obscura and he called this as
“HELIOGRAPHY” however the image required 8 hours of light exposure and
later faded.

LOUISE JACQUES MANDE DAGUERRE (1838-1839)

◼ He invented the DAGUERRO TYPE in Paris.
◼ He continued the efforts of Niepce to perfect a photographic process.
◼ He invented the principle of silver nitrate photograph and using the Daguerro type
that produces one of a kind picture on metal which was presented by French Scientific
Academy.

WILLIAM HENRY FOX TALBOT

◼ He is the FATHER OF MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
◼ He invented the “CALOTYPE” which produces a negative picture on paper, the
light on the image was recorded as dark and dark as night.

JOHN HERSCHEL
◼ He coined the word “PHOTOGRAPHY”
◼ He then suggested negative and positive in the following years.
◼ He pointed out images with a solution of hyposulfite of soda which he had discovered
in 1819.

DANIEL BARBARO
◼ He introduced the use of lens in the camera.

NADAR or GASPARD FELIX TOURNACHON (1858)

◼ He took the first “AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS” of Paris from a free balloon.

SIR WILLIAM ABNEY

◼ He discovered the use of “HYDROQUINONE” as developing agent in 1880 in
England.

RICHARD LEACH MADDAOX

◼ He successfully introduced the plate with gelatin.

GEORGE EASTMAN
◼ Founder of Budha Co,. He introduced the use of Kodak roll film made of celluloid
materials for use by a portable camera.

JAMES CLARK MAXWELL

◼ He discovered the wavelength structure of light after 20 years of research.

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ODELBERCHT (1864)
◼ He first advocated the used of photography for the identification of
criminals and the documentation of evidence and crime scenes.
◼ Meanwhile, every police force in England and in the U.S. has ROGUES GALLERY
which became an integral part in almost all police departments.

ALPHONSE BERTILLON (1882)

◼ He initiated anthropometric measurements of personal identification and was also
involved in various means of documentation by photography which developed into a
fine science of criminalistics when he photographed crime scenes and formulated a
technique of contact photography to demonstrate erasures on documents.

DR. R.A REIS (1902)

◼ He introduced the use of photography in forensic science and established the
world’s earliest crime scene that serviced the academic community and the Swiss
police.

VICTOR BALTAZARD (1910)

◼ He developed a method of photographic comparison of bullets and cartridge cases which
act as an early foundation of the field of ballistics.

EDWIN LAND (1947)

◼ He introduced “POLAROID CAMERA”.

THOMAS SUTTON
◼ He invented the first “SINGLE LENS REFLEX CAMERA”.

D.A WOODWARD ((1857)

◼ He first constructed an enlarger. It was a cumbersome object. The sun was collected
by means of convex lens and the camera has to be turned with the sun.
◼ This design became the model of “SOLAR CAMERAS”.

STEVEN SASSON
◼ An American Electrical Engineer who invented the “DIGITAL CAMERA”.

IMPORTANT DATES

✓ 1800- Thomas Wedgewood and Humphey Davy produced photograms.

✓ 1839- Birth year of Modern Photography, the year when the science of photography
became public knowledge.

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✓ 1850- The year when photography was already well developed. It was used as an art
concerned with landscape, portraiture and architectural presentation.

✓ 1835- The year when colored films, sensitized materials and different brands of cameras
came in different types and model sold in the market.

✓ 1859- In the US, one of the earliest applied Forensic Science was in photography. It
was used to demonstrate evidence in California Case and enlarged photographs of a
signature were presented in a court case involving forgery.

✓ 1890- Full corrected lens were introduced.

✓ 1906- a plate was placed on the market that could reproduce all colors in equivalent shades
of gray

✓ 1907- Lummi ere color process was introduced. A panchromatic Film was used but
with blue, green and red filter.

✓ 1935- Color process came out together with electronic flash.

✓ 1960- LASER was invented making possible Holograms-tri-dimensional pictures.

✓ 1970- Colored photography has matured as an artistic medium.

✓ 1981- Sony unveiled the first consumer to use a charge-couple device for imaging,
eliminating the need for film. The Sony Mavica saved images to disk, the images
were displayed on television and the camera was not fully digital.

✓ 1988- Arrival of true digital camera’s

✓ 1990- Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the first commercially available digital
camera’s.

PHOTOGRAPHY - The process or art of producing images of objects on sensitized surfaces

by the chemical action of light.
▪ The word "photography" derives from the Greek and means,
literally, “light writing.”
▪ Photography" is derived from the Greek words photos ("light") and
graphein ("to draw").

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▪ The word was first used by the scientist Sir John F.W. Herschel in
1839. It is a method of recording images by the action of light, or
related radiation, on a sensitive material.

PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

1. A photograph is the mechanical and chemical result of photography.

2. To produce a photograph, light is needed aside form sensitized material.
3. Lights reflected or radiated by a subject must reach the sensitized materials while all
other lights must be excluded.
4. The exclusion of all unwanted and unnecessary lights is achieved by placing the
sensitized material inside a camera.
5. The amount of light on the sensitized material after exposure is not immediately
visible in the eyes.
6. To make the formed image visible, it must undergo the development process.
7. The visual effect that results from the chemical processing is depended on the
quantity and quality of the exposing light.
8. More light will yield an opaque or black shade on the sensitized material after
development.
9. Too little light will produce a transparent or white side.
10. The varying shade of gray will finally form the complete image.

POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY VS. FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

Police Photography is the study of the Forensic photography is that field

general practices, methods, and steps in covering the legal application of
taking pictures of the crime scene, photography in criminal
physical thins, and other circumstances jurisprudence and criminal
that can be used as criminal evidences investigation.
or for law
enforcement purposes.

OBJECTIVES OF POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY

1. To produce a pictorial record of everything pertaining to the crime.

2. To help in keeping the police officers memory accurately as possible as to where he
find things.
3. To help in securing and obtaining confession, disposition and information
relating to the case.

USE OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN POLICE WORK

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1. Identification. This is the very first use of photography.

2. As a method of discovering, recording and preserving evidence.
3. As a way to present, in the court room, an impression of the pertinent elements of
crime and;
4. As a training and public relations medium for police programs.

IMPORTANCE OF FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Small objects but of great importance in a crime committed may escape in the first
phase of examination by the investigator but maybe seen and recorded on the
photograph.
2. A good photograph of the scene is a permanent record which is always available especially
in court presentation.
3. Used as an aid by the investigator to describe in court some of the details of the crime
scene they have investigated several months, ago, the small details and exact locations
of objects.
4. To assist the investigators in using photographic equipment and techniques in their effort
to solve crimes.

ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY

LIGHT: ITS NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS, SOURCES AND CLASSIFICATION

◼ Light is defined as an electromagnetic energy with the speed of 186,000 miles per
second. Its wave travel is said to be characterized in certain extent based on velocity,
wavelength and frequency of the number of vibration of the wave per second.

◼ Light wavelength is the distance measured between two (2) successive crest or
through of wave and it is expressed in either Millimicron (nanometer) or Angstrom.
▪ Millimicron is the units of light wavelength which is equivalent to one-
millionth part of a millimeter which the Angstrom is relatively smaller
for it has an equivalent measurement of ten (10) millionth part of a
millimeter.

◼ Once light hits a certain medium, its action can be characterized as either:
Reflected, Absorbed and Transmitted (RAT).

▪ Reflected once the light hits a mirror and it bounce back.

▪ Transmitted when the light hits a transparent glass which would allow
the light to pass through its medium and;

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▪ Absorbed when the light hits a dark colored object and prevents it
from either bouncing or passing through.

◼ ISAAC NEWTON in 1666 proved that the light which men see as white light is
actually a mixture of all colors of the spectrum.

▪ This is produced when we allow light to hit a glass prism (Sharp Edge
of the Glass). A rainbow array will then be shown with colors red,
orange, yellow, green, blue and violet colors (from top to bottom). The
visible light is also said of have a wavelength of between 400-700
millimicron or nanometer.

PRIMARY COLORS OF LIGHT

➢ .Red
➢ .Green
➢ .Blue

SECONDARY COLORS OF LIGHT

◼ Yellow
◼ Cyan
◼ Magenta

➢ White - is the presence of all color.

➢ Black - is the absence of all colors or the absence of light.

TYPES OF LIGHT

◼ Lights can largely be classified into visible and invisible light.

a. Visible Light
- Is the type of light that produces different sensation when reach the human
eye. It is the type of light, which is capable of exciting the retina of the human
eye.
b. Invisible Light
- lights in which their wavelength are either too short or too long to excite the
retina of the human eye i.e. X-ray, Ultrat-violet and Infra-red lights.

PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS

a. X-ray
▪ Light with the wavelength between .01 to 30 millimicrons. It is
produced by passing an electric current through a special type of vacuum
tube. It was incidentally discovered by Conrad Welhelm Roentgen.
This type of light works in the principle of shadow photography.
b. Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet)

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▪ Radiation having a wavelength of 30 to 400 nanometers designed to

photograph fingerprints in multi colored background, documents that
are altered, decipherment of erase writing and developing invisible
writing. It is commercially known as “black Light”.
c. Visible Light
▪ It refers to the type of radiation having a wavelength of 400 to 700
millimicrons designed for ordinary photographing purposes.
d. Infra-red (Beyond the Red)
▪ Considered as the photographic rays with the longest wavelength
ranging from 700 to 1000 millimicrons. It is designed to take
photograph of over-written documents, obliterated writing, and
charred documents or for black out photography. It is sometimes
referred to as heat rays).

SOURCES OF LIGHT

◼ Natural Light= are those light which come to existence without the intervention of
man e.i. Sunlight, moonlight and starlight.
1. Bright Sunlight
= object in an open space casts a deep and uniform shadow and the object
appears glossy.
2. Hazy Sunlight
= object in an open space casts a transparent or bluish shadow. This is due
to thin clouds that cover the sun.
3. Dull Sunlight
= object in an open space cast no shadow due to thick clouds covering the sun.

▪ Daylight may still be classified as: open space bright sunlight, under
shade bright sunlight, hazy sunlight, cloudy sunlight and cloudy dull
sunlight.

◼ Artificial Light = otherwise known as man-made light e.g. fluorescent bulb,

incandescent bulb and photoflood lamp.

Continuous Radiation

1. Photoflood lamp= is likewise known as Reflectorized light or Spot light. It is

a light with a reflector at the back which focus the light to the object the
common wattages of this lamp is 500 watts.

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2. Fluorescent Lamp = are tube lamps in which the walls are coated with
fluorescent powders with both ends is mounted with a holder that serves as the
reflector. This is commonly used by everybody more than it is used in
photographing.

3. Incandescent bulb = are bulb with a wire filament connecting two wires which
sustain the electrical charge that produces the light. Everybody likewise
commonly uses this although it is more expensive in terms of electrical
consumptions.

Short Duration type

1. Flash bulb = are chemical lamps, as it generate lights by the rapid

combination of metal in oxygen. The bulb can be used only once as the
bulb is busted when fired electrically. There are thin filaments inside the
bulb with two electrical contacts. When the current flows through the
filament, it becomes incandescent and ignites the explosive primer that
ignites the aluminum foil that burns, giving flash of tense light.

2. Electronic Flash = produces light by an instantaneous electrical in charges

between two electrodes in a gas filled glass bulbs. The electrical energy for
the discharge is kept in capacitor or condenser. It usually ranges from 1/300
second and 1/5000 second, and because of this, subject in fast motion can
be arrested or stopped in the photographs.

KINDS OF OBJECTS AS TO HOW THEY BEHAVE TO LIGHT

1. TRANSPARENT OBJECT- allows sufficiently visible light to pass through them

that the object on the other side may be clearly seen.
2. TRANSLUCENT OBJECT- allows light to pass, however diffuse it sufficiently that
objects on the other side may not clearly distinguished.
3. OPAQUE OBJECT- greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the object on the
other side is very difficult if not possible.

PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

1. REFLECTION- It is the deflection or bouncing back of light when it hits a

surface.
◼ Regular reflection- happens when light hits a flat, smooth and shiny
surface.

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◼ Irregular reflection- occurs when lights hits a rough or uneven but

glossy object.

2. REFRACTION- the bending of light when passing from medium to another.

3. DIFFRACTION- the bending of light when it hits a sharp edge of an opaque
object.
4. ABSORPTION- the nature of light to be absorbed in the process of dark surfaces.
5. TRANSMISSION- passes through an object, the light is transmitted.

CAMERA and its ACCESSORIES

▪ A light tight box with light gathering device and a means of blocking
unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized material.
▪ Basically, camera can produce image with its four-(4) basic parts such as light
tight box, lens, and shutter, Holder of sensitized material.
▪ A camera is a device used to take pictures (usually photographs).
▪ A camera that takes pictures singly is sometimes called a photo camera.

ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A CAMERA

1. Light Tight Box – a box designed to keep light out and serve as a frame to hold
other parts.
2. Lens – designed to collect or to focus the reflected light from an object to form an
image on the film.
3. Shutter – designed to control the time during which the light reaches the film
4. Holder of the sensitized material – located at the opposite side of the lens designed to
hold firmly the sensitized material to prevent the formation of the multiple or blurred
image
5. View finder – designed to determine the field of view of the camera or the extent of the
coverage of the given lens

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CAMERA

1. BOX CAMERA

o The box camera (viewfinder) was the instrument of choice for the casual
amateur photographer. Inexpensive and simple, it was, nevertheless, capable
of excellent results under many conditions. Box cameras were normally fitted
with a single-element lens, a limited range of aperture control, and a single-
speed leaf shutter.
o It usually lacks a focusing system (fix-focus) as well as control of aperture and
shutter speeds. This makes it suitable for daylight photography only.

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2. PINHOLE CAMERA

o A pinhole camera is a camera without a lens.

o An image's light from a scene passes through this single point, and because
there is no lens, the image will be clear at all distances from the pinhole.
o The smaller the hole, the sharper the image, but the more exposure will be
required. Also, in order to produce a reasonably clear image, the ratio of the
pinhole, or aperture, size to the distance between it and the screen should be
1/100 or less.

3. FOLDING-ROLL FILM CAMERA

o The second in popularity only to the box camera, the folding camera was
manufactured in a variety of formats. Basically, though, it was a box camera
whose lens was incorporated into a movable bellows that could slide back
and forth on a rail, allowing the lens to change focus.

4. RANGE FINDER CAMERA

o A rangefinder camera is a camera fitted with a range finder

o A range-finding focusing mechanism allowing the photographer to measure
the subject distance and take photographs that are in sharp focus.
o The range finder camera allows for accurate focus, however, by using two
views of the same subject to adjust focus. In this camera there are two
images in the viewfinder. One is usually only a portion of the viewer area
and is usually slightly yellowish in color.
o The photographer adjusts the focus ring on the lens and as they do the two
images move. When both on directly on top of each other they blend together and
almost disappear signifying the camera is in focus.
o The rangefinder is accurate and usually very quiet and very light weight.

5. REFLEX CAMERA

o A camera that has a mirror directly in the path of light traveling through the
lens that reflects the scene to a viewing screen.
Two Kinds:

➢ SINGLE-LENS REFLEX CAMERA

➢ TWIN-LENS REFLEX CAMERA

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TWIN LENS REFLEX - (TLR)

▪ A camera having two separate lenses of the same focal length - one for viewing
and focusing; the other for exposing the film.

HOW A TWIN LENS RELFEX CAMERA WORKS?

▪ It is fitted with two lenses of identical focal length, one mounted atop the other. The
lower, or taking, lens focuses its image directly on the film, while the image
produced by the upper viewing lens is reflected through 90 degrees by a mirror,
so that if the photographer brings the scene on the focusing screen to sharp focus,
the image on the film plane will be equally sharp.

SINGLE LENS REFLEX (SLR)

▪ A camera with one lens only for both viewing and picture-taking.
▪ The image is reflected onto a viewing screen by a moveable mirror in the
camera.
▪ The mirror flips out of the way just before the shutter opens, permitting light
to strike the film.

HOW A SINGLE LENS RELFEX CAMERA WORKS?

▪ By allowing light passing through the lens is reflected by a mirror and brought to
focus on a ground glass. The mirror causes a reversal of the image seen on the
ground glass, but the addition of a pentaprism mounted over the ground glass
allows the camera to be used at eye level, with the image seen upright and in
proper left/right orientation.
▪ An instant before the exposure is made, the mirror swings upward, and the shutter
is activated. A single control cocks the shutter for the next exposure, advances the
film, and returns the mirror to focusing position. During an exposure the
viewfinder is blocked

6. VIEW OR PRESS TYPE CAMERA

▪ A large format camera - a term that applies to cameras that produce an individual
image size of 5" X 4" or larger. It is most often found in a studio, and is
sometimes even called a "studio camera," although the view camera can be
transported and set up in the field.

7. VIEWFINDER CAMERA

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▪ Camera with a viewfinder that is separate from the lens used in taking the picture.
A simple point-and-shoot disposable camera is an example of a viewfinder
camera, but not all viewfinder cameras are simple.

8. POLAROID CAMERA

▪ This camera is restricted in its uses but is ideal in instant photograph when there
is no requirement for enlargements.

9. UNDERWATER CAMERA

▪ This is designed for underwater photography

10. PANORAMIC CAMERA

▪ Used for landscaping photography. It is easy to use by encompassing a 120, 180,
360 degrees view of one exposure.

PARTS OF THE CAMERA

1. LENS- A disc of transparent glass generally bounded by two spherical surfaces

capable of forming images.
2. FOCUSING RING- Moves the lens back and forth which allows the photographer to
create a sharp image of the subject.
3. DIAPHRAGM OR APERTURE- A small opening in a camera usually circular in
shape and usually varies in the form of its diaphragm that regulates the intensity of light
which passes through the lens.
4. SHUTTER SPEED DIAL- it will control the length of time when light is allowed
to strike the sensitized material.
5. SHUTTER- an adjustable mechanism that regulates the amount of light reaching the
film by varying the length of time light is allowed to pass through the lens.
6. SHUTTER RELASE BUTTON- a part of camera which when pressed it will keep
the shutter in open position.
7. VIEW FINDER- a viewing instrument attached to a camera, used to obtain proper
composition.
8. FILM HOLDER- it holds the film firmly inside the camera. It is always located at
the opposite side of the lens.
9. ACESSORY LIGHT SHOE or HOT SHOE- it is where the flash bulb is
inserted for indoor photography.
10. ISO/ASA/DIN DIAL- a camera device in which when adjusted it will conform
with the sensitivity of the film to light.
11. EXPOSURE COUNTER- a device indicating the number of exposures made.
12. DISCTANCE SCALE- a device that shows the approximate distance from the
optical center of the lens to the point of focus on the object.

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13. FILM REWIND KNOB- This knob rewinds the film back into the film cassette.
14. FILM ADVANCER LEVER- Use to advance or move over each small piece of film
after the picture is taken.
15. FILM TRANSPORT MECHANISM- It moves unexposed film into position for the next
picture.
16. BACK COVER RELEASE KNOB- a device used in opening the back cover for film
reloading.
17. DATA DISPLAY- often a liquid crystal display, permits the user to view the settings
such as speed, exposure and shutter speed.
18. LENS LOCK RELEASE LEVER- a device used to secure the lens.
19. SPROCKET TEETH- as part of the film transport mechanism, this is where the
sprocket holes will be engaged in.
20. TAKE UP SPOOL- it pulls the film along so unexposed film can be placed behind
the shutter.
21. FLASH BUTTON- pressed with the flash down, this button releases the flash head
to pop up.
22. LIGHT METER- It determines the proper exposure under various light conditions.
It is usually connected to the diaphragm and/or shutter in such a way that correct
exposure is automatically produced when the shutter is tripped.
23. MODE DIAL/CAMERA DIAL- it is a dial used on digital camera to change the
camera’s mode.

MANUAL MODES

1. P- Program mode offers the photographer partial control over the shutter speed and
aperture.
2. A or AV- Aperture priority allows the photographer to control the aperture, while
the shutter speed and ISO sensitivity are calculated by the camera.
3. S or TV- Shutter priority AKA “time value” allows the photographer to control the
shutter speed.
4. Sv- sensitivity value allows the photographer to control the aperture and ISO.
5. M- Manual mode allows the photographer to control the shutter speed, aperture and
ISO.
6. U- User mode (like a program preset).

AUTOMATIC MODES

1. Action or sport mode increases IS0 and uses a fast shutter speed to aperture
action.
2. Landscape mode uses a small aperture to gain depth of field.
3. Portrait mode widens the aperture to throw the background out of focus. The
camera may recognize and focus on a human face.

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4. Night portrait mode uses an exposure long enough to capture background detail with
fill-in flash to illuminate a nearby subject.

HOW CAMERA WORKS?

1. Turn on the camera

2. Load the film
3. Set the film speed
4. Set the aperture setting
5. Set the shutter speed selector dial.
6. Turn the shutter speed selector dial to speed desired.
7. Focus the lens and frame your picture.
8. Press the shutter release button
9. If the end of the film is reached, it will rewind automatically. However, the photographer
may rewind the film manually by pressing the film rewind lock found at the back of the
camera.

FILM LOADING

1. Open the camera back

2. Load the film by aligning the film ledger on the orange dot reference.
3. Close the camera back

Note: if the film was loaded properly, number 1 will register on the frame counter found on the
data display.

HOLDING THE CAMERA

1. Hold the camera steady

2. Press down the shutter release button.

CONTROL OF CAMERAS

◼ Knowing the controls on camera is necessary to produce a sharp and normal image
and negatives after photographing. There are three important controls in a camera to
be manipulated and adjusted to its proper setting.

• FOCUSING CONTROL
• DIAPHRAGM/APERTURE CONTROL
• SHUTTER SPEED

1. FOCUSING CONTROL

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o The camera lens bends light rays to form an image or likeness of the object.
Adjusting the lens to form the clearest possible image is called focusing.
o Focusing is defined as the setting of the proper distance in order to form
a sharp image.

Three Types of Focusing

1. Range finder (Either coincidence or split image type)

◼ Coincidence otherwise known as superimposed image focusing. In this type of

focusing a single object will appeared double once the object is not in focus, but
moving the focusing adjustment this double image will coincide or superimposed
to form a single object.
◼ Split Image focusing on the other hand will show an image in split or two parts
once the object in not in focus once the two parts of the image has been united
then the object is already focused.

2. Ground Glass

o A focusing mechanism clearly indicates whether the object distance and the
camera is out of focus or not. If the object is not well focused, the object to be
photographed will appear blurred. To make it clear and accurate the focusing ring
of the camera is adjusted on clockwise or counter clockwise to get the desired
clearness of the object.

3. Scale Bed or Focusing Scale

o In the scale or bed type focusing mechanism, the distance of the object to be
photographed is calculated by means of feet or meter. There are cameras
where estimated distance from the camera to objects is being indicated in the
focusing ring.

2. DIAPHRAGM or APERTURE CONTROL (LENS OPENING)

➢ An adjustable mechanism device in the lens assembly which controls the amount of
light passing through the lens to the film. The diaphragm works like the pupil of the
eye. It may be enlarged or contracted. If it is enlarged, it allows more light to enter.
➢ Fortunately, on most cameras this adjustment is made automatically. The size of the
aperture is measured using f/numbers (or f/stops). Confusingly, as f/numbers
represent fractions, the larger the f/number the smaller the

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aperture. The widest aperture on a lens might be f/2, while the smallest aperture
available may be f/22.

F-NUMBER AND F-STOP

✓ f-NUMBER - (ƒ-number) A number that expresses a lens’ light-transmitting ability

- i.e. the size of the lens opening. Usually found on the barrel of a lens, f-numbers
indicate the size of the aperture in relation to the focal length of the lens. A smaller
number indicates a larger lens diameter. ƒ/1.4 signifies that the focal length of
the lens is 1.4 times as great as the diameter. All lenses set at the same f-number
transmit the same amount of light.

✓ ƒ-stop - (f-stop) A lens aperture setting calibrated to an f-number.

3. SHUTTER SPEED CONTROL

✓ It is a device that allows light to pass for a determined period of time, for
the purpose of exposing photographic film or a light-sensitive electronic
sensor to light to capture a permanent image of a scene.

The different shutter speeds are:

1, 2 or 1/2 sec, 4 or 1/4 sec, 8 or 1/8 sec, 15 or 1/15 sec, 30 or 1/30 sec, 60 or 1/60 sec,
125 or 1/125 sec,250 or 1/250, 500 or 1/500 sec, 1000 or 1/1000, 2000 or 1/2000.

SHUTTER setting for bright and cloudy day:

APERTURE F22 F16 F11 F8 F5.6

SHUTTER 1/8 1/6 1/125 1/250 1/500

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Camera shutters often include one or two other settings for making very long exposures:
B (for bulb ) - keep the shutter open as long as the shutter release is held.
T (for time) - keep the shutter open until the shutter release is pressed again.

When to Use Slow Shutter Speeds

✓ By using a tripod, or other camera support, photographers can use slower
shutter speeds than usual. These allow you to use apertures that would not
otherwise be possible when using a handheld camera and to shoot in the
lowest light. Slow shutter speeds can also be used for creative effect, as
moving subjects will become artistically blurred.

When to Use Fast Shutter Speeds

✓ Moving subjects require you to consider using a faster shutter speed than
that needed to avoid camera shake. Some blur may be welcome with action
subjects, but often we want to freeze the action. Selecting the right shutter
speed depends not only on the velocity of the subject, but also on the direction
in which it is traveling.

Types of Shutter

1. Central Shutters - are mounted within a lens assembly, or more rarely behind or even
in front of a lens, and shut off the beam of light where it is narrow. A leaf mechanism
is usually used.
2. Focal Plane Shutter - In camera design, a focal-plane shutter is a type of
photographic shutter that is positioned immediately in front of the focal plane of the
camera, that is, right in front of the photographic film or image sensor.
3. Focal-Plane Shutters - Focal-plane shutters are usually implemented as a pair of
cloth, metal, or plastic curtains which shield the film from light.

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4. Leaf Shutters - is a type of camera shutter consisting of a mechanism with one or

more pivoting metal leaves which normally does not allow light through the lens onto
the film, but which when triggered opens the shutter by moving the leaves to uncover
the lens for the required time to make an exposure, then shuts.
5. Diaphragm Shutters - is a type of leaf shutter consisting of a number of thin blades
which briefly uncover the camera aperture to make the exposure.

There are many factors to be considered in using this control. Some of these factors
are:

1. The light sensitivity of the film, which are determined through its ISO
2. The lighting condition
3. The motion of the subjects on different angles
4. The purpose of the photographs to be taken, etc.

DEPTH OF FIELD VS. DEPTH OF FOCUS

DEPTH OF FIELD
✓ The zone of acceptable sharpness or the area or 'zone' of a photograph,
from front to back, which is in focus or the range of distance in a scene that
appears to be in focus and will be reproduced as being acceptably sharp in
an image.
✓ is controlled by the lens aperture, and extends for a distance in front of and
behind the point on which the lens is focused.

DEPTH OF FOCUS
✓ A zone of focus in the camera. If an image is focused on a ground glass
screen in a camera, depth of focus makes it possible to move the screen
slightly backward or forward and still have the image in acceptable focus.

FOCAL LENGTH
✓ The focal length of a lens is defined as the distance in mm from the
optical center of the lens to the focal point, which is located on the
sensor or film if the subject (at infinity) is "in focus". The camera lens
projects part of the scene onto the film or sensor.
✓ The field of view (FOV) is determined by the angle of view from the lens
out to the scene and can be measured horizontally or vertically.

FOCAL POINT
✓ (1) The central or principal point of focus. (2) The optical center of a lens when
it is focused on infinity.

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FILM PLANE/FOCAL PLANE

✓ A film plane is the area inside any camera where the individual frame of
film or digital sensor is positioned during exposure. It is sometimes marked
on camera body with the 'Φ' symbol where the vertical bar represents the
exact location.

PHOTOGRAPHIC LENS

LEN
S o A true “lens” is a single piece of glass (or other transparent substance)
having one or more curved surfaces used in changing the convergence of
light rays.
o What we commonly call a photographic lens is more accurately and technically
called an “objective,” an optical device containing a combination of lenses
that receive light rays from an object and form an image on the focal plane.
o However, dictionaries have come to accept the usage of the term “lens”
to mean the entire photographic objective itself.
o A photographic lens will always be called a lens, even though it is not
a lens, but has a lot of lenses in it.
o A camera lens collects and focuses rays of light to form an image on
film.

CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES

1. POSITIVE OR CONVEX LENS (CONVERGING LENS) Characterized by the

fact that it is thicker at the center and thinner at the side which is capable of bending
the light together and forms the image inversely.
2. NEGATIVE OR CONCAVE LENS (DIVERGING LENS) Characterized by the
fact that it is thinner at the center and thicker at the side and forms the virtual image
on the same side of the lens.

Classification of lens according to its focal length

✓ Focal lengths are usually specified in millimeters (mm), but older lenses
marked in centimeters (cm) and inches are still to be found. For a given film
or sensor size, specified by the length of the diagonal, a lens may be
classified as:

1. NORMAL LENS
▪ Lens with a focal length approximately equal to the diagonal of the
film format. A scene viewed through a normal lens appears to have
the same perspective as if it was being

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viewed “normally” without a lens, just the way your eye sees it.
▪ In 35mm photography, lenses with a focal length of 50mm are
called “normal” because they work without reduction or
magnification and create images the way we see the scene with our
naked eyes (same picture angle of 46°).

2. MACRO LENS
▪ A lens with the ability to focus from infinity to extremely closely,
allowing it to capture images of tiny objects in frame-filling,
larger-than-life sizes. Sometimes called a “Close-up lens,”
although a close-up lens is usually a lens attachment for close-
ups and does not generally have the ability to focus on infinity.
▪ It has an angle of view narrower than 25° and focal length longer
than normal.
▪ These lenses are used for close-ups, e.g., for images of the same size
as the object. They usually feature a flat field as well, which means
that the subject plane is exactly parallel with the film plane.

3. WIDE-ANGLE LENS
▪ A lens with an angle of view that is wider than that of a normal
lens, or that of the human eye. A wide-angle lens has a focal
length which is less than the diagonal of the film format. Angle
of view wider than 60° and focal length shorter than normal. The
24mm lens is a WIDE-ANGLE LENS.

4. TELEPHOTO LENS – OR LONG-FOCUS LENS

▪ A lens with a narrow angle of view, a longer-than-normal focal length,
the ability to magnify images, and exhibiting relatively shallow depth
of field. Examples of 35 mm camera telephoto lenses include 85 mm,
400 mm and 600 mm lenses, to name a few.

5. FISHEYE LENS
▪ Describes an extreme wide-angle lens that has an angle of view
exceeding 100° - sometimes more than 180° - and that renders a
scene as highly distorted.

6. ZOOM LENS

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▪ Lens with variable focal length or that which can be adjusted

continuously by the movement of one or more elements in the
lens system.
▪ One in which focal length is variable. Elements inside a variable
focus lens shift their positions, enabling the lens to change its focal
length – in effect, providing one lens that has many focal lengths.

LENS DEFECTS OR ABERRATION

1. ASTIGMATISM
▪ The inability of the lens to bring to focus both vertical and
horizontal lines on the same plane. Lines in some directions are
focused less sharply than lines in other directions.
▪ It is caused by axial rays (not parallel to the lens axis). It will appear
that lines of equal density (darkness) are less dense horizontally or
vertically. Astigmatism is improved by stopping down the lens
(smaller lens opening, larger F number).
2. COM
A ▪ Inability of the lens to focus light that travels straight or lateral,
thus making it blurred while the light reaching the lens oblique is
the one the is transmitted sharp.
3. CURVATURE OF FIELD
▪ The plane of sharpest focus becomes curved, not flat. It is caused by
rays from the outer limits of the subject plane coming to focus
nearer to the lens than the axial rays.
4. SPHERICAL ABERRATION
▪ Inability of the lens to focus light passing the side of the lens
producing an image that is sharp in the center and blurred at the
side.
5. CHROMATIC ABERRATION
▪ Inability of the lens to focus light of varying wavelength. The lens
refracts rays of short wavelength more strongly than those of longer
wavelength and therefore bringing blue rays to a shorter focus than
the red.
6. DISTORTION
▪ Misrepresentation of proportions of objects or of their
arrangement in a scene.

The two main types of lens distortion are:

(1) Barrel distortion, in which the straight lines near the edges of the view frame
appear bowed outward from the center, like a barrel-shape.

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2) Pincushion distortion in which the same lines bend in towards the center.
7. FLARE
▪ Flare is non-image forming light. Reduces contrast and color
saturation. Flare is caused by very bright subject areas and
produces internal reflections in the lens.

Types of Lens According to Degree of Correction

✓ Simple Meniscus lens – this lens is usually found in simple or box camera. It is
uncorrected lens and therefore suffers from inherent defects of lenses.
✓ Rapid Rectilinear Lens – It is a combination of two achromatic lens with almost
the same focal length. This is corrected from some kinds of lens defects but not on
astigmatism.
✓ Anastigmatic lens (a.k.a. Anastigmat) - a lens designed to correct astigmatism. A
lens which is free from astigmatism and other types of lens defects. It has the ability
to focus a vertical and horizontal lines at the same time.
✓ Achromatic Lens – An achromatic lens or achromat is a lens that is designed to
limit the effects of chromatic and spherical aberration.
✓ Process lens – a super-corrected lens for astigmatism. It has a better color
correction and has the ability to produce the best definition of image in the
photographs.
✓ Fixed Focus Lens – a lens use in all fixed focus camera. Basically, it has a short
focal length and greater depth of field.

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILTER

FILTE
R o Tinted glass, gelatin or plastic discs, squares or rectangles that modify the
light passing through them.
o Filters are used in photography to change the appearance of a scene by
emphasizing, eliminating or changing color or density, generally so that
the scene can be recorded with a more natural look, on a particular film.

PURPOSE

The purpose of photographic filters is to alter the characteristics of light that reaches
the light-sensitive emulsion. As light is transmitted through a filter, at least one of the
following alterations occurs:

1. The color of light is modified.

2. The amount of light is reduced.

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3. The vibration direction of the light rays is limited.

SPECIAL- PURPOSE FILTERS

Some of the special-purpose falters you will work with include the following:

1. Neutral Density Filters

o Neutral density (ND) filters reduce the amount of light passing through a
camera lens without changing the reproduction of colors in the scene.
2. Haze Filters
o A haze filter is any filter that absorbs atmospherically scattered sunlight.
This includes contrast and correction filters. When contrast and
correction filters are used for haze penetration, they may be considered
special-purpose falters.
3. Polarizing Filters
o It is an adjustable filter, with an inner ring that screws onto the lens and an
outer ring that can be rotated. Turning the outer ring reduces or increases
the filter’s effectiveness. The polarizer absorbs glare, reducing or
eliminating reflections and darkening blue skies.
4. Skylight Filter
o A skylight filter adds warmth to a scene recorded on color
transparency film by absorbing ultraviolet radiation.
o A skylight filter is light pink in color.

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM

FIL
M o A transparent cellulose nitrate or cellulose acetate composition made in thin,
flexible strips or sheets and coated with a light-sensitive emulsion for taking
photographs.

The basic structures of a black and white film are the following:

1. Top Coating
✓ It is an over-coating of a thin layer of hard gelatin which helps protect
the silver halide emulsion from scratches and abrasions.
2. Emulsion Layer
✓ It is the light-sensitive portion of a film or paper that records the image.
Composed of silver compounds which are light sensitive, but for
photographic purposes, halogens such as bromide.
3. Film base

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✓ It is commonly made of cellulose acetate or other materials such as paper,

plastic, or glass which supports the emulsion layer and is coated with a
non-curl anti-halation backing.

4. Anti-halation backing
✓ It is a black dye applied on the rear surface of the film, its function is to
absorb light that may penetrate the emulsion layer, thus, preventing it to
reflect back to the emulsion (halation). The dye is removed during
processing by one of the chemical in the developer. Its second function is to
control the film from curling towards the emulsion layer.

Basically, the structure of color film is almost the same as black and white film except that
the emulsion layer consists of three layers, stacked one on top of the other.

1. Top layer
✓ It is sensitive to blue light only; green and red light passes through it without
exposing the color blind halides.
2. Yellow filter
✓ It is known as Carey Lea silver, suspended in gelatin is coated between the top
and second layer to absorb any penetrating blue light but freely passes green and
red light.
3. Middle layer
✓ It is orthochromatic, which is sensitive to blue (which cannot reach it) and
green, but not to red. So the red light passes on to the bottom emulsion layer.
4. Bottom layer
✓ It is panchromatic, sensitive to blue (which cannot reach it) and red. It is
also somewhat sensitive to green light but to such a slight degree that it is not
important.

FILM TYPES ACCORDING TO COLOR SENSITIVITY:

1. NON-CHROMATIC
✓ It is sensitive to ultraviolet and blue-violet colors only. This film may be
used when natural rendition is not important. For example, it is used to copy
black and white originals and to photograph colorless subjects when extreme
contrast is needed.
2. ORTHOCHROMATIC
✓ It is sensitive to blues and greens, but not to reds. Reds are recorded as dark
tones, while greens are light tones when printed.
3. PANCHROMATIC

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✓ It is sensitive to all colors and are further subdivided according to their

degree of sensitivity to each color. This film is most commonly used in
investigative photography because it produces the most natural recording of
colors.

4. INFRARED
✓ It is sensitive to blues and infrared radiation, which is beyond the human
eye’s sensitivity. It is useful in penetrating haze because of its longer
wavelengths. In investigative photography, it is useful in laboratory analysis
of questionable documents; in the discovery of old or faded tattoos or areas
where small objects are hidden under the skin; and in the construction of
camera traps.

FILM SPEED
✓ It is the sensitivity of the film emulsion to light, which is measured and
expressed in a numerical rating called ISO formerly known as ASA/DIN.
✓ This means that the higher the ISO number, the more sensitive the film is to
light, and that pictures can be taken indoors under dim light conditions.

The suggested uses of the following film under varying conditions are:

➢ ISO – 25 or lowest that condition will permit for best color and sharpness
➢ ISO – 100 or 200 – for general purpose
➢ ISO – 400 – for dim light or with moving subject
➢ ISO – 1000 and up – for extremely low light conditions

ASA (American Standards Association)

o This is expressed in arithmetic value system. The bigger the number the
more sensitive the film is.
ASA 10, 20 , 30 , 40,50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1000
DIN ( Deutche Industre Normen)
o This is expressed in Logarithmic value system. Used in the same
principle as the ASA.
Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc.
ISO (International Standard Organization)
o This is expressed as combination of ASA and DIN rating.

DARKROOM TECHNIQUES

PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSING

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▪ can be defined simply

as a series of chemical changes that accomplish the following
goals:

✓ Develop the image

✓ Stop the action of development at a desired point
✓ Fix the visible image to make it permanent
✓ Wash away all traces of chemicals used
✓ Dry the photographic material

PHOTOGRAPHIC SOLUTIONS

Developer
✓ When a photographic emulsion is exposed to light, the silver halides (usually
silver bromide and/or silver chloride) in the emulsion change chemically.
However, no noticeable change can be seen until the film is developed.
✓ The developer causes the affected silver halides to change into metallic silver
while having no effect on the unexposed silver halides. The result is that a
subject area reflecting the most light will affect the most silver halides and
will be the darkest part of the image formed in development.

Most all modern developer contains the following ingredients:

a. Developing agent/reducer – the basic and most important ingredient in the developing
solution is the reducer, Metol-hydroquinon (M-Q) is the most versatile and popular of
all developers.
b. Accelerator – Borax, sodium carbonate, Sodium hydroxide are some of the
alkalis used to increase the rate of oxidation of the reducing agent, softens the gelatin
of the film emulsion, and speeds up solution penetration.
c. Restrainer – the chemical most commonly used as a restrainer is potassium
bromide. Without the restrainer, most developing solution act too fast and developed
unexposed silver halides near the surface of the emulsion which causes fog, steaks,
and image lacking in contrast.
d. Preservative – all organic developing agents in an alkaline sate have a strong
chemical attraction to oxygen, so, preservative such as sodium sulfite or sodium
bisulfate is added to prevent excessive oxidation thus prolonging the useful life of the
developing solution and prevents the formation of colored oxidation products which
causes stains.

Stop Bath/rinse bath

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✓ It has become common practice to rinse film in running water after

development to retard development and to remove excess chemicals. With
prints, it is equally common to use an acid bath to stop the action of the
developer and prolong the life of the fixer. In either case, the bath is referred
to as a stop bath. Acetic acid diluted with water is the most commonly used
stop bath.

THREE (3) GENERAL TYPES OF RINSE BATH

➢ Water rinse bath- helps retard the action of the developing agent and remove
the excess developer from the film, thus preventing contamination of the fixing
bath.
▪ A water rinse is suitable and sufficient for most negatives,
however, it will dilute the fixer. So, if used, it should be followed
by an acid bath. The same procedure applies when processing
prints.
➢ Acid rinse bath – sometimes referred to as a stop bath and is more effective
than a water rinse, as it instantly neutralizes the action of the developer and
stops further development.
▪ It also neutralizes the alkalinity of the developer and prolongs
the life of the fixing bath. To prepare an acid bath, mix ½ oz. of
28% acetic acid in 32 oz. of water.
➢ Hardening rinse bath – use only when it is impossible to control the temperature
of the solutions, particularly the wash water, or when development is done in high
temperature or under tropical conditions.
▪ A typical hardener rinse bath contain the following: 32 oz. of
water; 1 oz of potassium chrome alum; and 1 oz sodium
bisulfate (a solution containing potassium chrome alum is very
unstable and becomes exhausted quickly with or without use).
Fixing Bath

✓ The fixing bath is employed to fix or to make the developed image

permanent by removing all the unaffected silver salt from the emulsion.
These silver salts are still sensitive; and if they are allowed to remain in the
emulsion, light ultimately darkens them and obscure the image, thus, making
the negative useless.

Fixing Bath Ingredients:

a. Fixer or fixing agent. The fixer is sometimes called “hypo” because the
conditioners to shorten processing time or to preserve other solutions. The

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solution commonly found in main ingredient of the fixer formula, sodium

thiosulfate, is also known as hyposulfate.

Typical Fixing Formula:

1. Water 520C or 125 0F - 600 ml
2. Hypo - 240 gm
3. Sodium sulfite - 15 gm(anhydrous)
4. Acetic Acid (28%) - 480 ml
5. Boric Acid (crystals) - 7.5 gm
6. Potassium alum - 15 gm(fine granular
7. Water to make - 1 li

Wash

✓ Running water is not actually required but greatly simplifies the removal
of all the chemicals previously used. The wash
step is necessary if you desire a permanent image without stains. Wash
films and papers with fresh running water for about five minutes.

Wetting Agent
✓ The wetting agent, usually called Photo-Flo, is a chemical
designed to reduce the surface tension of water, thus reducing
the possibility of water spots forming on film as it dries.
Drying
✓ The final step in processing film is to dry the wet negative which is done in
two phases. First is removal of the excess water from the surface. Second is
drying, either by evaporation or forced air.

Equipment for Film Processing

1. Tank or tray
2. Developing reel
3. Opener for film cartridge (pliers)
4. Scissors to cut the tongue of the film
5. Thermometer
6. Timer
7. Funnel
8. Photographic sponge
9. Film clips for drying
10. glass or plastic bottles (gallon size) for storing mixed solutions

Developer Formulation

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Typical component:
1. Solvent (water)
2. Developing agent
3. Preservative
4. Accelerator or activator
5. Restrainer
D-76 Film Developer Formula
1. Water 520 C - 750 ml
2. Elon - 2 gm
3. Hydroquinone - 5 gm
4. Sodium Sulfite - 100 gm
5. Borax (granules) - 2 gm
6. Water to make - 1 li

Dektol - Paper Developer

1. Water 520C or 125 0F - 500 ml
2. Elon - 311 gm
3. Hydroquinone - 12 gm
4. Sodium Sulfite - 4.5 gm
5. Sodium carbonate - 67.5 gm

THE POSITIVE OR PRINT

PRINT
✓ A photographic image printed on paper, generally a positive image made from
a negative. (Also refers to a photograph of a model that appears in print - in a
newspaper or magazine, for example.)
✓ After the process of producing the negative has been completed, a positive
image is produced from the negative which is a true representation of the relative
brightness of all parts of the object and is now called print. A print is ordinarily
made on paper that is coated with a light sensitive emulsion. This emulsion
is much the same as the one which must be used to cover the film.

BASIC LAYERS OF PRINTING PAPER

o BASE
▪ Made of paper which must be chemically pure to insure that it will not
interfere with the chemical processes to which the emulsion is
subjected. Available either in a single or double weight paper.
o BARYTA LAYER
▪ A gelatin layer containing baryta crystal to increase the reflectivity of the
paper.

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o EMULSION LAYER
▪ Contain minute silver halides suspended with gelatin which needs only
to reproduce the total range of negative.

Types of Photographic Printing Paper

1. Chloride Papers
o Have a slow speed emulsion containing silver chloride, fine grain
and produce deep blacks, and used for contact printing.
2. Bromide Papers
o Have faster emulsion speed than chloride paper, achieve sensitivity
through the use of bromide halides. Because of the relatively high
sensitivity to light, these emulsions are particularly suitable for projection
printing.
3. Chlorobromide Papers
o Contain both silver chloride and silver bromide halides. Emulsion speed
lies between that of chloride and bromide papers, used for both contact and
projection printing.
4. Variable Contrast Paper
o Combines the contrast ranges in one paper, this versatility is achieved with
special chlorobromide emulsion that produces varying contrast responses
upon exposure to different colored light.

Equipment for Paper developing

1. Three plastic trays - one each for the developer, stop-bath, and the
fixer. (The size of the tray is determined by the largest prints size).
2. Metal, plastic, or bamboo tong preferably with rubber ends to hold the prints.
3. Rubber (surgical) hand gloves.
4. Timers
5. Paper cutter
6. A bigger tray or tank for washing prints.

PRINTING

✓ In Photography, printing is the term used to describe the process of making

positive images from negatives (and, in some instances, from film positives).
✓ Photographic print is made by passing light through the negative onto
a piece of paper that is coated with a light- sensitive emulsion very similar
to film.

Types of Printing

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Contact Printing
o It is the process of making positive prints by placing a sheet of printing paper
in direct contact with the negative, emulsion to emulsion.
o It is the quickest, simplest, and most economical method of producing
photographic prints. For making proof prints and small volume printing,
all you need for a “contact printer” is a sheet of glass, a light source, and
some sort of padding.
o “Contact printers,” consisting of a sheet of glass hinged to a metal frame
and a pad assembly, are generally known as proof printers.

Contact Print
o A print made with the negative in contact (held tightly against) the photographic
paper so that both negative and print are the same size.

Projection printing
o Generally refers to enlarging.
o It is the process of making positive prints by projecting the negative
image onto photosensitive paper.
o The projected image may be enlarged, the same as the
negative image, or reduced in size. When the print images are larger than the
negative images, the process is called enlarging.
o When the print images are smaller than the negative images,
the process is called reducing.
o Because projection printing is usually used to make positive prints with
images larger than the negative, projection printers are usually
referred to as enlargers.

The advantages of projection printing are as follows:

1. CROPPING - Removal of parts of an image in order to improve the image’s

composition. Cropping occurs when an area that is smaller than the entire image
frame is printed or reproduced.
▪ Cropping is sometimes also used in reference to a photographer
moving closer to a subject, thereby eliminating (cropping)
unnecessary surrounding elements from the composition.
2. Dodging or burning in. This allows you to apply local exposure control to bring
out more detail in the highlight and shadow areas.
▪ DODGING - Blocking a portion of the light when printing a
photograph so that an area of the print will be made lighter.
▪ BURNING or Burning-in - Also known as "Printing in." In a
darkroom, providing extra exposure to an area of the print to make it
darker, while blocking light from the rest of the print.

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3. Local fogging with a small external light, such as a penlight, to darken selected
areas. For example, to darken the background of a portrait to direct viewer
attention to the face.
4. Special effects. You can change the appearance of the image by use of
diffusers or patterns between the lens and paper.
5. Image distortion correction or introduction can be done by tilting the enlarger
easel. An easel is the device used to hold the paper during exposure.

PHOTOGRAPHIC ENLARGERS
✓ In general, all enlargers are similar in design and operation. They have an
enclosed light source, some method of providing an even distribution of
light over the negative, a negative carrier, a lens, and a means of adjusting
the lens-to-negative and lens-to- paper distances.

TWO TYPES OF ENLARGERS:

1. Condenser Enlarger
▪ It has a set of condensing lenses between the printing light and the
negative. These lenses align and project the light rays evenly
through the negative. Since all features of the negative are being
enlarged, any flaws also will be enlarged.
2. Diffusion Enlarger
▪ The diffusion enlarger has a diffusing medium (usually a ground
glass) between the light source and the negative to spread the light
evenly over the entire surface of the negative. Light
emitted from the lamp, as
well as that reflected from the parabolic reflector, strikes the
diffuser, which, in turn, scatters it in all directions. Thus, when the
light reaches the negative, it is traveling in a no directional pattern.

FINAL COVERAGE
CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

There is no prescribed length of time it takes to photographically document a crime

scene. The amount of time spent depends on the size and complication in the crime
scene, how much there is to document and environmental factors like weather or
danger to the investigative team. It can consist of thousands of photographs and hours of
work.

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Crime scene photography should not just focus on the obvious. The purpose of crime
scene photography is to document what is there and where it is in relationship to the
scene, whether it is obviously connected to the crime or not.

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

✓ Also referred to as crime scene photography, is an activity that records the

initial appearance of the crime scene and physical evidence, in order to
provide a permanent record for the courts.

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHERS

✓ Shall provide assistance to investigate units of the PNP, AFP and other
government investigative institutions through photography, sketching,
facial composite, video recording and comparative examination and
photograph analysis.

CRIME SCENES

✓ It can be major sources of physical evidence that is used to associate or

link suspects to scenes, victims to scenes, and suspects to victims.
✓ A place where the crime was perpetrated and physical evidence found
thereat.
✓ This is Locard's exchange principle. It is the basic tenet of why crime scenes
should be investigated. Anything found at a crime scene can be physical
evidence.
✓ In scientific crime scene investigation, the first activities at the crime scene
are essential for the successful preservation of the physical evidence. The first
responder and ultimately the crime scene investigator have the obligation
to make the scene secure and ensure that any further activities at the scene
do not change the evidence.
✓ All forensic photography must consider three elements at a crime scene: the
subject, the scale, and a reference object. Also, the overall forensic
photographs must be shown a neutral and accurate representation.

CRIME SCENE EVIDENCE

RULE 128 (SECTION 1 Evidence defined)

✓ It is the means, sanctioned by these rules, of ascertaining in a judicial
proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact.

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(Sec. 3. Admissibility of evidence)

✓ Evidence is admissible when it is relevant to the issue and is not
excluded by the law of these rules.
✓ Crime scenes are the source of the physical evidence that is used to
associate or link suspects to scenes, victims to scenes, and suspects to
victims.

FORENSIC EVIDENCE

✓ A form of legal evidence that can be used in a court of law to convict a

person of a crime and as a category of public presentation.

ESSENTIAL 3 STEPS ON CRIME SCENE

The first activities at the crime scene are essential for the successful
preservation of the physical evidence.

1. FIRST RESPONDERS
▪ The crime scene investigator is rarely the first person at a crime
scene. Most first responders work on reflex or instinct at the scene.
Their tasks are to save lives or apprehend suspects. Unfortunately,
that may mean that physical evidence may be inadvertently
altered, changed, or lost due to the actions of a first responder.
The crime scene investigator needs to communicate with the first
responders to determine if any changes or alterations have occurred
at the scene before the scene investigator arrived.

THE SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS, RESPONSIBILITIES AND PROCEDURES

OF THE FIRST RESPONDER (PNP HANDBOOK)

FIRST RESPONDER (FR)

o The first Police Officers to arrive at the crime scene are the FRs who were
dispatched by the local police station/unit concerned after receipt of
incident/flash/ alarm report;
o Immediately, the FR shall conduct a preliminary evaluation of the crime
scene. This evaluation should include the scope of the incident, emergency
services required, scene safety concerns, administration of life-saving
measures, and establishment of security and control of the scene;
o The FR is mandated to save and preserve life by giving the necessary first-
aid measures to the injured and their medical evacuation as necessary.

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o The FR shall likewise secure and preserve the crime scene by

cordoning off the area to prevent unauthorized entry of persons;
o The FR shall take the dying declaration of severely injured person/s, if
any. Requisites of a “Dying Declaration” are:
• That death is imminent and the declarant is conscious of
that fact;
• That the declaration refers to the cause and surrounding
circumstances of such death;
• That the declaration relates to facts which the victim is
competent to testify to;

2. CRIME SCENE SECURITY

▪ Locard's exchange principle is the basis for the use of physical

evidence in a criminal investigation, it is extremely important
for the crime scene to be made secure and restrict the access to
the crime scene by nonessential people. Many agencies allow
easy access to crime scenes by anyone in the agency. Most media
persons are kept out but changes to the scene and evidence can
change in attempts to protect victims.

3. PRELIMINARY SCENE SURVEY

▪ The preliminary scene survey or walk-through is the crime scene
investigator’s first opportunity to view the target area crime scene.
A simple visual search for obvious physical evidence can be
accomplished at this time. It is during this first viewing of the crime
scene that the scene investigator should note any transient or
temporary items of evidence and protect them immediately. Melting
snow footwear impression are examples of this transient evidence.

FUNCTIONS OF THE FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY DIVISION OF PNP CRIME

LABORATORY

1. Document the crime scene and physical evidence present through photography,
videography and sketching.
2. Conduct mug shots photography on the suspects and crime victims for personal
identification.
3. Photograph evidence submitted to this laboratory before, during and after the
examination.
4. Conduct comparative examination and photograph analysis on the standard and
questioned photographs.

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5. Conduct facial composite based on the actual description of the suspects by the
victim and/or witness.
6. Ensure preservation of photographic evidence and records.
7. Present before any court of law and/or legally mandated agency the photographic
evidence, records and testimonies of the photography examiners.
8. Conduct lectures to military/police training institutions, government agencies and
public/private schools upon request.

SCENE OF THE CRIME OPERATION (SOCO)

➢ A forensic procedure performed by the trained personnel of the PNP Crime

Laboratory SOCO Team through scientific methods of investigation for the purpose
of preserving the crime scene, gathering information, documentation, collection, and
examination of all physical and other forensic evidence.

◼ The SOCO Team shall not join any operations conducted by the local police
or accompany the FRs or the IOC in going to the crime scene. They will only
respond upon request through the Operations Center and after the IOC has
already made proper assessment of the crime scene;
◼ Upon receipt of the Request for Conduct of SOCO, the SOCO Team shall
then conduct the scene of the crime operations.
◼ In case the SOCO Team needs to temporarily suspend the processing, the
Chief of Police shall be primarily responsible and accountable for securing
the crime scene.

BASIC SCENE OF THE CRIME OPERATION TEAM COMPOSITION

TEAM LEADER

1. Responsible for the safety and work performance of the individual members of the
SOCO Team at the crime and conduct initial walk-through for purposes of crime
scene assessment, making preliminary survey, evaluation of potential evidence, and
preparing a narrative description.
2. Designate command post location and ensure exchange of information between
search and investigative personnel.
3. Control access to the scene and designate a personnel to record in the
contamination log everyone who enters the crime scene for a purpose.
4. Continuously evaluate efficiency of search during the entire course of operation.

PHOTOGRAPHER

1. Photograph entire area before it is entered.

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2. Photograph victims, crowd and vehicles.

3. Photograph entire scene with general, medium, close up coverage and extreme close
up view using scale when appropriate.
4. Photograph major evidence items before they are moved. Coordinate this effort with
the sketcher, evidence custodian and evidence recovery personnel.
5. Photograph all latent fingerprints, and other impression evidence before lifting and
casting is accomplished.
6. Photograph blueprints, maps and previous photographs of scene as required.
7. Take final photographs to show final condition as released.

SKETCH PREPARER

1. Make a diagram of the immediate area of scene. It must be oriented to the north.
2. Indicate on sketch the pieces of evidence and coordinate evidence nomenclature
with evidence custodian and evidence collector.
3. Indicate adjacent structures, areas and other objects as necessary and identify and
label areas to be searched and inform team leader and all other search members of
nomenclature for identified areas.
4. Obtain appropriate assistance for taking measurements and list assistants on sketch.

THE MECHANICS OF SEACRHING THE CRIME SCENE

1. STRIP METHOD = the searchers (A, B, and C) proceed slowly at the same pace along
the path parallel to one side of the rectangle.
2. DOUBLE STRIP OR GRID METHOD = Method, the rectangle is traversed first parallel
to the bas and then parallel to the side.
3. SPIRAL METHOD = a) Inward Spiral method
b) Outward Spiral Method
4. WHEEL METHOD = the searchers shall assemble at the center of the crime scene,
then simultaneously searching the crime scene outward.
5. ZONE OR SECTOR METHOD = the area to be searched is divided into quadrants
and each searcher or a group of searcher is assigned to the quadrant.

SKETCHING THE CRIME SCENE

The General Kinds of Sketch

1. Rough Sketch is the sketch made by the investigator at the crime scene which is full of
important details but without the scale of proportion. This is used as the basis for the finished
sketch.

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2. Finished sketch is the sketch with a scale of proportion and drawn by a draftsman which
can be used for court presentation. Rough and finished sketches if requested by the court shall
be presented by the draftsman to clear doubts of the jury.

PARTS OF SKETCH

The following are parts of sketch that is usually practiced by the Philippine
National Police (PNP). This may vary depending on the sketcher and purpose of sketch.

1. Title
2. Body
3. Compass direction
4. Nature of case
5. Location of incident
6. Date/time of incident
7. Name of victim
8. Name of suspect
9. Legend
10. Signatory
11. Date and time

EVIDENCE LOG RECORDER/CUSTODIAN

1. Prepare evidence log.

2. Coordinate evidence nomenclature with the sketcher, photographer and
evidence collector/processor.
3. Receive and record all collected evidence at the crime scene.
4. Undertake evidence packaging and preservation.
5. Maintain chain of custody of evidence.
6. Coordinate transmittal of evidence to the concerned office for appropriate
forensic laboratory examination.

DRIVER/SECURITY

1. Ensure that the vehicle is properly maintained.

2. Provide physical security to the SOCO members and equipment.
3. Account SOCO equipment before leaving the scene.

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MASTER NOTE TAKER

✓ The one who writes down in short hand all observations at the crime scene
such as: weather condition, time of dispatch and time of arrival at the crime
scene and other relevant data that’s should be taken down note.

MEASURER
✓ Makes all relevant measurements of the scene such as: the distance of
the body of the victim to the firearm used; in motor vehicle collision, the
distances of the two vehicles to the points of references.

EVIDENCE PROCESSOR/COLLECTOR

✓ This generally refers to the different crime scene technicians or forensic

specialist who by virtue of their training or specialization are necessary to
identify and collect physical evidence from the crime scene. The services of
these forensic personnel shall be attached to the SOCO team depending on the
SOCO requirements of the reported crime scene.

COLLECTING OF EVIDENCE

➢ In collecting firearm as evidence found in the crime scene, cautious action should be
employed. The firearm should be lifted using string or handkerchief in its trigger
guard to avoid destruction of possible latent prints in the firearm.
➢ Liquid evidences such as blood, mucous, urine and other body fluid can be collected
using dropper and stored in a sealed container to maintain the same physical nature
as found in the crime scene. However, clotted blood and other hardened evidences
can be collected by scraping with the use of any available instrument. Samples are
very important for laboratory testing.

MARKING OF EVIDENCE

➢ As evidence is collected, it is individually marked with the initials of the

investigator. The marking tool depends upon the nature of the evidence. If it is a
hard object such as metals, the initial are scratched or engraved by the use of sharp-
pointed steel, which is called stylus.

METHODS OF MARKING SPECIFIC EVIDENCE

✓ Revolvers must be marked separately on the BARREL, FRAME, BUTT,

CYLINDER, and STOCK. Tape should also be put around the bore and the frame
of the gun with signature of the investigator.

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✓ Pistols must be marked on the BARREL, FRAME, BUTT, MAGAZINE, and

STOCK. Tape must also be put around the gun with signature to avoid changing
the parts of the gun that may affect the result of laboratory examination.
✓ Rifles should be marked on the BARREL, FRAME, MAGAZINE, and BOLT
OR SLIDE. All magazines and accessories shall also be marked.

Fired Empty Shells, Misfired Cartridges

Strictly regulations say they must be marked inside the mouth of fired empty shells.
It is nearly impossible to mark them inside the mouth, especially .22 caliber shells. But they
could be marked on the side of the body of the shells, not on the base.

➢ BULLETS/ SLUGS/ BALLS – A bullet or slug can be marked on the

ogive or nose as well as in the base.
➢ Shotgun balls when collected in the crime scene should also be put into
container with tag that indicates where it was found with some relevant
measurements aside from what is sketched.
➢ Every collected evidence is marked. If they are of the same class or type such
as Cal 45 caliber fired empty shells, they are marked consecutively such as:
JCT 1, JCT 2, JCT 3 and so forth and so on, depending on the initials of
the investigator.

TAGGING EVIDENCE
➢ Evidence which by their nature could NOT BE marked on each surface such as
blood, hairs, fibers, are placed in the plastic container where that container is then
marked, we call such practice as tagging the physical evidence with the use of card
where the initials of the investigator, date and time of collection, specific case and
other information can be written.

FORENSIC SPECIALISTS

✓ Refers to the PNP Crime Lab personnel who by academic preparation,

series of specialized trainings, and/or occupational exposure had acquired the
required technical expertise in any of the following PNP Crime Laboratory’s
core competencies:
a. Medico Legal or any of its branches.
b. Forensic Chemistry or any of its branches.
c. Physical Identification or any its branches.
d. Firearms identification.
e. Fingerprint identification.
f. Document Examination.

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g. Polygraph Examination
h. Forensic Photography.

GENERAL CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

Purpose of Crime Scene Photography

o To record the original scene and related areas

o To record the initial appearance of physical evidence
o It will provide investigators and others with this permanent visual
record of the scene for later use
o Photographs are also used in court trials and hearings

BASIC EQUIPMENT FOR CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Camera(s)
2. Normal lens
3. Wide angle lens
4. Close-up lenses or accessories
5. Filters
6. Electronic flash(s)
7. Remote or sync cord for electronic flash(s)
8. Extra camera and flash batteries
9. Locking cable release
10. Tripod
11. Film
12. Owner's manuals for camera and flash
13. Notebook and pen
14. Ruler
15. Gray card
16. Index cards and felt pen
17. Flashlight
18. Lenses

SEQUENTIAL PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE CRIME SCENE

Each crime has individual features that should be photographed. Show the nature of
the offense and those features that established the elements of the offense. Other similar
evidence or articles present of left at the crime scene shall be photographed in the following
manner:

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1. General view of the exterior of the building/vehicle with relation to other

buildings, vehicles, roads, streets etc.
2. Medium view and close-up views of the subjects but not limited to the following:
▪ Possible point of entry, outside and inside
▪ Possible point of exit
▪ Condition of the crime scene
▪ Articles/objects left at the scene
▪ Area from which valuable articles were removed
▪ Trace evidence (hairs, fibers, cigarette butts, etc.)
▪ Tool marks and impressions of shoes or tire tracks
▪ Fingerprints and foot prints as well as other articles on which
these prints may be found.
REMEMBER:
o The forensic photographer should begin taking photographs of the scene as
soon as possible after arriving at the area to assure that the scene is depicted
as it is observed in its original uninterrupted state. “NOTHING SHOULD
BE TOUCHED OR MOVED IN THE SCENE UNTIL IT HAS BEEN
THOROUGHLY PHOTOGRAPHED AND DOCUMENTED”.

PROCEDURES IN PHOTOGRAPHING THE CRIME SCENE

The case identifier shall always be clearly visible in the photographs. The
following procedure shall be done on all crime scenes in a logical manner:

GENERAL VIEW OR LONG RANGE VIEW

o General View or Long Range photographs of the overall scene

fundamentally are taken to portray the areas as if a person viewing the
scene is seeing it from the standing position. To obtain this result, the
photographer takes the photograph with the camera at eye level.
o To establish the crime scene, photograph shall include any reference points,
such as building with signage, road street name, electric post etc.

MEDIUM VIEW OR MID-RANGE

o Medium View or Mid-Range photographs are taken in a manner which

portrays the scene from approximately ten to twenty feet distance from
the subject matter. In order that the viewer be permitted to associate the
crime scene with separate areas of the scene

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photographed, these areas should contain sufficient detail to permit the

viewer this association.

CLOSE-UP VIEW/RANGE
o Close-up Range photographs are normally taken approximately five feet
or less from the subject matter. The attention of close-up photography is
directed to objects which could not effectively be seen in the long-range
and mid-range photographs.

EXTREME CLOSE-UP RANGE

✓ Extreme Close-up Range is intended only for capturing a photo of a

minute objects.
✓ Shall be taken to identify the details and the extent of damage on the subject.

GUIDELINES IN TAKING PHOTOGRAPHS OF A CRIME SCENE

• ESTABLISH SHOT- this is an over-all view from extreme to the other.

• THE BUILDING- show the building in which the crime was committed.
• THE ENTRANCE- this is usually the door, maybe window.
• THE HALLWAY- the camera now shows us what we would observe immediately
after we enter the building.
• THE ROOM- this maybe a bedroom, an office or a bathroom.

THE PHOTOGRAPHERS LOG/NOTE

✓ The photographers log is his/her personal record to make detailed notes

that will remain fully meaningful even months after the scene. Note should
be supplemented by sketches and photographs of the scene.

The notes shall begin with:

1. Nature of the case

2. Requesting party
3. Officer on case
4. Camera used/model
5. Lens used
6. Flash used
7. Time started photographing time ended photographing
8. Weather condition
9. Aperture and shutter speed used

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10. Description of objects being photographed

IDENTIFICATION THROUGH MARKING

✓ Evidence tag are essential in report writing to classify cadavers from

objects found at the crime scene.

LETTERS A, B, C, D etc. shall be used on dead body.

NUMBERS 1,2,3,4, etc. shall be used on objects.

PHOTOGRAPHING THE SPECIAL CRIME SCENE

1. HOMICIDE/MURDER

✓ When photographing a homicide/murder case, the photographer relates what

he has seen and defends it before the court during trial. He shows the manner
by which the homicide or murder occurred through photographs he has
taken and the views of the room with all the possible points of entrance and
exit.
✓ Photographs must show if there is any evidence of struggle and try to show
what happen inside prior to the crime.
✓ The circumstances of death can be illustrated by various views of the body.
Take close-up shots of the wounds, bruises, weapon used and the place where
it was taken.

PROCEDURE:

➢ OUTSIDE THE RESIDENCE

a. Body of the victim
b. Face of the victim and body wounds
c. Instrument used
d. Trace evidence (hairs, fibers and the like)
e. Signs of activity prior to the incident.
f. Evidence of struggle
➢ INSIDE THE RESIDENCE
a. Overlapping shots of the entire walls and move around the show the
position of the victim and any potential items of evidence.
b. Face of the victim and body wounds
c. Instrument used
d. Trace evidence
e. Signs of activity prior to the incident.
f. Evidence of struggle

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2. CASES OF ALLEGED SUICIDE and OTHER FOUND DEAD BODY

RESPONSES

a. ALLEGED SUICIDE BY SHOOTING

✓ Usually the hair surrounding the entrance is singeing and the skin is burned
to a reddish or grayish-brown color. If the muzzle of the firearm is less than
20 cm. from the point of entry, smudging may be evident. Exit wound is
always larger than the diameter of the bullet.

PROCEDURE:

➢ Face of the victim for identification

➢ Medium and close-up shots on both entrance and exit of gunshot wounds with case
identifier and label.
➢ Photograph letter or suicide note, if any.

b. ALLEGED SUICIDE BY HANGING

➢ Photograph the body on its hanging position showing both ends of the rope where
it was tied- neck and ceiling with case identifier
➢ Close-up shots of the face of the victim, the knot and the ligature in the neck.
➢ Put a scale on its toe to the ground to determine the distance.
➢ Photograph letter or suicide note, if any.

3. ROBBERY
✓ Determine the robber’s possible point of entrance and exit. Robbers may leave
at the crime scene trace evidence like fingerprints, shoeprints, tool marks, or
personal items.

PROCEDURE:

➢ Place /area at any angle from a distance sufficient to show the evidence of being
ransacked so that it can be located and referred to in the overall crime scene
photographs.
➢ Area from which valuable articles were removed
➢ Personal items left by the robbers
➢ Traces of evidence on the damage parts of the house
➢ Damage locks, windows, doors, tool marks

4. TRAFFIC INCIDENTS

➢ When taking photographs of traffic accidents and hit and run cases,
view each drivers approaching key point of the accident and from
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the point of a witness who observed the same. Consider where the
vehicles comes to rest and in what position, photographs should show
the relationship of vehicles with each other.
PROCEDURE
:

1. Location with reference points

2. Vehicles in their original positions
3. Debris
4. Skid/tire marks
5. Victim/s
6. Plate numbers of both vehicles
7. Evidence to identify hit and run vehicles

MARKINGS IN THE FIELD OF VIEW

Measuring devices such as rulers, yardsticks ad tape measures shall be used to show
the relative size of and distances between objects or the degree of magnification of the
enlargement. The markers shall be placed beside the object in a manner that will not
obscure any important piece of evidence.

Many times, courts object the use of rulers and marking devices that appear in
photographs of a crime scene. Therefore, photographs shall be taken in 2 ways:

a. First, without scale so as to show the original condition and so as not

tamper the evidence.
b. Second, with scale and chalk line to show its size and its continuity.

PRESERVATION OF FINGERPRINTS THROUGH

PHOTOGRAPHS

When possible, fingerprints found at the crime scene shall be preserved by

photography before in attempts are made at preserving them.

The following shall be photographed with case identifier:

a. Place/object at any angle from a distance sufficient to show the fingerprints against
the background of its setting so that it can be located and referred to in the overall
crime scene photographs.
b. Fingerprints with and without scale
c. While dusting and lifting the fingerprint/s with case identifier.
d. Do not use flash
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PHOTOGRAPHING IMPRESSION EVIDENCE

1. FOOTWEAR and FOOT PRINT

➢ Take a shots from a distance sufficient to show the object distance against
the background of its setting so that it can be located and referred to in the
over-all crime scene.
➢ Medium shots before and after reproductions are made by plaster cast to
clearly show - the nature of the object.
➢ Close-up shots to clearly identify its characteristics.
2. TIRE IMPRESSION
➢ Photographs at different angles from a distance sufficient to show the
length of the tire impression and skid marks.
➢ Close-up shots to clearly identify its characteristics.

BLOOD STAIN PHOTOGRAPHY

Procedure:

1. Take an orientation photograph to show where the bloodstain evidence is, so that it can
be located and referred to in the overall crime scene.
2. Take overlapping shots around the area to show the entire house/room
3. Close-up shots on the blood to clearly show its characteristics.

MEDICO LEGAL CASES

AUTOPSY

➢ It is also known as post-mortem examination, it is a highly specialized

surgical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a corpse to
determine the cause and manner of death and to evaluate any disease
or injury that may be present.
➢ With due respect, during post mortem examination, genital organ should be
covered.
➢ Take the following shots before and after the body has been stripped:
a. Whole body in full length views
b. Mug shot photography
c. On an unidentified cadaver, include the identifying marks
particularly tattoos, moles, scars and the like.
d. Close-up shots on the entrance and exit wounds as well as the
external wounds inflicted or suffered by the victim.

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e. Take other photographs as per instruction of the medico

legal officer.

SEX OFFENSE EXAMINATION

➢ The crime of rape may be taken as typical class of offense. If the victim is
minor, the photograph must be taken in the presence of the parents and/or
medico legal officer.
➢ The photographer should be of the same sex of the victim.

Photographs the following:

1. Mug shots of the victim.

2. Medium and close-up shots on the wounds and bruises of the victim with scale and
case identifier as directed by the medico legal offer.

FIREARMS, BULLETS, WADS AND FIRED CARTRIDGE CASES

PROCEDURE:

1. Photograph both sides of the firearms in full view to determine the caliber, serial
number and other identifying marks or descriptions.
2. Macro photograph on the fired bullets, fired cartridge cases, bullets fragments, shot
gun shells, pellets, magazine and embedded bullet inside the barrel.

MUG SHOT PHOTOGRAPHY OF A LIVING PERSON

The subject shall be positioned in front of the height scale holding the name tag without
footwear to determine his/her exact height. Photograph the subject with case identifier in four
different angles.

1. Front view- half body

2. Left side view- half body
3. Right side view- half body
4. Front view- whole body

PREPARATION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE and ITS ADMISSIBILITY

Currently, the admissibility of photographic evidence is based on two different theories.

➢ Under the “Pictorial Testimony” Theory, photographic evidence is
admissible when a sponsoring witness can testify that it is a

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fair and accurate representation of the subject matter. It is important to

note, this theory is based on the personal observation(s) of the witness.
➢ Under the “Silent Witness” Theory, photographic evidence is
admissible if the process used to produce the photograph is accurate
and reputable. This theory speaks for itself, hence the “silent witness”
designation.

➢ These two theories represent a departure from earlier requirements, which

required authenticating testimony from the photographer and/or an expert
witness regarding the reliability of the recording process.
For example, when a defense seeks to minimize the injury to the plaintiff’s person by
showing minor injury to the vehicle via photographs, expert testimony may be required. Thus,
before photographic evidence is used at trial, the trial attorney must consider the
PURPOSE of the photographic evidence and the need for expert testimony.

A picture offered as evidence should be faithful representation of the subject matter

from the study of photographs, the viewer should receive an impression of the scene as object,
which does not mislead him in any important aspect.
It should be free of unusual distortion of lines of shapes and of any tone
relationship. Important subject matter should be in sharp focus.

Admissibility: Evidence photograph may be divided into two categories:

1. Those which represent objects of evidence and simply serve in place of an object or a
verbal description of it.
2. Those which are designed to prove a point or bearing on an issue in the case such as a
comparison photograph of evidence.

Guidelines for Ensuring Your Digital Photographs Are Admissible

Develop a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP), Department Policy, or General Order

on the use of digital imaging. The SOP should include when digital imaging is used,
chain of custody, image security, image enhancement, and release and availability of
digital images. The SOP should not apply just too digital, but should also include film-
based and video applications as well.
Most importantly, preserve the original digital image. This can be done a variety of
ways including saving the image file to a hard drive or recording the image file to a CD.
Some agencies elect to use image security software.

Two court decisions regarding digital images include:

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1. State of Washington vs. Eric Hayden, 1995: A homicide case was taken through a
Kelly-Frye hearing in which the defense specifically objected on the grounds that the
digital images were manipulated. The court authorized the use of digital imaging and
the defendant was found guilty. In 1998 the Appellate Court upheld the case on appeal.
2. State of California vs. Phillip Lee Jackson, 1995: The San Diego (CA) Police
Department used digital image processing on a fingerprint in a double homicide case.
The defense asked for a Kelly-Frye hearing, but the court ruled this unnecessary on
the argument that digital processing is a readily accepted practice in forensics and that
new information was not added to the image.

THE PHOTOGRAPHER IN COURT

In testifying, his purpose should be to EXPLAIN not to DEFEND his photograph.

His replies to queries should be directly responsive at all times. If he does not understand the
question, he should request clarification. When the nature of the question requires that he
consult his notes, he should request permission from the judge.
QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PHOTOGRAPHER

Since photographer is giving opinion evidence, the court technically regards him as an
EXPERT WITNESS. Nevertheless, he need not be an expert photographer in the
professional sense and should not represent himself as such. He should be presented as an
experienced photographer, proficient in the TECHNIQUE THAT WERE USED IN
PRODUCING THE EVIDENCE PHOTOGRAPHS.

Before his pictures are admitted in evidence, the photographer may be asked certain
questions to establish his COMPETENCE on the basis of his experience and training. Hence, he
must be prepared to prove to the satisfaction of the court that his training and experience have
qualified him for the work related to physical evidence.

RELEVANCE AND MATERIALITY

A. TEST DETERMINING THE RELEVANCY

1. Photographs are admissible whenever they assist the court to understand the case.
2. Photographs are admissible when they assisted witness in explaining his
testimony.
B. NECESSITY OF PRELIMINARY PROOF OF ACCURACY
- A photograph taken in ordinary way usually is an accurate record of image cast by
the lens upon the film, but as distortion is possible through the manner in which the camera
or negative is used, a photograph is admitted as evidence when it is proven

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and there must always preliminary proofs that it is a correct representation of the
subject.

RELATED
LAWS:
E-COMMERCE LAW [R.A. NO. 8792]

RULE 3 (ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTS)

SEC. 2. Admissibility. – An electronic document is admissible in evidence if it complies
with the rules on admissibility prescribed by the Rules of Court and related laws and is
authenticated in the manner prescribed by these Rules.
RULE 11
AUDIO, PHOTOGRAPHIC. VIDEO AND EPHEMERAL EVIDENCE

SECTION 1. Audio, video and similar evidence. – Audio, photographic and video
evidence of events, acts or transactions shall be admissible provided is shall be shown,
presented or displayed to the court and shall be identified, explained or authenticated
by the person who made the recording or by some other person competent to testify on
the accuracy thereof.

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THE END
REFERENCES:
1. PNP Manual 2015 edition (Forensic Photography examiners manual)
2. Criminalistics review materials 2nd edition (Darlito Bernard G. Delizo)
3. Police photography, Manila Central Book Supply Inc. Garcia G.M. (2003)
4. Forensic Photography Villarba W.W. (2008)
5. Police photography; Lessons for criminology students Mandaluyong city National
bookstore Montojo F.G. (2006)
6. Unpublished notes on Forensic Photography (Mrs. Cherry Ann Avena-Cabarrubias)
7. Unpublished notes on Police Photography (Mr. Aristotle Monforte +)
8. PNP manual 2011 edition (Crime scene investigation)
9. Outline on Forensic Photography University of Carolina (Steven Staggs )
10. www.google.com.
11. www.wikipedia.com.

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