PASAR 2024:

ACADEMIC REVIEW
PROGRAM
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 1.2 DECIMAL
ALGEBRA • In adding and subtracting decimal
numbers, align the decimal points of all
1. Arithmetic decimal numbers before applying either
of these two operations.
1.1 FRACTION
Example
• Determine the Least Common
Denominator (LCD) so that you can 15.75
convert the fractions into equivalent + 5.7897
fractions for the purpose of performing 21.5397
addition and subtraction.
• For multiplication, ignore first the
Example decimal point and just multiply the
3 1 6 1 7 factors as whole numbers. Then get the
+ = + = total number of digits after the decimal
4 8 8 8 8
points has for every factor. This is
where the decimal point will be placed
2 5 6 10 4
16 2
8 on the product, counting will start from
−
+ = + = 𝑜𝑟
6 9 18 18 18 9 the right.
Example
• For multiplication, Multiply the
2.11 → 2 decimal places
numerators together and the x 4.21 → 2 decimal places
denominators together to perform the 211
multiplication of fractions. In the case of 422
mixed fractions, first convert them into 844
improper fractions and then carry out 8.8831 → 4 decimal places
the multiplication.
• For division, move the decimal point of
Example the divisor to the right until it becomes a
7 3 21 whole number. Move the decimal of
× = point of the dividend the same number
6 6 36
3 4 15 28 420 of times as the divisor. Align the decimal
2 ×3 = × =
6 8 6 8 48 place of the new dividend to the
quotient.

• For division, get the reciprocal fraction Example

of the divisor and then multiply it to the 2.2
dividend. For mixed fractions, convert
2.5|5.50 = 25|55.0
them first to improper fractions.
- 50
Example 50
2 4 3 7 21 _- 50_
3 ÷ = × = 0
5 7 5 4 20
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1.3 PERCENTAGE Example
• A method in doing operations with Given:
percentages is converting them first into
decimal numbers and then applying the Set A = {3,6,12,18}, Set B containing all
methods for decimal numbers. To even numbers less than 12, and Set C
convert percentages to decimal containing all prime between 10 and
numbers, just move the decimal point 20.
two places to the left.
𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = {3, 6, 12, 18}
Example
Set B containing all even numbers less
- 45.7% = 0.457 than 12 = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
- 550% = 5.50
- 65.4% = 0.654 Set C containing all prime numbers
between 10 and 20 = {11, 13, 17, 19}
2. Sets Now, to find the union of these sets
(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶), you need to combine all
• Universal Set – is the set containing all
the unique elements from each set.
the distinct elements or objects. It is
usually denoted by the letter ‘U’. The union of set A, B, and C is:

• Subset – is a set containing distinct 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶

elements which is a part of a bigger set. {𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔, 𝟖, 𝟏𝟎, 𝟏𝟏, 𝟏𝟐, 𝟏𝟑, 𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗}

• Null Set – has no elements in it. It is

denoted by the symbol ‘∅’.

• Finite Set – is a set with finite or

countable number of elements.
Examples:
- Set a = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} • The INTERSECTION between two or
- Set containing vowel letters of the more sets is defined as the set which
English alphabet. contains all the common elements
among the given sets. It is denoted by
• Infinite Set – is a set with infinite the symbol ‘∩’.
number of elements.
- Set of whole numbers Example
- Set of real numbers
Given:
2.1 SET OPERATIONS Set A = {A, B, C, D,E}, Set B containing
all vowels, and Set C containing all
• The UNION between two or more sets
consonants.
is defined as the set which contains the
elements in all the given sets combined. The intersection of set A, B, and C is:
It is denoted by the symbol ‘∪’.
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 = {{𝑨,
} or
𝑬}empty set
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 Illustrations:

• The COMPLEMENT of a given set is

defined as the set containing all
elements not included in the given set.
It is denoted by an apostrophe (’) after
the given set’s label. The complement
of set A is the same as A’.
Illustrations:

Example
A’
Given:

𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4,5}
𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝐵 = {2,4,6,8,10}
B’
𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝐶 = {3,6,9,12,15}

C’ Set Differences:
𝐴 – 𝐵 = {𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟓}
The complement of the 𝐵 – 𝐶 = {𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟖, 𝟏𝟎}
universal set or ‘∪’ is
𝐶 – 𝐴 = {𝟔, 𝟗, 𝟏𝟐, 𝟏𝟓}
always the NULL SET.

3. Real Number System

• Natural numbers (or counting
The complement of a numbers) – are 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on up
null set or ‘∅’ is always to infinity. The set of natural numbers
the UNIVERSAL SET. can be denoted by the symbol ‘Ν’.

• Whole numbers – are just basically the

• The Set Difference between a given set Natural numbers but 0 is included.
A and set B is defined as the set
containing all elements found in A but
• Integers – are the combination of
not found in B. The notation for this
natural numbers, their additive inverses
operation is the same in subtraction of
numbers.

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 (negative numbers), and 0. The set of
integers is denoted by ‘J’ or ‘Z’ → Identity matrix – is a square matrix
that has 1’s on the main diagonals
• Rational numbers – are numbers and 0’s for all other entries.
which can be expressed as a ratio
between two integers. Decimals which 1 0 0
terminate or have a repeating pattern 0 1 0
are considered rational numbers. 0 0 1

• Irrational numbers – are numbers → Zero matrix – is a square matrix with

which cannot be expressed as a ratio or only 0’s as its elements.
a fraction. Non-terminating decimals
0 0 0
with no repeating pattern are irrational
0 0 0
numbers. Some examples are the value 0 0 0
of pi, Euler’s number (e), and √2.
→ Determinant – is a single number
• Real numbers – is a set of numbers which describes the properties of the
containing all the rational and irrational matrix. These properties are used to
numbers. solve the systems of linear equation
being represented by the matrix. It is
The Real Number System can denoted by putting the name of the
be illustrated using a Venn
matrix between the absolute value
Diagram with the Real Number as
sign. Given a matrix A, |𝐴| reads as
the universal set.
the determinant of A.

4.1 MATRIX OPERATION

→ To do Addition and Subtraction in

matrices, they must have the same
number of rows and columns. Then, use
the desired operation, whether add or
subtract, for each specific element in all
the matrices.
4. Matrices and Determinants
Example
→ Matrix – is defined as an ordered 4 2 2 7 4 + 2 2 + 7 6 9
rectangular array of numbers. It is
usually used to represent systems of 2 5 3 2 2 + 3 5 + 2 5 7
linear equations. 7 5 1 3 7 - 1 5 - 3 6 2

9 8 2 5 9 - 2 8 - 5 7 3
→ Square matrix – is a matrix with
equal number of rows and columns.

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 → In Multiplication, the condition is that → For 3x3, use the illustration below. Given
the number of columns in the first matrix a matrix M:
must be equal to the number of rows in
the second matrix. After the condition is
met, proceed with the multiplication
process. Multiply the elements of each
row of the first matrix to the elements of To work out this 3x3 matrix, choose a
each column of the second matrix and reference row or column. Assume that the
then add the product of each pair of first row is chosen, take ‘a’ first. The row
elements. The product must have the and column that intersects ‘a’ is ignored.
same number of rows with the first So, you have a 2x2 matrix which is
matrix and same number of columns [ ].
with the second matrix.
Find its determinant and multiply it by ‘a’.
Example The next element in the first row is ‘b’. Do
3
[4 5] x the same process again and again for ‘c’.
6 Finally, add every other element, starting
= [(4 x 3) + (5 x 6)] from the first element, and subtract the
= [42] ones in between those elements. To make
all this process simple, look at the formula
below.
→ There is no Division operation in
matrices. |𝑴| = 𝒂(𝒆𝒊 − 𝒇𝒉)− 𝒃(𝒅𝒊 − 𝒇𝒈) +𝒄(𝒅𝒊 −
𝒆𝒈)
4.2 FINDING THE DETERMINANT
→ ONLY square matrices have a Example
determinant. For 1x1 matrix, the only 3 2 3
element in the matrix is also its M= 5 4 2
determinant. 6 1 2

→ For 2x2 matrix, use the illustration |𝑀| = 32((4 𝑥 2)– (2 𝑥 1))
below. Given a matrix M: − 2((5 𝑥 2)– (2 𝑥 6))
+ 3((5 𝑥 1 2)– (4 𝑥 6))

|𝑀| = 32(8 – 2) − 2(10 – 12)

5 – 24)
+ 3(10
|𝑀| =18 + 4 – 57
42
|𝑀| = –-35
𝟑𝟎

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 → For 4x4 and above, use the same method Example
used in the 3x3 matrices. Find a reference Using the arithmetic sequence formula, find the
row or column to have smaller matrices. 13th term in the sequence 1, 5, 9, 13...
Repeat the process until you reach a 2x2
matrix, then just do the operations. Do not Solution:
forget the part where you will add every
other element, starting from the first Since the difference between consecutive
element, and subtract the ones in between terms is the same, the given sequence forms
those element. an arithmetic sequence.
a = 1, d = 4

5. Arithmetic Sequence and Using arithmetic sequence formula,

Series 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
Terminology
• Arithmetic sequence – is a sequence For 13th term, n = 13
of numbers with constant intervals for
each succeeding numbers. 𝑎𝑛 = 1 + (13 − 1)4
• Common Difference – is the value of 𝑎𝑛 = 1 + (12)4
the interval between any consecutive 𝑎𝑛 = 1 + 48
numbers in an arithmetic sequence is 𝑎𝑛 = 49
called the It is denoted by the letter
‘d’. Hence, the 13th term in the sequence is 49.
• Arithmetic series – is the sum of the
terms in the given arithmetic 5.2 SOLVING FOR THE ARITHMETIC
sequence. SERIES
- To solve for the Arithmetic series, we will
5.1 SOLVING FOR THE NTH TERM IN AN be using the formula:
ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
- To find a specific term in an arithmetic 2
sequence, we will be using the formula: where,

𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 - Sn is the arithmetic series.

- 𝒂𝟏 is the first term,
where, - 𝒏 is the number of terms,
- 𝒂𝒏 is the desired term - 𝒅 is the common difference,
- 𝒂𝟏 is the first term of the arithmetic Example
sequence
- 𝒏 is the position in the arithmetic Find the sum of the following arithmetic series:
sequence of the term 3 + 7 + 11 + .........(up to 25 terms).
- 𝒅 is the common difference
Solution:
To find the sum of the first 25 terms of the
arithmetic sequence 3, 7, 11,.......
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 o 𝒓 is the common ratio.
Given: a1 = 3, d = 4, n = 25 o 𝒏 is the position of the desired
term in the sequence.
The given arithmetic sequence is 3, 7, 11,….
We get the geometric sequence formula by
Using the arithmetic series formula: looking at the following example:
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
2
The sum of the first 25 terms
25
S25 = ( ) [2 x 3 + (25 - 1) 4]
2 We can see the common ratio (r) is 2,

= (25) [6 + 24 x 4] so 𝑟 = 2.
2
a1 is the first term which is 5,
= 25 × 102
2 a2 is the second term which is 10,
= 1275 and a 3 is the third term which is 20 etc.

6. Geometric Sequence and However, we can write this using the common
Series difference of 2,

— Geometric sequence – is a 𝑎1 = 5
sequence of numbers that follows a 𝑎2 = 5 𝑥 21
pattern where the succeeding term 𝑎3 = 5 𝑥 22
is found by multiplying a constant 𝑎4 = 5 𝑥 23
value to the current term. 𝑎5 = 5 𝑥 24
— Common Ratio – is the value that 𝑎6 = 5 𝑥 25
𝑎1 × (𝑟)𝑛 − 1
is multiplied to each succeeding
term
Example 1
— Geometric series – is the sum of
the terms in the given geometric Find the 10th term of the geometric sequence
sequence. 1, 3, 9, 27, .....

6.1 SOLVING FOR THE NTH TERM IN A Solution:

GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE
In the given geometric sequence, the first term
- To find a specific term in a geometric is, a = 1.
sequence, we will be using the formula:
The common ratio is,
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 × 𝑟 𝑛 − 1 3 9 27
𝑟 = = = = … = 3.
where, 1 3 9

o 𝒂𝒏 is the desired term. Using the geometric sequence formula, the nth
o 𝒂𝟏 is the first term in the term of a geometric sequence is, 𝑎𝑛 =
geometric sequence. 𝑎1 × 𝑟 𝑛 − 1

7|Page
To find the 10th term, we substitute n =10 in 4[(1 − 1024]
𝑠10 =
the above formula. Then we get: 1+2
4[(−1023]
𝑎10 = 1 (3)10 − 1 = 39 = 𝟏𝟗𝟔𝟖𝟑 𝑠10 =
3
Thus, the 10th term of the given geometric
𝒔𝟏𝟎 = −𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟒
sequence = 19,683.
7. Linear Equations
6.2 SOLVING FOR THE GEOMETRIC
SERIES — It is an equation with the highest degree
of one. Linear equations have at most
- To find the geometric series, we will be one solution, a value that when
using the formula substituted to the equation makes the
equation true.
𝑎1 (1 − 𝑟𝑛)
𝑠𝑛 =
1−𝑟 7.1 STEPS IN SOLVING LINEAR
where, EQUATIONS
• 𝑺𝒏 is the geometric series.
✓ Expand all brackets.
• 𝒂𝟏 is the first term.
✓ Separate all linear terms to one side of
• 𝒓 is the common ratio.
the
• 𝒏 is the number of terms to be added.
✓ equation and constants on the other
Example side. Note that signs should be opposite
upon transposing.
Find the sum of the first 10 terms of the given ✓ Combine like terms.
sequence: 4, −8, 16, −32, 64,… ✓ Divide the whole equation with the
coefficient of the linear term.
Solution:
Determine whether or not there is a common Example
ratio between the given terms.
Solve the equation 2(𝑥 +1)−3𝑥 + 4 = 3.
8
𝑟 = − = −2 Solution:
4

(1) Expand by distributing 2 to the expression

Note that the ratio between any two
inside the parentheses.
successive terms is −2; hence, the given
2𝑥 + 2 − 3𝑥 + 4 = 3
sequence is a geometric sequence. Use r=−2
and the fact that a1=4 to calculate the sum of
(2) Put the linear terms on one side, and the
the first 10 terms,
constants on the other.
𝑎1 (1 − 𝑟𝑛) 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 = 3 − 2 − 4
𝑠𝑛 =
1−𝑟 (3) Combine like terms by adding and/or
4[1 − (−2)10] subtracting.
𝑠10 =
1 − (−2) −𝑥 = −3

8|Page
(4) Divide −1 (coefficient of x) to both sides of 4 𝑥 + 7 > − 23 + 7 𝑥
the equation. Subtract 7 on both the sides

𝑥 3 4𝑥 + 7 – 7 > −23 + 7𝑥 – 7
(− ) = (− ) 4𝑥 > −30 + 7𝑥
−1 −1
−𝒙 = −𝟑 Subtracting 7x from both the sides

4𝑥 – 7𝑥 > −30 + 7𝑥 – 7𝑥 − 3 𝑥 > − 30

8. Linear Inequalities
— A statement with the highest degree Multiplying both the sides by -1, the inequality
one, but instead of an equality sign (=), gets reversed
uses less than (<), greater than (>), at
most/less than or equal to (≤), and at −3𝑥 (−1) < −30 𝑥 (−1)3𝑥 < 30
least/ greater than or equal to (≥).
Dividing both the sides by 3, we get
Compared to linear equations with only
one solution, linear inequalities have 3𝑥 30
<
infinite solutions and is expressed as a 3 3
range of numbers. 𝑥 < 10

In solving linear inequality just follow the steps Hence, 𝑥 lies between −∞ and less than 10.
in linear equations. Note that when dividing or
multiplying the whole equation with negative 9. Quadratic Equation
values, the inequality sign reverses.
A quadratic equation is a second-order
polynomial equation in a single variable x
Example 1
𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
2(𝑥 + 1) −3x
𝑥 + 4 > 3
2𝑥 + 2 − 3x
𝑥 + 4 > 3 with a ≠ 0.
2𝑥 − 3𝑥 > 3 − 2 – 4 Solving quadratic equations
−(−𝑥 > −3)
𝒙 < 𝟑 9.1 FACTORING

Example
Example 2
𝑥2 − 3𝑥 − 10 = 0
Solve the inequality
4 ( 𝑥 + 2 ) − 1 > 5 − 7 (4 − 𝑥 ) ≫ (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 2) = 0

Solution: ≫ 𝑥 − 5 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 + 2 = 0
≫ 𝑥 = 5 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −2
Given, 4 ( 𝑥 + 2 )– 1 > 5 – 7 ( 4 – 𝑥 )
Hence, the solutions of the quadratic equation
Expanding the brackets and multiplying by
𝑥2 − 3𝑥 − 10 = 0 are 𝑥 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = −2.
each term we get

4 𝑥 + 8 − 1 > 5 − 28 + 7 𝑥

9|Page
9.2 USING QUADRATIC EQUATION −4 ± √16 − 20
Formula 𝑥=
2
−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −4 ± √−4
𝑥= 2𝑎 𝑥=
2
− The expression "b^2 - 4ac" is called the
discriminant. The discriminant plays a
crucial role in determining the nature of Here, we have the square root of a negative
the solutions (roots) of the quadratic number, which indicates that the quadratic
equation. Its value is used to classify the equation 𝑥2 + 4𝑥 + 5 = 0 has no real
solutions into different cases: solutions.

Case 1: 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0 Case 3: 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0 (𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)

Example Example
𝑥2 − 4𝑥 + 4 = 0 𝑥2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0
Solution: Solution:
−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥= 𝑥=
2𝑎 2𝑎
−(4) ± √(−4)2 − 4(1)(4) −(−5) ± √(−5)2 − 4(1)(6)
𝑥= 𝑥=
2(1) 2(1)
4 ± √16 − 16 5 ± √25 − 24
𝑥= 𝑥=
2 2
4 5 ± √1
𝑥= =2
2 𝑥=
2
5+√1 5+1 6
• 𝑥= = = =3
So, the quadratic equation 𝑥2 − 4𝑥 + 4 = 0 2 2 2

has one real solution, which is x = 2. 5+√1 5−1

• 𝑥= = =4=2
2 2 2

Case 2: 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0 (𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)

So, the quadratic equation 𝑥2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0
Example
has two real solutions: x = 3 and x = 2.
𝑥2 + 4𝑥 + 5 = 0
Solution: 10. Quadratic Inequalities
−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 − Quadratic inequalities are inequalities
𝑥=
2𝑎 that involve quadratic expressions,
−(4) ± √(4)2 − 4(1)(5) which are expressions that contain a
𝑥= variable raised to the power of 2 (𝑥2).
2(1)

10 | P a g e
 These inequalities can be written in the • First, find the roots of the corresponding
form: quadratic equation:
𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 < 0,
You can factor this equation as
𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 > 0,
(𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 1) = 0,
𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ≤ 0, 𝑜𝑟 so the roots are x = 5 and x = -1.
𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ≥ 0 • The number line is divided into three
where 'a', 'b', and 'c' are constants, and intervals: (-∞, -1), (-1, 5), and (5, ∞).
'x' is the variable.
• Now, test a point in each interval to
− Quadratic inequalities are used to determine the sign 𝑥2 − 4𝑥 − 5:
describe a range of values for 'x' that
satisfy the inequality. Depending on the - For 𝒙 < −𝟏, you can use 𝑥 =
sign (>, <, ≥, ≤) and the value of 'a', 'b', −2: (−2)2 – 4(−2)– 5 = 4 +
and 'c', the solutions to the inequality 8 – 5 = 7, which is positive.
may vary. The solutions are typically
expressed as intervals on the number - For −𝟏 < 𝒙 < 𝟓, you can use
line. 𝑥 = 0: (0)2 − 4(0)– 5 = −5,
To solve quadratic inequalities, you can follow which is negative.
these general steps:
- For 𝒙 > 𝟓, you can use 𝑥 =
1. Find the roots (zeros) of the 6: (602 − 4(6)– 5 =
corresponding quadratic equation 36 – 24 – 5 = 7, which is
(𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0) by setting it equal positive.
to zero and solving for 'x'. These roots
divide the number line into intervals. So, the solutions to the inequality are 𝑥 <
−1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 > 5, expressed as intervals.
2. Test a point in each interval (other than
the intervals between the roots) to 11. Functions
determine the sign of the expression
𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 within that interval. − A function is a relation between a set of
inputs (domain) and a set of outputs
3. Based on the signs, determine the (codomain) such that each input is
intervals where the inequality is associated with exactly one output. It is
satisfied. often denoted as "f(x)" or "y."
Terminologies:
4. Express the solutions as intervals or a
combination of intervals. • Domain: The domain of a function is the
set of all possible input values
(independent variable) for which the
Example function is defined.

𝑥2 − 4𝑥 − 5 > 0
11 | P a g e
 • Codomain: The codomain of a function Constant Function
is the set of all possible output values. It
may be larger than the range of the − The function f: R → R, defined as y =
function. f(x) = c, for all x ∈ R, where "c" is a
constant, is known as a constant
function. In this case, the domain of the
• Range: The range of a function is the function is the set of all real numbers
set of all actual output values that the (R), and the range of the function
function takes on for the elements in its consists of a single value, which is "c."
domain. It is sometimes called the
"image" of the function.

• Function Notation: Functions are often

denoted using functional notation, such
as "f(x)" or "g(t)," where "x" and "t" are
placeholders for the input values.

• Graph: the set of all ordered pairs (𝑥,

𝑓(𝑥))
Polynomial Function

11.1 TYPES OF FUNCTIONS − A function f: R → R is classified as a

polynomial function if, for any real
Linear Function number x, it can be expressed in the
− a type of mathematical function that form:
describes a straight-line relationship 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎2𝑥2 + … + 𝑎𝑛𝑥𝑛,
between the input (independent
variable) and the output (dependent
where "n" is a non-negative integer, and
variable). Linear functions are some of
"a0, a1, a2, ..., an" are real constants.
the simplest and most common
functions in mathematics. They can be
expressed in the following general form:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏

Rational Function

− A function of the form f(x)/g(x), where

both f(x) and g(x) are polynomial

12 | P a g e
 functions of x, and g(x) is defined in a
domain such that g(x) ≠ 0, is referred to

Exponential Function

− An exponential function is a
as a rational function. mathematical function expressed as f(x)
= 𝑎𝑥, where "x" represents a variable,
Absolute Function and "a" is a constant referred to as the
function's base. This base value must be
− The absolute value function, denoted as
greater than 0.
|x|, is a specific mathematical function
that returns the non-negative value of a
number. It is defined as follows:
• For x ≥ 0, |x| = x
• For x < 0, |x| = -x

Logarithmic Function
- A logarithmic function is the inverse
of an exponential function.
Logarithmic functions are used to
Trigonometric Function solve equations in which the
variable is an exponent
− can be described as functions that
depend on the angles within a triangle.
These functions establish the
connections between the angles and
sides of a triangle. The fundamental
trigonometric functions include sine,
cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, and
cosecant.

13 | P a g e
14 | P a g e
TRIGONOMETRY With that, the reciprocal function
will be,
− Branch of mathematics that studies the
√2, sec 45° = √2
csc 45° =
relationship between angles and sides 2 2

of a triangle.
2. Pythagorean theorem
1. Unit circle
𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 𝑐2
− The Pythagorean Theorem is a
mathematical theorem named after
Pythagoras, a Greek Mathematician
− The Pythagorean Theorem is utilized in
finding the length of any side of a right
triangle whereas, the one angle has 90°.
− Hypotenuse is the longest leg of a right
triangle which the opposite of the 90°
angle.

3. Trigonometric Ratios
The ratios between the edges of a right

A unit circle simply means a circle that triangle, The following are trigonometric ratios:

has a radius of 1 unit. In trigonometry, the unit sine (sin),

circle has its center in the origin and since it cosine (cos),

has a radius of, 1 we can directly measure the tangent (tan),

sine, cosine, tangent. cosecant (csc),
𝑥² + 𝑦² = 1 secant (sec), and
is the unit equation of Unit Circle cotangent (cot)
“SOHCAHTOA” stands for
Example o Sine – Opposite over
Finding the 45° in the unit circle. Hypotenuse;
Whereas, by observing the 45° is o Cosine – Adjacent over
sin 45° = √2 , cos 45° = √2 Hypotenuse;
2 2

Page | 1
 o Tangent – Opposite over tan 𝜃 = 1/(cot 𝜃) cot 𝜃 = 1/(tan 𝜃)
Adjacent.
4. Trigonometry Table Formula 4.4 NEGATIVE ANGLE IDENTITIES

sin(−𝜃) = − sin 𝜃

− cos(−𝜃) = cos 𝜃

−
tan(−𝜃) = − tan 𝜃
csc(−𝜃) = − csc 𝜃
−
sec(−𝜃) = sec 𝜃
−
cot(−𝜃) = − cot 𝜃

4.5 COFUNCTION IDENTITIES

cos(90° − 𝜃) = sin 𝜃 sec(90° − 𝜃) = csc 𝜃
List Of Trigonometric Formulas / Identities
sin(90° − 𝜃) = cos 𝜃 csc(90° − 𝜃) = sec 𝜃
− In trigonometry, the trigonometric
tan(90° − 𝜃) = cot 𝜃 cot(90° − 𝜃) = tan 𝜃
Identities are the equations that are valid
to the Right-Angled Triangles.
5. Law of Sines and Cosines

The following are some trigonometric identities: Law of Sines

sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶

4.1 PYTHAGOREAN IDENTITIES = =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
sin²𝜃 + cos²𝜃 = 1
Law of Cosine
1+ tan²𝜃 = sec²𝜃
1+ cot²𝜃 = csc²𝜃
𝑐² = 𝑎² + 𝑏² − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝐶

4.2 QOUTIENT IDENTITIES 𝑏² = 𝑎² + 𝑐² − 2𝑎𝑐 cos 𝐵

tan 𝜃 = (sin 𝜃)/(cos 𝜃)

𝑎² = 𝑏² + 𝑐² − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝐴
cot 𝜃 = (cos 𝜃)/(sin 𝜃)

6. Complementary Angle Theorem

4.3 RECIPROCAL IDENTITIES
In the complementary angle theorem, If two
sin 𝜃 = 1/(csc 𝜃) csc 𝜃 = 1/(sin 𝜃)
acute angles add up to be 90°, they are
cos 𝜃 = 1/(sec 𝜃) sec 𝜃 = 1/(cos 𝜃)
Page | 2
considered complementary. The following are 8. Double and Half Angle Formula
considered cofunctions:
Double Angle Formulas
• sine and cosine
cos 2𝜃 = cos²𝜃 − sin²𝜃 =2cos²𝜃 − 1 = 1 − 2sin²𝜃 sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃
• tangent and cotangent cos 𝜃
• secant and cosecant
2 tan 𝜃

The complementary angle theorem says that tan 2𝜃 =

1 − tan² 𝜃
cofunctions of complimentary angles are equal.
Half Angle Formulas
Example
𝜃
cos = ±√1+cos 𝜃
sin 54° = cos 36° 2 2

𝜃
7. Sum and Difference Formulas sin = ±√1−cos 𝜃
2 2

sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽 sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃

tan = ±√1−cos 𝜃 tan = sin 𝜃 tan = 1−cos 𝜃
2 1+cos 𝜃 2 1+cos 𝜃 2 sin 𝜃
= sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 − cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽 cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) = cos 𝛼
cos 𝛽 − sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) = cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 +
9. Product to Sum Formula
sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽
The following are the Product to Sum Formula:
To use the formula, here is an example: 1. sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin
B
2. sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin
Find the exact value of sin 15° B
3. cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin
= sin(45° − 30°) B
4. cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin
= sin 45° cos 30° − cos 45° sin 30° B

10. Sum to Product Formula

= √2 ∙ √3 − √2 ∙ 1
2 2 2 2 The following are the Sum to Product Formula:
√6 √2 1
= − = (√6 − √2) 1. sin A + sin B = 2 sin [(A + B)/2] cos [(A -
4 4 4 B)/2]
2. sin A - sin B = 2 sin [(A - B)/2] cos [(A +
B)/2]
3. cos A - cos B = -2 sin [(A + B)/2] sin [(A -
B)/2]
4. cos A + cos B = 2 cos [(A + B)/2] cos [(A
- B)/2]

Page | 3
11. Graphs in Trigonometry 11.3 TAN GRAPH

11.1 SIN GRAPH

− The Tan Graph is different from the Sine

• Whereas, y = sin x
and Cosine Graphs since the function
• The roots or zeros of y = sin x is at the
multiples of π. here goes between negative and
positive infinity, crossing through 0 over
• The sin graph passes the x-axis as sin x
a period of π radian.
= 0 there.
• Period of the sine function is 2π.
• Whereas, y = tan x
• The height of the curve at each point is
• The tangent graph has an
equal to the line value of sine.
undefined amplitude as the curve
11.2 COS GRAPH tends to infinity.
• It also has a period of 180°.

12. Key Features of the Sine and

Cosine Functions

12.1 AMPLITUDE

- Measures the number of units

above and below the midline of
• Whereas, y = cos x the graph the function goes
𝜋
• 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 + ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 - a is the amplitude. The graph of y
2

• y = cos x graph is the graph we get after = a sin x and y = a cos x, where

shifting y = sin x to 𝜋 units to the left. a≠0 will have a range of [-|a|, |a|]
2

• Period of the cosine function is 2π.

Page | 4
 - If Y = a sin x, below is the graph Whereas in Y= 2 sin X, the graph changes to:
of Y = a sin x.

- If Y = 2 sin x, the illustration of the − The sine waves repeat more as its
graph will be; means, the function is finishing its cycle
twice as fast that indicates that its period
is half as long.
− To find the general formula of the period
in sine and cosine functions, here is the
formula:
𝟐𝝅|𝑩|

12.3 PHASE SHIFT

- From the Y = 2 sin x, the graph
− The Phase Shift is the shifting of graph
stretched up. Whereas, range is
to the left or right.
[-2, 2] instead of [-1, 1]
− If the cosine function y= cos x, then
12.2 PERIOD graph below illustrates the y= cos x
− The Period goes from any point (one
peak) to the next matching point.

− If Y = a sin x, below is the graph of Y = a

sin x

− If the equation is change to y = cos(𝑥 -

𝜋
), the graph will be
Page | 5
12.4 VERTICAL SHIFT

− Vertical shift is one of the way to alter

the sine and cosine function

From the graph above, blue wave is the

original y = cos x and the green wave is
the function. 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 3.

The function y = a cos (bx – c) + d,

where d controls the shift of the graph,
can be shifted up or down by adding or
subtracting a number at the end.

Page | 6
References
3.4: Sum-to-Product and Product-to-Sum Formulas.
(2021, March 25). Mathematics LibreTexts.
https://math.libretexts.org/Courses/Reedley_Coll
ege/Trigonometry/03%3A_Trigonometric_Identiti
es_and_Equations/3.04%3A_Sum-to-
Product_and_Product-to-Sum_Formulas
Francis. (n.d.). Trigonometry Graphs for Sine, Cosine
and Tangent Functions. BYJUS.
https://byjus.com/maths/trigonometry-graphs/
Johnson, L. (n.d.). Trigonometry Short Course Tutorial.
Khan Academy. (2014). Trigonometry. Khan Academy.
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/trigonometr
y
Trig Test Review | PDF | Trigonometric Functions |
Triangle. (2019, December). Scribd.
https://www.scribd.com/document/438850615/Tr
ig-Test-Review
Trigonometric Functions - Formulas, Graphs, Examples,
Values. (n.d.). Cuemath.
https://www.cuemath.com/trigonometry/trigonom
etric-functions/
vedantu. (n.d.). Trigonometry - Formulas, Identities,
Functions and Problems. VEDANTU.
https://www.vedantu.com/maths/trigonometry

Page | 7
 Observe the following figure which shows the
GEOMETRY different types of points.

1. Point
● A location in any space and is
represented by a dot.

● It does not have any length, width,

shape or size, it only has a position.

● It marks the beginning to draw any

2. Line
figure or shape and is labeled with
capital letters. ● It is a straight path which can be
extended indefinitely in both the
Example directions with arrowheads to indicate
and usually defined by two points.

● A line has no thickness and can extend

indefinitely in both directions and can be
marked with a single letter in the lower
case or by two capital letters.
● In the given figure P, Q, R represents
different points. Example

1.1 DIFFERENT TYPES OF POINTS

1. Collinear Points
- It is three or more points lie on a
● It is denoted as AB or BA and is read as
single straight line.
line AB or line in the BA.
2. Non-Collinear Points
2.1 DIFFERENT TYPES OF LINE
- It is a group of points do not lie
● Horizontal Line
on the same line.
- It is a line that is mapped from
3. Coplanar Points left-to-right or right-to-left and is
parallel to the x-axis in a plane.
- It is a group of points lie on the
same plane.
● Vertical Line
4. Non-Coplanar Points - It is a line that is mapped from up
to down or down to up and is
- It is a set of points that do not lie
parallel to the y-axis in a plane.
on the same plane.
1|Page
 ● Intersecting Lines Example
- When two lines cross each other
and meet at a point, they are
known as intersecting lines.

● Perpendicular Lines
- When two lines intersect exactly
at 90°.

● Parallel Lines
- Two lines are said to be parallel if ● It is denoted as OA and is read as ray
they do not intersect at any point OA.
and are equidistant.
● Ray OA and ray OB are different
Observe the figure given below which shows because they are extended in different
the different types of lines. directions.

4. Line Segment
● It is bounded by two distinct points on a
line. Or we can say a line segment is
part of the line that connects two points.

● It has two fixed or definite endpoints.

Examples
Line segment can be shown like this:

3. Ray
● It is a set of point that is part of a line. It Or like this:
is a straight path which can be extended
indefinitely in one direction only and the
other end is fixed. A both are example of a line segment AB or
line segment BA.
● A ray has one endpoint called the initial
point and extends in one direction with ● The distance between A and B is called
no end or infinitely. the length of AB. Two-line segments are
said to be equal if they have the same
length.

2|Page
5. Plane ● Infinite number of points lie on the
line in a plane.
● It extends endlessly in all the directions.
● Two lines in a plane either intersect
It has no length, breadth or thickness.
at a point or they are parallel to
Examples each other.

6. Concurrent Lines
- It is where three or more lines
which pass through the same point
and this common point is called the
5.1 Incidence Properties of Lines in a point of concurrence.
Plane:
Example
● An infinite number of many lines
can be drawn to pass through a
given point in a plane. Through a
given point in a plane, infinitely
many lines can be drawn to pass
through.

● In the adjoining figure, lines p, q,

r, s, t, u intersect at point O and
are called concurrent lines.

7. Two Lines in a Plane

1. Intersecting Lines - Two lines in
● Two distinct points in a plane
a plane which cut each other at
determine a unique line. One and
common point are called
only one line can be drawn to pass
intersecting lines and the point is
through two given points, i.e., two
called the point of intersection.
distinct points in a plane. This line
lies wholly in the plane.

3|Page
 In this adjoining figure, lines I and We will now use this to show that n² is also an
m intersect at point 0. odd integer.

2. Parallel Lines - Two lines in a Hence, we have shown that ² has the form of
plane which do not intersect at any an odd integer since 2𝑘² + 2𝑘 is an integer.
point, i.e., they do not have any Therefore we have shown that 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞 and so
point in common are called parallel we have completed our proof.
lines. The distance between the
two parallel lines remains the same
throughout.

8.2 INDIRECT PROOF

8. Introduction to Proof and - There are two kinds of indirect proofs:
Deductive Reasoning the proof by contraposition, and the
proof by contradiction.
8.1 DIRECT PROOF
Proof by Contraposition
- the conclusion to be proved is shown to
be true directly as a result of the other - also known as contrapositive, is based
circumstances of the situation. We use it on the fact that an implication is
to prove statements of the form ”if p equivalent to its contraposition.
then q” or ”p implies q” which we can Therefore, instead of proving 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞, we
write as 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞. may prove its contrapositive. Since it is
an implication, we could use a direct
proof.

Example
Directly prove that if n is an odd integer, then
n² is also an odd integer.

Proof by contradiction
Solution:
Let p be the statement that n is an odd integer - To prove that 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞, we proceed as
and q be the statement that 𝑛² is an odd follows:
integer. Assume that n is an odd integer, then
Suppose 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞 is false; that is, assume
by definition, 𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1 for some integer 𝑘.
that p is true and q is false. Then, argue
until we obtain a contradiction, which
4|Page
 could be any result that we know is 9. Angle Relations and Parallel
false. Lines
How does this prove that 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞?
Supplementary Angle
Assuming that the logic used in every 𝑚∠𝑏 + 𝑚∠𝑎 = 180
step in the argument is correct, yet we
still end up with a contradiction, then the Complementary Angle
only possible flaw must come from the 𝑚∠𝑠 + 𝑚∠𝑡 = 90°
supposition that 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞 is false.
Consequently, 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞 must be true. Adjacent Angles – angles that share a side.

8.3 INDUCTIVE PROOF

8.4 DEDUCTIVE REASONING Vertical Angles

- is the process by which a person makes 𝑚∠ 𝑝 = 𝑚∠𝑟

conclusions based on previously known 𝑚∠𝑞 = 𝑚∠𝑠
facts. From general theory to specific 𝑚∠𝑡 = 𝑚∠𝑣
conclusions. 𝑚∠𝑢 = 𝑚∠𝑤
Example Corresponding Angles
Observation: Easy lang ang GEs. 𝑚∠𝑝 = 𝑚∠𝑡
𝑚∠𝑞 = 𝑚∠𝑢
Conclusion: Philo 1 ay GE, therefore it is 𝑚∠𝑠 = 𝑚∠𝑤
easy. 𝑚∠𝑟 = 𝑚∠𝑣
Alternate Interior Angles
8.5 INDUCTIVE REASONING
𝑚∠𝑠 = 𝑚∠𝑢
- from specific observations to general 𝑚∠𝑡 = 𝑚∠𝑟
conclusions.
Alternate Exterior Angles
Example
𝑚∠𝑤 = 𝑚∠𝑞
Observation: Absent si Titser for the last
three days. 𝑚∠𝑝 = 𝑚∠𝑣
Consecutive Interior Angles
Conclusion: Absent si Titser for the rest 𝑚∠𝑠 + 𝑚∠𝑡 = 180°
of the semester. 𝑚∠𝑟 + 𝑚∠𝑢 = 180°

5|Page
10. Kinds of Triangles Isosceles
- 2 sides are equal
10.1 BASED ON THE ANGLE

Right Triangle
- an angle that measures exactly 90°

Scalene Triangle
- a triangle with no equal sides

Obtuse Triangle
- one angle is greater than 90°

Special Right Triangles

30-60-90 Triangles
Acute Triangle
It is a triangle with angles of 30, 60, and 90 at
- all angles are less than 90°
all times. Because one of the angles is 90
degrees, this triangle is always a right triangle.

10.2 BASED ON THE SIDES

Equilateral
Here,
- all sides are equal
Base = 𝑥√3
Perpendicular (or Height) = 𝑥
Hypotenuse = 2𝑥
We know that,
Area of triangle = (½) × Base × Height
= (½) × (𝑥√3) × (𝑥)
= 𝟐𝒙(√𝟑/𝟐)
6|Page
Example 45-45-90 Triangle Rule
Find the missing side of the given triangle.
The 45-45-90 triangle rule specifies that the
triangle's three sides are in the ratio 1:1:2. So,
if the length of the two congruent sides of such
a triangle is x, the three sides are x, x, and 2-x.

The Pythagorean theorem may be used to

prove this rule.

Solution:
As a right triangle, the hypotenuse is the
double of one of the triangle's sides. As a
result, it is known as a 30-60-90 triangle, with a
reduced angle of 30. In the depicted
illustration, the longer side is always opposed
to 60°, and the missing side measures 33
units.
For the triangle ABC,
45-45-90 Triangles
The triangle ABC seen in the illustration is an
Hypotenuse, BC = √2𝑥
isosceles right triangle with vertex A at 90°,
Leg, AC = x and
vertex B at 45°, and vertex C at 45°.
Leg, AB = x
𝐴𝐵² + 𝐴𝐶² = 𝐵𝐶²
⇒ 𝑥² + 𝑥² = (√2𝑥)²
⇒ 2𝑥² = 2𝑥²
LHS = RHS
So, 𝐴𝐵: 𝐴𝐶𝐵𝐶 = 𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∶ √2𝑥 𝑜𝑟 1: 1: √2

This rule can be used to find the unknown side

measures of an isosceles right triangle.

The hypotenuse is side BC, while the triangle's EXAMPLE

legs are congruent sides, AC and AB. A 45-45-
90 triangle has a unique connection between Finding the missing side measures in the
its three side measurements. We may state following.
that the three angles are in the ratio 1:1:2, and
the two sides opposing 45 degree angles are
both equal in length. 1. Triangle PQR, ∠Q = 45°, Hypotenuse = 15
centimeters

7|Page
 Exterior Angle Theorem
- A triangle’s exterior angle is equal to the
sum of two distant inner angles.

𝑎 = 𝑎 + 𝑏

The sum of the exterior angles of a triangle is

Solution: 360°
𝑎 + 𝛽 + 𝜃 = 360°
Triangle PQR, ∠Q = 45°, Hypotenuse = 15
centimeters The sides of the triangle are in the Example
ratio: PQ : PR : QR = x : x : √2x

So, 𝑃𝑄 ∶ 𝑃𝑅 ∶ 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∶ √2𝑥 = 𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∶ 15
⇒ √2𝑥 = 15
⇒ 𝑥 = 15/√2

Hence, the other two sides of triangle PQR are

Find angle x.
15/√2 centimeters each.
Solution:
11. Congruent Triangles 69° + 𝑥 = 150°
𝑥 = 150° − 69°
- Two or more triangles with all
𝒙 = 𝟖𝟏°
corresponding sides and interior angles
are congruent.
12. Pythagorean Theorem

Similar Triangles
- Two triangles are similar if their
respective interiors are congruent and
Formula:
their corresponding sides are
proportional. 𝑎² + 𝑏² = 𝑐²

a = side of right triangle

b = side of right triangle
c = hypotenuse

8|Page
The side opposite to the right angle (90°) is the 13. Angle Bisector v.s. Median of
longest side (known as Hypotenuse) because
a Triangle
the side opposite to the greatest angle is the
longest.
Angle Bisector of a Triangle
EXAMPLE - When an angle in a triangle is divided
into two equal angles, the opposing side
The examples of theorem and based on the
is divided into two pieces. These
statement given for right triangles is given
components will have the same ratio as
below:
the sides next to the angle.

Consider a right triangle, given below:

Median of a Triangle
- a line segment from a vertex to the
Find the value of x. midpoint of the opposing side to that
vertex. A, B, and C are the triangle's
Solution:
vertices in the diagram above. D is the
X is the side opposite to the right angle, hence line segment BC's midpoint. The line AB
it is a hypotenuse. is the triangle ABC's median.

Now, by the theorem we know;

Hypotenuse² = Base² + Perpendicular²

𝑥² = 8² + 6²
𝑥² = 64 + 36 = 100
𝑥 = √100 = 10

14. Quadrilaterals and Diagonals

Therefore, the value of x is 10.

12.1 PYTHAGOREAN TRIPLES Quadrilaterals

- set of three positive integers that - polygon with four edges/sides and four
satisfies the Pythagorean Theorem vertices.
(3,4,5), (5,12,13), (7,24,25), (8,15,17),
(9,40,41), …

9|Page
Diagonal Rhombus
- a segment joining two non-adjacent
vertices.

● Opposites sides are PARALLEL and

EQUAL.
14.1 KINDS OF QUADRILATERALS AND
● Opposites angles are EQUAL.
THEIR PROPERTIES
● Diagonals BISECT and are
PERPENDICULAR to each other.
Parallelogram
Square

● Opposites sides are PARALLEL and

EQUAL. ● Two pairs of parallel sides where all of
● Opposites angles are EQUAL. them are ALL EQUAL.
● Diagonals BISECT each other. ● ALL angles are 90°.
● Diagonals BISECT and are
Rectangle PERPENDICULAR to each other.

Trapezoid

● Has one pair opposite sides that are

● Opposites sides are PARALLEL parallel.
and EQUAL ● Has two non-parallel sides
● ALL angles are 90° ● The orientation of the diagonals varies
● Diagonals BISECT each other. depending on the pair of non-parallel
sides.
10 | P a g e
Kite 15. Circles
● Has two pairs of equal and adjacent
- Is a closed figure in which each point of
the circle is the same distance from the
center of the circle. It is the set of all
points in the plane that are a fixed
distance (the radius) from a fixed point
(the center).

sides. Angles and Arcs of a Circle

● One pair of opposite angles is EQUAL. - An arc is a curved section of a circle.
● The diagonals are PERPENDICULAR. - A minor arc is an arc less than or equal
● The longer diagonal BISECTS the to 180°. A major arc is an arc greater
shorter diagonal. than or equal to 180°

Distance from the Vertices of a Point inside

a Rectangle
The relation of the distances of a random point
to the vertices of a rectangle are given by:
𝑎2 + 𝑐2 = 𝑏2 + 𝑑2

Example

15.1 CIRCLE THEOREMS

Tangent
- It is a line that intersects a circle
at one point only.

Find d.
𝑎2 + 𝑐2 = 𝑏2 + 𝑑2
𝑑 = √𝑎2 + 𝑐2 − 𝑏2
= √82 + 52 − 62
= √𝑎2 + 𝑐2 − 𝑏2
= √𝟓𝟑

11 | P a g e
 Two Rules Related to Tangents Inscribed Angle Theorems
1. A radius whose endpoint is on - An inscribed angle a° is half of the
the tangent is always central angle 2a°
perpendicular to the tangent line.

2. Any point outside a circle can Angle a° is the same.

extend exactly two tangent lines
to the circle. The distances from
the origin of the tangents to the
points where the tangents
intersect with the circle are equal.

Angles Subtended by Same Arc Theorem

Example
Central angle
What is the size of Angle POQ? (O is circle’s
- Is a closed figure in which each point of
center)
the circle is the same distance from the
center of the circle. It is the set of all
points in the plane that are a fixed.

Example

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑂𝑄 = 2 × 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑅𝑄

= 2 × 62°
= 𝟏𝟐𝟒°

12 | P a g e
Angle in a Semicircle - A quadrilateral inscribed in a circle is
● An angle inscribed across a circle's called a cyclic quadrilateral.
diameter is always a right angle.
Angle Formed by Two Intersecting Chords
- When two chords intersect inside a
circle, four angles are formed.

Example
What is the size of Angle BAC?

1
𝑚∠𝐴𝐸𝐷 = (54° + 32°) = 𝟒𝟑°
2

Area, Perimeter, Surface Area and Volume

▪ Perimeter - the length of the outline of a
The Angle in the Semicircle Theorem tells us polygon
that Angle ACB = 90°
The perimeter of an object is the sum of
Now use angles of a triangle add to 180° to all of its sides.
find Angle BAC:

Angle BAC + 55° + 90° = 180°

Angle BAC = 35°

Cyclic Quadrilateral
- The opposite angles in a cyclic
quadrilateral are supplementary. 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 13 + 5 + 13 + 5
= 𝟑𝟔

▪ Area - the amount of space inside a

two-dimensional shape or object. If is
area the number of square units that
can fit inside a shape.

13 | P a g e
 Radius - the distance from the center of
the circle to any point on the circle.

Diameter - the distance from one point

The area of the rectangle above is 21 to another point on a circle crossing
square units. 21 square units fit inside through the center.
the rectangle.

▪ Volume - the amount of space an object

takes up.

▪ Polygon - a closed plane figure formed

by three or more line segments that
intersect only at their endpoints which
are also called vertices. Base - any side of a polygon.

Example

The diagram shows a rectangle.

Example The length of the rectangle is 2𝑥 + 5.

The width of the rectangle is 3𝑥 − 2. Its
▪ Surface area - the sum of all the area of
perimeter is 46 cm. Find the length and
the faces of an object.
width of the rectangle.
To find the surface area of this solid…

Solution:
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 2(𝑙 + 𝑤)
46 = 2[(2𝑥 + 5) + (3𝑥 − 2)]
Add the areas of the four rectangles and 46 = 2[(5𝑥 + 3)]
the two squares that make up the 23 = (5𝑥 + 3)
surfaces of the solid. 20 = 5𝑥
𝑥=4

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ: 2𝑥 + 5 = 2(4) + 5 = 𝟏𝟑
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ: 3𝑥 − 2 = 3(4) − 2 = 𝟏𝟎

14 | P a g e
FORMULAS

16. Coordinate Plane Geometry

- A coordinate plane is a grid divided into
four quadrants by both a horizontal x-
axis and a vertical y-axis.

- Coordinate points can be located on the

grid using ordered pairs. Ordered pairs
are given in the form of (x,y).

- The x-axis and y-axis intersect at the

origin, which is the coordinate point
(0,0).

Graphing Ordered Pairs

● The x-coordinate is listed first in the
ordered pair, and it tells you how many
units to move to either the left or the
right. If the x-coordinate is positive,
move from the origin to the right. If the
x-coordinate is negative, move from the
origin to the left.

● The y-coordinate is listed second and

tells you how many units to move up or
15 | P a g e
 down. If the y-coordinate is positive, Example
move up from the origin. If the y- Calculate the slope of the line in the
coordinate is negative, move down from figure below:
the origin.

Example

Given two points, 𝑃 = (0, – 1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 =

(4,1), on the line we can calculate the
slope of the line. Using the formula,

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
Notice that the graph is broken up into four 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
quadrants with one point plotted in each one. 1−(−1)
The chart below indicates which quadrants =
4−0
contain which ordered pairs based on their 2
signs:
=
4
𝟏
=
𝟐

Midpoint
● A midpoint is the point at the exact
middle of a line segment.
Slope of a line
● To find the midpoint of a segment on the
● is the ratio of the change in the y-value coordinate plane, use the following
over the change in the x-value, also formulas:
called rise over run.
𝑥1 + 𝑥2
● Given any two points on a line, you can 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑥 =
2
calculate the slope of the line by using
this formula: 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑦 =
2
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

16 | P a g e
Example hypotenuse. The length of ̅𝐴̅𝐶̅= 3 – 1 = 2. The
Find the midpoint of AB. length of BC = 4 – 1 = 3

By applying Pythagorean Theorem,

̅𝐴̅𝐵̅2 = 22 + 32
̅𝐴̅𝐵̅2 = 13
̅𝐴̅𝐵̅= √13

By applying Distance Formula,

̅𝐴̅𝐵̅= √(3 − 1)2 + (4 − 1)2

̅𝐴̅𝐵̅= √22 + 32
̅𝐴̅𝐵̅= √13

𝑥1+𝑥2 −3+5 2
𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑥 = = = =1 Slope-Intercept Form of a Line
2 2 2
𝑦1+𝑦2 5+(−5) (𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏)
𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑦 = = =0 = 0
2 2 2 where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept.
The y-intercept b is the point where the line
Therefore, the midpoint of AB is (1,0). crosses the y-axis.

Distance Formula The slope is computed as:

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
- used to find the distance between any 𝑚=
two points. 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Example
The distance between the two points (𝑥1, 𝑦1) ● Find the slope-intercept form of the line
and (𝑥2, 𝑦2) with a slope of −3 and passing through
the point (-1,15).
Example
Solution:
Given that m = -3 and the point is at (-1,
15), we have to substitute the values in
order to find the value of b:
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
15 = (−3)(−1) + 𝑏
𝑏 = 15 − 3
To find the distance between A(1,1) and 𝑏 = 12
B(3,4), we form a right triangle with AB as the The equation of the line is 𝑦 = − 3𝑥 + 12.

17 | P a g e
Slopes of Parallel Lines
● Two lines are parallel if their slopes (m)
are equal.

Example

1
The line 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1 is parallel to the line 𝑦 =
2
1𝑥 + 1. Their slopes are both the same.
2

Slopes of Perpendicular Lines

● Two lines are perpendicular if the
product of their slopes (m) is –1. The
slopes are negative reciprocals of each
other.

Example

The line 𝑦 = 1 𝑥 − 1 is perpendicular to the line

2
𝑦 = −2𝑥 − 11. Their product of the two slopes
is -1.

18 | P a g e
REFERENCES
https://www.cuemath.com/geometry/points-
and-
lines/?fbclid=IwAR1Bd_PHkHXnEKb67thV7wR
tMBF8x3BwCFNyRfnYU9IVBWfsGHFSUgyZN
hs

https://www.math-dictionary.com/ray.html

https://www.onemathematicalcat.org/Math/Geo
metry_obj/two_column_proof.htm#:~:text=Ded
uctive%20reasoning%20uses%20logic%2C%2
0and,mathematical%20statement%20is%20ne
cessarily%20true.

https://www.math-only-math.com/fundamental-
geometrical-
concepts.html#gallery[pageGallery]/7/

https://www.cuemath.com/geometry/line-
segment/

https://thirdspacelearning.com/us/math-
resources/topic-guides/geometry/line-segment/

https://www.mathcentre.ac.uk/resources/uploa
ded/mathcentre-direct.pdf

https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Combin
atorics_and_Discrete_Mathematics/A_Spiral_
Workbook_for_Discrete_Mathematics_(Kwong)
/03%3A_Proof_Techniques/3.03%3A_Indirect_
Proofs

19 | P a g e
 10 + 15 + 5 + 12 + 18 + 20 + 8
STATISTICS μ=
7
88
1. Measures of Central Tendency μ=
7
- It is a statistical method used to 𝛍 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟔
describe the middle, or the average,
of a dataset. It provides a summary of
the distribution of a set of data and Example 2
helps us understand the center of Population of N=10 people of different height
data. (inches).
- The 3 most common measures of
central tendency are the mean, o Heights: 60, 71, 76, 56, 52, 65, 49, 53,
67, 64
median, and mode.

1.1 MEAN ∑X
μ=
- It is calculated by adding up all the N
values in a dataset and dividing the 60 + 71 + 76 + 56 + 52 + 65 + 49 + 53
total by the number of values. +67 + 64
μ=
- In statistics, we use two different 10
symbols to represent the average 613
value in a group: the Greek symbol μ =
10
“μ” (read as “myu”) for the population
𝛍 = 𝟔𝟏. 𝟑
average and 𝑥̅ (pronounced as x bar)
for the sample average.
Formula for sample mean:
Formula for population mean:
∑X
x̄ =
N
∑𝑋 where:
µ=
𝑁
o xjust stands for the “sample mean”
where: o ∑X – sum of each value in the sample
o ∑X – the sum of all the numbers in o N stands for the number of items in the
the population data set
o N – the size of the population Example 1

Example 1 Find the mean of the following set of sample

values.
Using the population mean formula, find
{22, 24, 26, 23, 22}
the mean of the following set of points.
∑X
2 18, 20, 8}
Data: {10, 15, 5, 11, x̄ =
N
∑X
μ= 22 + 24 + 26 + 23 + 22
N x̄ =
5
1|Page
 117 1.2 MEDIAN
x̄ =
5
- Middle value separating the greater
x̄ = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟒 and lesser halves of a data set.
- The middle score for a set of data
that has been arranged in order of
Example 2 magnitude.
Sample of n= 3 (71, 56, 64), Sample of n= 6 Case 1: If the data set has an odd number of
(76, 65, 53, 56, 56, 60, 52) observations, the middle one is selected. For
∑X 71 + 56 + 64 191 example, the following list of nine numbers,
x̄ = = = = 𝟔𝟑. 𝟔𝟕
N 3 3 2, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
∑X 76 + 65 + 53 + 56 + 60 + 52 has the median of 6, which is the fifth value.
x̄ = =
N 6 The formula if n is odd, 𝑴𝒅 = 𝒙 𝒏+𝟏
( 𝟐 )
362
x̄ = Example
6
Find the median of 15, 10, 12, 13, and 14,
x̄ = 𝟔𝟎. 𝟑𝟑
using the odd formula.
Note:
𝑀𝑑 = 𝑥̅ 𝑛+1
( 2 )
• Population mean refers to the average
value of an entire population. 𝑀𝑑 = 𝑥̅ 5+1 = 𝑥̅3
( 2 )
• Sample mean refers to the average
value of a smaller subset of that It means that the median is the 3rd term and
population. that is 13.
• The main difference between population
Case 2: If the data set has an even number of
mean and sample mean is the scope of observations, there is no distinct middle value,
each measure - population mean and the median is usually to be the arithmetic
represents the overall average value of mean of the two middle values.
a larger group, while the sample mean
𝑥̅ 𝒏 𝑥̅ 𝒏
(𝟐)+ (𝟐+𝟏)
represents the average value of a The formula if n is even, 𝑀𝑑 =
2
smaller subgroup.
• Despite their differences in scope, Example
population mean, and sample mean
share some similarities in terms of how This data set of 10 numbers,
they are calculated (by adding up all the 2, 4, 5, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12
values and dividing by the total number x 𝟏𝟎 x 𝟏𝟎
of values) and how they can be used to Md = ( 𝟐 )+ ( 𝟐 +𝟏)

represent central tendency in a dataset. 2

x(𝟓)+x(𝟔)
Md =
2

2|Page
 7+8 2.1 RANGE
Md =
2 • It is defined as the difference between
𝐌𝐝 = 𝟕. 𝟓 the
maximum value and minimum value given in a
1.3 MODE data set.
• Even though it is one the simplest
- It refers to the most frequently occurring
measures of dispersion to calculate, it
value or category in a dataset. In other
only depends on extreme values and
words, it's the number that appears
provide no information about how the
most often in the data.
remaining data is distributed.
- In some cases, a dataset may contain
multiple modes, and it is called a
Formula:
“bimodal”, but some datasets may not
have any mode at all. 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥̅𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 – 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚

Example 1 Example 1
Given the weights of 5 rabbits in pounds:
Statistics exam scores for 25 students are as
follows: 8, 10, 12, 14, 15
40, 48, 50, 49, 50, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 39, 48,
Range = 15 − 8 = 7 pounds
41, 45, 46, 47, 43, 44, 48, 46, 43, 44, 48, 48,
41
2.2 INTERQUARTILE RANGE (IQR)
Answer: The most frequent score is 48, which • It is calculated by taking the difference
occurs 6
5 times. Therefore, the mode of this between the upper and lower quartiles
dataset is 48. (the 25th percentile subtracted from the
75th percentile).
Example 2
• A good indicator of the spread in the
Mathematics exam scores for 5 students are
center region of the data.
50,50,40,46,46. The data set is bimodal
Formula:
because the scores 50 and 46 each occur
twice. 𝐼𝑄𝑅 = 𝑄3 − 𝑄1

2. Measures of Dispersion where:

 Q3 – third quartile
- are non-negative real numbers that help  Q1 – first quartile
to gauge the spread of data about a
central value. These measures help to Example 1
determine how stretched or squeezed Given: 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 15, 18, 19, 27
the given data is. There are five most
used measures of dispersion. These are ✓ First step is to put the numbers in order.
range, variance, standard deviation, Then, find the median. In this case, the
mean deviation, and quartile deviation. median is 9.

3|Page
 Formula for sample variance:
1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 15, 18, 19, 27
∑(𝑥̅ − 𝑋)2
𝑠2 =
✓ Next step is to find the Q3 and Q1. 𝑛−1
Think of Q1 as a median in the lower
half of the data and Q3 as a median in
the upper half of the data. where:
✓ 𝑠2 – population variance
(1, 2, 5, 6, 7, ) 9, (12, 15, 18, 19, 27) ✓ 𝑥̅ – value of observations
𝑄1 𝑄3 ✓ 𝑋 – sample mean
✓ 𝑛 – total number of observations in the
✓ Thus, interquartile range can be solved: population

𝐼𝑄𝑅 = 𝑄3 − 𝑄1 Example 1

𝐼𝑄𝑅 = 18 − 5 = 13 The heights (in mm) of the players in our

population are 610, 450, 160, 420, 310.

2.3 VARIANCE
✓ The first step is finding the mean.
• It is the expected value of the squared
variation of a random variable from its (610 + 450 + 160 + 420 + 310)
𝜇 =
mean value. In other words, it is the 5
average squared difference of each = 390
observation from the mean.
• It estimates how far a set of numbers ✓ To calculate the variance, compute the
(random) are spread out from their difference of each from the mean,
mean value. square it and find the average once
again.
Formula for population variance: ∑(𝑥̅ − 𝜇)
𝜎2 =
𝑁
∑(𝑥̅ − 𝜇) 𝜎2 =
𝜎2 = (610−390)2 +(450−390)2+(390−160)2+(420 − 390)2+(390−310)2
𝑁
5

where:
𝝈𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟒𝟎
• 𝜎2 – population variance
• 𝑥̅ – value of observations
Important Notes on Measures of Dispersion
• 𝜇 – population mean
• 𝑁 – total number of observations in the • Measures of dispersion are used to
population determine the spread of data. They
are measured about a central value.
• Measures of dispersion can be
classified into two types, i.e.,

4|Page
 absolute and relative measures of This formula is:
dispersion.
𝑛!
• Absolute measures of deviation have 𝑃(𝑛, 𝑟) =
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!
the same units as the data and
relative measures are unitless. Where:
• Range, variance, standard deviation,
• n = total items in the set;
quartile deviation and mean
• r = items taken for the permutation
deviation are absolute measures of
deviation • “!” denotes factorial.
• Coefficients of dispersion are relative
measures of deviation Example 1
You have a deck of 8 different playing cards,
Example 1 and you want to find the number of different
Find the Variance and Standard Deviation of ways to arrange 4 of these cards in a row
the Following Numbers: 1, 3, 5, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10. (without repeating any card).
Solution:
Solution:
Using the permutation formula:
The mean = (1+ 3+ 5+ 5+ 6+ 7+ 9+ 10)/8 = 46/
𝑛!
8 = 5.75 𝑃(𝑛, 𝑟) =
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!
8!
3. Permutation 𝑃(8,4) =
(8 − 4)!
- It refers to a mathematical calculation 8!
of the number of ways a particular set 𝑃(8,4) =
can be arranged. 4!
- To put simply, a permutation describes 8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1
𝑃(8,4) =
the number of ways things can be 4×3×2×1
ordered or arranged.
𝑃(8,4) = 8 × 7 × 6 × 5
- The order of the arrangement
matters in permutation. 𝑃(8,4) = 𝟏, 𝟔𝟖𝟎 ways

3.1 TYPES OF PERMUTATION Example 2

You have 6 different colored marbles, and you
• Without Repetition want to find the number of different ways to
- In this case, one item is removed arrange 3 of these marbles in a row (without
from the list each time you have to repeating any color).
come up with a new permutation.
Solution:
Put simply, the available choices
for permutations dwindle as you Using the permutation formula:
go along. 𝑛!
𝑃(𝑛, 𝑟) =
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!
5|Page
 6!
𝑃(6,3) = 4. Combination
(6 − 3)!
- Arrangement or grouping of items
6! where order is not important.
𝑃(8,4) = - The formula for the number of
3!
combinations is shown below
6×5×4×3×2×1 where 𝒏𝑪𝒓 is the number of
𝑃(8,4) =
3×2×1 combinations for 𝒏 things taken 𝒓 at
a time.
𝑃(8,4) = 6 × 5 × 4 𝒏!
𝒏𝑪𝒓 =
(𝒏 − 𝒓)! 𝒓!
𝑃(8,4) = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 ways

Example 1
• With Repetition
There are 12 ballpens in a bag numbered from
- In this case, you can make 1 to 12. Six ballpens are selected at random.
different combinations with How many ways are there of selecting the six
different objects. The data is not ballpens?
restricted by how many times it
𝐧!
can appear so you can use the 𝐧𝐂𝐫 =
(𝐧 − 𝐫)! 𝐫!
data more than once.

This formula is: 12!

10C3 =
(12 − 6)! 6!
𝑃(𝑛, 𝑟) = 𝑛𝑟
12!
10C3 =
6! 6!
Example 1
12 x11 x 10 x 9 x 8 x 7x 6!
You want to create a 3-letter password using 10C3 =
the English alphabet (26 letters), where each 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 x 6!
letter in the password can be repeated. How
10C3 = 𝟗𝟐𝟒 ways
many different passwords can be created?
Solution: Example 2
Using the permutation formula: In how many ways 5 books can be chosen
𝑃(26,3) = 263 from 12 books in the shelf?
𝐧!
𝑃(26,3) = 𝟏𝟕, 𝟓𝟔𝟕 𝐧𝐂𝐫 =
(𝐧 − 𝐫)! 𝐫!
8!
So, there are 17,576 different 3-letter 8C5 =
(8 − 5)! 5!
passwords that can be created using the
English alphabet, allowing repetition of letters. 8!
8C5 =
3! 5!

6|Page
 8 x 7x 6 x 5! Hence,
8C5 = 36 9
3 x 2 x 1 x 5! Probability [P(E)] = = ≈ 0.69
52 13
8C5 = 𝟓𝟔 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬
5.1 FUNDAMENTAL COUNTING PRINCIPLE
5. Probability The fundamental counting principle states that
- can be described as a measure of the if there are 𝒏(𝑿) possibilities in event 𝑿 and
likelihood or chance of an event 𝒏(𝒀) possibilities in event 𝒀, then the total
occurring. number of possibilities when both events occur
simultaneously is 𝒏(𝑿) × 𝒏(𝒀).
Terminologies:
 Sample Space (S): The set of all This can be generalized to 𝑘 events, where 𝑘 is
possible outcomes of an experiment. the number of events. The total number of
 Event (E): A subset of the sample outcomes for 𝑘 events is:
space, representing a specific outcome
or a combination of outcomes. 𝑛1 × 𝑛2 × 𝑛3 × ⋯ × 𝑛𝑘
 Outcome: possible resuls of an
experiment. Example 1
 Probability (P): A measure of the You are choosing a dessert at an ice cream
likelihood of an event occurring, typically shop. You have the following choices:
expressed as a number between 0
(impossible) and 1 (certain). The I. Choice of 2 different ice cream flavors:
probability of an event E is denoted as Chocolate or Vanilla.
P(E).
 Random Variable: A variable that can II. Choice of 3 different toppings: Sprinkles,
take on various values, each associated Chocolate Chips, or Whipped Cream.
with a probability. Solution:
General Formula for Probability Total no. of dessert option

# 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛 ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑛 = 2 (𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑠) × 3 (𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠)

𝑃(𝐸) =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 = 2 𝑥̅ 3

Example 1 =6
Find the probability of getting a numbered card
when a card is drawn from the pack of 52 5.2 RULE OF SUM
cards. The rule states that if you have two or more
Solution: disjoint (mutually exclusive) events, you can
find the total number of outcomes by adding
• Total Cards = 52 the number of outcomes of each individual
• Numbered Cards = (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, event.
10) 9 from each suit 4 × 9 = 36

7|Page
In other words, if you have Event A with 𝑛
possible outcomes and Event B with
𝑚 possible outcomes, the total number of
outcomes for both events combined is 𝑛 + 𝑚.

Example 1
You are planning a dinner menu, and you have
two main course options: chicken or fish.
Additionally, you have two dessert options:
cake or ice cream. How many different dinner
combinations can you create from these
options?

Solution:

• Choices for the main course: 2 options

(chicken or fish)
• Choices for dessert: 2 options (cake or
ice cream)

Total no. of different dinner combinations

= 2 (𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒) + 2 (𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑡)

= 2+2

=4

8|Page
 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 lim 𝑔(𝑥̅) ≠ 0
BASIC CALCULUS 𝑥̅→𝑎

o lim 𝑐 = 𝑐 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐 ∊ 𝑅
𝑥̅→𝑎
1. Limits
• are defined as the value that a function lim 𝑓(𝑥̅)
o If lim 𝑓(𝑥̅) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥̅) = 0, then 𝑥̅→𝑎
gets closer to as it approaches a lim 𝑔(𝑥̅)
𝑥̅→𝑎
specific 𝑥̅-value.
may or may not exist. This limit may be

Suppose you have a function 𝑓(𝑥̅) defined in evaluated as follows:

an open interval that includes the number  Factoring
𝑎 (𝑒𝑥̅𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑎), and you observe that Example:
as 𝑥̅ gets very close to 𝑎 (but not equal to 𝑎),
all the values of 𝑓(𝑥̅) approach the real number 𝑥̅2 + 3𝑥̅ − 10 (𝑥̅ + 5)(𝑥̅ − 2)
lim = lim
𝐿. In that case, you can conclude that the limit 𝑥̅→2 𝑥̅ − 2 𝑥̅→2 𝑥̅ − 2
of 𝒇(𝒙) as 𝒙 approaches a is 𝑳.
= lim 𝑥̅ + 5
𝑥̅→2
In simpler terms:
=2+5
As 𝑥̅ approaches 𝑎, 𝑓(𝑥̅) approaches and =7
remains near the value 𝐿.  Rationalization

The mathematical representation of the Example:

concept of a limit is typically denoted as:
√𝑥̅ + 4
lim √𝑥̅ − 4 = lim √𝑥̅ − 4 .
lim 𝑓(𝑥̅) = 𝐿 𝑥̅→16 𝑥̅ − 16 𝑥̅→16 𝑥̅ − 16 √𝑥̅ + 4
𝑥̅→𝑎

= lim 𝑥̅ − 16
1.1 LIMIT PROPERTIES 𝑥̅→16 (𝑥̅ − 16)(√𝑥̅ + 4)
Suppose that lim 𝑓(𝑥̅) and lim 𝑔(𝑥̅) exists and 1
𝑥̅→𝑎 𝑥̅→𝑎
= lim
𝑎 is a constant. Then, 𝑥̅→16 (√𝑥̅ + 4)

o lim[𝑐 . 𝑓(𝑥̅)] = 𝑐 . lim 𝑓(𝑥̅) 1

𝑥̅→𝑎 𝑥̅→𝑎 =
4+4
o lim 𝑓(𝑥̅) ± 𝑔(𝑥̅) = lim 𝑓(𝑥̅) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥̅)
𝑥̅→𝑎 𝑥̅→𝑎 𝑥̅→𝑎 1
=
8
o lim 𝑓(𝑥̅) . 𝑔(𝑥̅) = lim 𝑓(𝑥̅) . lim 𝑔(𝑥̅)
𝑥̅→𝑎 𝑥̅→𝑎 𝑥̅→𝑎
NOTE: For a limit to exist, the values of the
lim 𝑓(𝑥̅)
𝑓(𝑥̅) function must converge to a specific real
o lim = 𝑥̅→𝑎
,
𝑥̅→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥̅) lim 𝑔(𝑥̅) number; otherwise, the limit does not exist
𝑥̅→𝑎
(DNE).

9|Page
 𝑑 𝑑
2. Derivatives 𝑔(𝑥̅) . 𝑓(𝑥̅) − 𝑓(𝑥̅) . 𝑓(𝑥̅)
= 𝑑𝑥̅ 𝑑𝑥̅
• The derivative of 𝑓(𝑥̅) with respect to (𝑔(𝑥̅))2
𝑥̅ is the function 𝑓’(𝑥̅) and is defined
as, 2.2 DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC
𝑓(𝑥̅ + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥̅) FUNCTIONS
lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑑
𝑑 𝑑𝑦 o 𝑑𝑥̅ [sin(𝑥̅)] = cos(𝑥̅)
• Notations: 𝑓′, 𝑦′, 𝑑𝑥̅ 𝑓(𝑥̅), 𝑑𝑥̅ , 𝐷(𝑓(𝑥̅))
𝑑
• The process of determining the o 𝑑𝑥̅ [tan(𝑥̅)] = 𝑠𝑒𝑐2(𝑥̅)
derivative of a function is known as 𝑑
differentiation. o 𝑑𝑥̅
[sec(𝑥̅)] = sec(𝑥̅) tan(𝑥̅)
𝑑
o 𝑑𝑥̅
2.1 DERIVATIVE PROPERTIES
[cos(𝑥̅)] = −sin (𝑥̅)
o Power Rule: suppose 𝑛 ∊ 𝑅
𝑑 𝑑
[𝑥̅𝑛] = 𝑛𝑥̅𝑛−1 o 𝑑𝑥̅ [cot(𝑥̅)] = −𝑐𝑠𝑐2(𝑥̅)
𝑑𝑥̅
𝑑 𝑑
(𝑒. 𝑔. , [𝑥̅5] = 5𝑥̅5−1 = 5𝑥̅4) o 𝑑𝑥̅
𝑑𝑥̅ [csc(𝑥̅)] = −csc (𝑥̅)cot (𝑥̅)
o Linearity:
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥̅) ± 𝑔(𝑥̅)] = 𝑓(𝑥̅) ± 𝑔(𝑥̅)
𝑑𝑥̅ 𝑑𝑥̅ 𝑑𝑥̅

o Constant Rule: 𝑑
[𝑐] = 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐 ∊ 𝑅
𝑑𝑥̅

o Constant Multiple Rule: 𝑑

[𝑐𝑥̅] = 𝑐
𝑑𝑥̅

(e.g., 𝑑
[5𝑥̅] = 5)
𝑑𝑥̅

o Product Rule: 𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥̅) . 𝑔(𝑥̅)]
𝑑𝑥̅

𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑔(𝑥̅) 𝑓(𝑥̅) . 𝑓(𝑥̅) 𝑔(𝑥̅)
𝑑𝑥̅ 𝑑𝑥̅

This is also known as Leibnitz Product

Rule.
o Quotient Rule: suppose 𝑔(𝑥̅) ≠ 0
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥̅)
𝑑𝑥̅ 𝑔(𝑥̅)

10 | P a g e
REFERENCES

https://byjus.com/maths/limits/
https://byjus.com/maths/derivative-function-
calculus/
https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-
precalculus-concepts-
2.0/section/14.5/primary/lesson/rationalization-
to-find-limits-pcalc/
https://www.scribd.com/document/439214073/sta
tistics-and-probability-reviewer
https://www.cuemath.com/population-mean-
formula/
https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-
development/how-to-calculate-sample-mean
https://stats.libretexts.org/Courses/City_Univer
sity_of_New_York/Introductory_Statistics_with_
Probability_(CUNY)/02%3A_Descriptive_Statis
tics/2.04%3A_Measures_of_Central_Tendency
-_Mean_Median_and_Mode
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median
https://byjus.com/maths/combination/
https://www.cuemath.com/data/measures-of-
dispersion/#:~:text=There%20are%20five%20
most%20commonly,of%20the%20distribution%
20of%20data.

11 | P a g e
 PHYSICS
Physics is the study of matter, its motion, and its MEASUREMENTS, ERRORS, AND
behavior through space and time, along with other VECTORS
quantities such as energy. Accuracy - is the closeness of the given set
of values to the correct values.
Scientific Notation - a way of writing very large or Error - the difference between the
very small numbers by putting one number before the calculated value and the actual value.
decimal point, then multiplying by a power of 10. Percentage Error - is the difference
between the estimated number and the
3.6 x 10^3 actual number when composed to the actual
number expressed in percent format.
Exponent - a number or sign that shows how Percentage Difference - difference between two
many times another number should be multiplies values divided by the average of the two values
by itself. shown as a percentage.
Significand - that part of a floating-point number Precision - is the closeness of the values to each
that contains its significant digits. other.
Decimal - reading to or expressed in a system of Uncertainty - usually described as an error in
counting based on the number 10. measurement.
All numbers in scientific notation are expressed in the
form: a x 10^b PERCENTAGE OF ERROR %
Where:
a - is a number between 1 and 10
Technically, a is called the significand
PERCENTAGE DIFFERENCE
WRITING NUMBERS IN SCIENTIFIC
NOTATION
Examples:
980,250,000,000 meters = 9.8 x 1011 meters Then, the average of all computed percentage
0.000000000000102 = 2 x 10-15 meters difference is calculated. The average of all
percentage differences should not exceed 0.5% to
WRITING FROM SCIENTIFIC NOTATION be precise.
TO DECIMAL
To convert from scientific notation back to Example:
decimal notation, you just do the opposite. Isay was assigned by her teacher to measure the
distance from her classroom to the school cafeteria
OPERATIONS WITH NUMBERS WRITTEN from Monday to Friday. She used a meterstick and
IN SCIENTIFIC NOTATION obtained the following measurements:
Addition 35.1 m, 35.2 m, 35.0 m, 34.9 m, and 35.1 m.
Ex. The actual distance from her classroom to the
(5.7 x 104) + (4.87 x 105) school cafeteria is 35.0 m. Are her measurements
(0.57 x 105) + (4.87 x 105) = 5.44 x 105
accurate or precise?
Multiplying / Dividing
Multiply/divide the decimal numbers. Given: 35.1 m, 35.2 m, 35.0 m, 34.9 m, and 35.1 m
Multiply/divide the powers of 10 by
adding/subtracting their exponents.
Convert your answer to scientific notation if
necessary.
Ex.
Multiply
(3.4 x 10-2)(6.2 x 106)
3.4 x 6.2 = 21.08
10- 2 x 106 = 104 The actual distance from her classroom to the school
cafeteria is 35.00 m. Compute the percentage error of
(3.4 x 10- 2)(6.2 x 106) her measurements
= (3.4 x 6.2) x (10-2)(106)
= 21.08 x 104
(3.4 x 10-2)(6.2 x 106)
= 2.108 x 105
Divide
8.4 1.4 = 6
105 10-2 = 105+2 = 107
(8.4 x 105) (1.4 x 10-2) To determine if her measurements are precise,
= (8.4 1.4) x (105 10-2) compute the percentage difference of each
= 6 x 107 measurement.
(8.4 x 105) (1.4 x 10-2) The sample computation below is for the
= 6x107 measurement 35.1 m.

MEASUREMENTS, ERRORS, AND

VECTORS
Accuracy - is the closeness of the given
set of values to the correct values.
TYPES OF ERROR
Systematic error - when the error
produced is always of the same sign.

Instrumental error: Equipment used to

measure object may not be completely Take note that the direction of the vectors must be
accurate. retained. If two vectors are added in the same
direction, the vector sum will just be a longer
Environmental error: Error occurs vector.
because of the changes in the
surrounding condition like humidity,
pressure, temperature, etc. When two vectors to be added are perpendicular,
the magnitude of the vector sum can be calculated
Observational error: Error in recording using the Pythagorean theorem and trigonometric
data also called as human errors. Once functions.
systematic error caused is identified, it
may be reduced to some extent. Sample Problem:
Systematic error can be minimized by Joshua wants to go to school. From his house, he
routinely calibrating equipment using walks 3 meters to the East and then heads 4
controls and comparing values against meters to the North. Which path should he take to
standard value. get there faster?
We can notice that the
Random error - when positive and second path Joshua has
negative errors are equally probable to crossed is perpendicular
occur. to the first path. If we
draw a line from Joshua’s
Observational Error: in the judgement of house to his school, a
observer. right triangle is formed. In
Small disturbance: Small disturbances this case, we are going to
may introduce error in the measurement use the Pythagorean
like theorem.
Fluctuating Conditions:
Quality: Some time if the quality of the Hence, Joshua’s house is 5 meters away from his
object whose measurement is to be made school. He can take the second path to go to school
is not defined properly it will lead to an faster.
error
The sum of all paths taken is known as distance,
Scalars and Vectors while the difference between the final position and
Scalars are quantities that have the initial position is called displacement.
magnitude but no direction.
Vectors are quantities that have Displacement is a vector quantity because it needs
magnitude and direction. to know the change in direction, while distance is a
scalar quantity because it is only concerned with the
*Vectors are also represented by an arrow total amount of path travelled regardless of the
where the length of the arrow corresponds direction.
to the vector’s magnitude, the tail Vector Subtraction
represents the origin of the vector, and the This is like vector addition, except what we are going
arrowhead indicates the direction of the to do is invert the direction of the second vector (see
vector. image below). This is also the same as the vector
being multiplied to a scalar of -1. This way, the
Vector Addition magnitude of the vector remains the same, but the
To add two vectors, connect the second direction is the opposite, so we have A-B, which is
vector’s tail to the first vector’s arrowhead, pretty much the same as A+ (-B).
then draw a resultant vector from the tail
of the first vector to the head of the
second vector.
Unit Vector
A unit vector is a dimensionless vector used
to describe a direction in space. It does not
have units and has a magnitude of 1.

For many expressions, especially in the

components of vectors, this is used as a Vector Sum
notation. This is often denoted using a caret
or hat (^).This can also be used to calculate Sample Problem:
the magnitude of a vector. The vector After class, Kai wants to go to the grocery store.
magnitude can be calculated using the The map below shows the paths he has to take
formula below. to get there.

Components of Vectors
The vector component implies the parts of
a vector – the x-component and the y-
component.
Study the force vector below.

Find how far the grocery store is from Kai’s

school and its direction.
Solution:
We are looking for Kai’s displacement. First, we
are going to calculate the components of the
vectors.

Given above is a set of axes (x and y) with a VECTOR SUM TABLE SOLUTION
force vector of 200 N in the direction of 32 º
North of East. This force vector has an x-
component and a y-component.

1. Getting the x–component. To get the x-

component of the vector, draw a vertical broken
line from the end of the vector to the x-axis.
Then starting from the origin, draw a vector
along the x-axis up to the tip of the vertical line.
The dark green line on the figure below To find how far the To find the
represents the x – component of the force grocery store is from direction, we are
vector. school, we must calculate going to use some
the magnitude of the trigonometric
2. Getting the y–component. To get the y- resultant vector. functions.
component of the vector, draw a horizontal
broken line from the y-axis to the end of the
force vector. Draw a vertical vector parallel to
the y-axis starting from the x-axis to the end of
the force vector. The blue line on the figure
below represents the y – component of the Final Answer: The grocery store is 7.07
force vector. meters away from Kai’s school and is
45° North of West.
Kinematics – the study of motion.

The kinematic equations include variables such as

displacement, velocity, acceleration, and time.
In kinematics, note that acceleration will always have a
constant value since we would not be looking at forces
that cause acceleration to change over time, while
displacement and velocity could have an initial or final
value.
The following are the fundamental kinematic equations

Relative Velocity in Two or Three

‌Relative Velocities
Dimensions
We often experience instances when
The relative velocity is the velocity of an object (observer B)
one or more objects travel with respect
in the rest frame of another object (observer A).
to another observer in a frame that is
non-stationary.
velocity of 5 m/s. A passenger walks along the aisle of the
A perfect example is a ship crossing a
train with a velocity of 0.5 m/s.
river that flows at some rate or an
What do you think is this passenger’s velocity?
airplane encountering wind during its
Sitting on the train, you’ll say that this passenger’s velocity is
motion.
just 0.5 m/s. However, if you observe outside the train or on
In all these cases, the effect that the
another train going in the opposite direction, you will give
medium has on the object must be
another answer.
considered to explain the complete
This question is simple, yet there is no concrete answer
motion of the object.
unless we specify which observer we mean and speak of
We measure the relative velocity of the
the velocity relative to a particular observer. This is what we
object when doing so, taking into
call a frame of reference.
account the particle velocity and the
relative velocity.
Let’s say you want to find the passenger’s velocity relative to
the observer (at rest with respect to the ground) outside theNEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
LRT train. To make this simple, we will use A to represent
the observer’s frame of reference and B to represent the LAW OF INERTIA
moving train’s frame of reference. Did you know that when you throw a ball
into outer space, it will continue to move
To solve for velocity, we are going to use the formula indefinitely with the same velocity it had
the moment the ball left your hand?
But if you throw a ball here on Earth, the
ball will eventually stop. Why is that?
This happens because of Newton’s first
law of motion!
Newton’s first law, the law of inertia, states
that an object at rest tends to remain at
rest and an object in motion tends to stay
in motion unless acted upon by an
external net force.
Any object has an amount of inertia that is LAW OF INTERACTION
proportional to its mass. The bigger the object is, Remember how much it hurts when you hit a
the greater its inertia. Mass is a measurement of mosquito landing on your legs using your hand?
an object’s inertia. Why does your hand hurt as well?Have you
The net force is the sum of the forces acting upon ever heard of the statement, “For every action,
the object. If the net force is not zero, there will be there is an equal and opposite reaction”?This
some motion. means that if two objects interact, the forces
they exert on each other will be equal in
LAW OF ACCELERATION magnitude but opposite in terms of direction.
The second law of motion, also known as the law
of acceleration, states that the acceleration of an Take a book sitting on your table for an
object is directly proportional to the net force example. Your book exerts a force on your
acting on the object, is in the direction of the net table, and the table exerts a force back on your
force, and is inversely proportional to the mass of book. These forces are equal in magnitude but
the object. opposite in direction, which explains why the
book is not moving.This law also implies that
forces must come in pairs (action-reaction) since
any force is an interaction.
Mathematically,

This may be confusing because many forces

t is simply known as F = ma.
are acting on an object. However, we should
learn how to isolate systems.When we assess
We can see many things from this equation.
the motion of an object, we only consider the
First, the heavier the object, the greater the force
force acting on it, not the forces it applies to
you must apply to cause acceleration.
another object. Always remember that when you
Conversely, the lighter the object, the less force it
look for the forces, you look at one object at a
takes to accelerate.Therefore, moving lighter
time and figure out the force-reaction pair.
objects is simpler than moving heavier ones.It is
also important to understand that the net force FRICTION
refers to the sum of all the forces acting on an
object. If there are multiple forces, we must The force that is perpendicular to the surface is
represent this using a free body diagram and called the normal force, while the force that is
parallel to the surface is the frictional force or,
then use vector addition. This will tell us the simply, friction.
direction of the acceleration that will occur in
response to the net force. Friction is the force that resists the motion of the
object along the surface. Hence, its direction will
Mass vs. Weight always oppose the relative motion of the object.
While mass is the measurement of an object’s Coefficient of Friction
inertia, weight is the gravitational force that the
Every surface has what we call a coefficient of
earth exerts on the object.These two words, since friction which depends on its structure. If you try
they are closely related, are frequently sliding a block on some surfaces like sandpaper
interchanged.When an object is massive, it also and ice, what do you notice? Which surface is
has a large weight. Say, a bowling ball, for smoother?These materials have different
instance. A bowling bowl is hard to throw compositions, hence, their resistance to motion
is also different. The smoother the surface is,
because it is massive and hard to lift at the same the less friction it provides.
time because of its large weight.
Weight can be obtained when the acceleration is However, from the microscopic point of view,
equal to the acceleration due to gravity. It is the even the surface that appears to be smooth has
force that makes an object accelerate downward. imperfections that provide friction. As the object
slides across the surface, there are points where
atoms in both the surface and the object interact
Mathematically, w =mg with one another, causing hindrance to the
motion. The table below shows the coefficient of
friction of common surfaces.Source: University
Physics by Young and Freedman
STATIC FRICTION
Try sliding a box across the floor. Were you able Find the coefficients of static and kinetic friction
to make the box move? It may or may not move between the block of ice and the surface.
because the floor exerts an equal and opposite Solution
friction force on the box. To understand this further, let us draw a free-
body diagram.
This is called a static frictional force, which is the
friction that resists the initiation of the motion. It’s
directly proportional to the normal force; hence,
the heavier the object is, the greater the normal
force and the frictional force.

Static friction can increase until the magnitude of

the applied force is greater than the maximum
static frictional force the object exerts, resulting
in the acceleration of the box. Its value will be
anywhere from zero to the maximum possible
value, which can be calculated using

KINETIC FRICTION

When the applied force exceeds the maximum

static friction, the object will begin to accelerate.
Once the object is in motion, it now moves
against kinetic friction, which refers to the force
that opposes relative sliding motion.

Kinetic friction will always be less than static

friction since it is harder to get an object going
than to keep it moving once you start pushing it.
The magnitude of the kinetic frictional force WORK, ENERGY, AND POWER
acting on a sliding object can be calculated Many people define work differently, but in
using the formula physics, work is defined as an action done on
an object wherein an applied force causes a
displacement of the object.
ROLLING FRICTION In our example, the car moves from one place
to another (even just a little). Your work is
greater if the force you apply is greater and the
displacement is greater.

Mathematically,
W=F⋅d
Work can only be done when displacement
occurs.
Most of the time, instead of pushing a box to Suppose you are pushing that car with a
make it slide, you place the box on a cart with constant force of 235 N over the 5-meter
wheels to make it move. That is much easier, distance; you would do 1175 Newton meters of
right? This is because of rolling friction, or the work. Newton-meters is also known as Joules,
force that resists the motion of a rolling body on named after the physicist James Prescott
a surface. This is equal to Joule.
Sample Problem Involving Friction When you push the same car and apply the
A 30-kg block of ice rests on the surface. You same force, but the car did not move, you may
began pushing it horizontally, and the block get tired, but there is no work done.
started moving when your force exceeds 202 N.
You want to keep it moving at a constant 0.31 m/s,
reducing your push to 120 N.
 The block then slows down. If you push straight
down on the block as it moves, the net force on
the block is zero, which means there is no work
done on the block, and its speed remains the
same.
Since work is a scalar quantity, the total work
(Wtot) done on the object by all the forces is the
algebraic sum of the quantities of work done by
the individual forces.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the work done by gravity to the boy whose
mass is 40 kg and is climbing through a 1.35-
meter ladder that makes a 60°angle with the
Moreover, only the force components parallel to
tree.
the displacement count toward work.

If you push the car with your arms parallel to the

ground, all the force contributes to the work.
However, if you are pushing at a downward angle,
only the x-component contributes to work, but the
y-component does not. In this situation, we are
going to use the equation

W = Fd cos θ
where F is the magnitude of the force, d is the
magnitude of the displacement, and θ is the angle
from the horizontal.
ENERGY
Note that when there is no angle (θ = 0), work is Energy is defined as the ability to do work.
just equal to Fd, while when you push the box There are different types of energy, but we will
downward (θ = 90), there will be no work done concentrate on kinetic and potential energy.
since cos 90 is equal to 0.
1. KINETIC ENERGY
Note that work is a scalar quantity, meaning it can Kinetic energy is usually known as energy in
be positive or negative. Work is positive if the force motion.
is applied in the same direction as the We can also relate work with energy. Recalling
displacement, while work is negative if the applied Newton’s second law of motion, we know that
force is in the opposite direction of the when the net force is applied to an object, it will
displacement. cause it to move at some constant acceleration.

Always be mindful of the signs since it tells us F = ma

about the speed resulting from the work applied. We also know that work is equal to the
Suppose you have a block that slides on a product of force and displacement.
frictionless surface. Three forces are acting on the
block: the weight w, the normal force n, and the W = Fd
force F exerted on the block by the hand. If we substitute the value of F in Eq. 2, we
will get
If you push to the right on the block as it moves,
the net force on the block is in the direction of the
motion, which means that the total work done on
the block is positive. This means that the block
speeds up. However, if you push to the left on the
block as it moves, the net force on the block will be
in the opposite direction of the motion, making the
This means that when work is done on the
total work done on the block negative. object, there will be a change in kinetic
energy, which is also the energy in motion.
This theorem also means that an object in
motion can work on another object.When an
external force does work on a system, the
amount of work will be equal to the change
in the kinetic energy of the system. Take
note that:
W = positive (+) The system increases its kinetic Simply put, energy is always conserved.
energy, and the change will equal the work done In our example in the previous section, we say
ON the system. that when a ball falls, the potential energy will be
converted to kinetic energy. We should also take
W = negative (-) The system decreases its kinetic note that the sum of the energies will always be
energy, and the change will be equal to work the same.
done BY the system. The sum of potential and kinetic energy is called
mechanical energy. This type of energy only
Mass is also related to kinetic energy. This includes potential and kinetic energy. The
means that the more massive an object is, the remaining types of energy, such as chemical,
higher its kinetic energy. thermal, nuclear, and others, are known as
nonmechanical energy.

In this case, the meteorite

travels along a straight line, so
cos 0 = 1. It also started from
rest, making our initial velocity
equal to 0.
Our final equation will then be
Let us have another example using a pendulum.
At the top of the swing, the pendulum possesses its
maximum potential energy and zero kinetic energy. As
it is released, its potential energy decreases while its
2. POTENTIAL ENERGY
kinetic energy increases until the ball reaches the
Potential energy (U) is the stored energy an
bottom of the swing. At this position, the potential
object possesses due to its position relative to
energy is at its minimum while the kinetic energy is at
other objects.
its maximum.
A perfect example of this is lifting a ball in the
air. When a ball is lifted in the air, its
gravitational potential energy is increased as it
moves farther away from the ground.

Note that the closer the object is to the earth’s

center of gravity, the lesser the potential
energy it possesses. As you lift an object up or
away from the ground, the higher the potential
energy it gains.
The potential energy due to an elevated
position is known as the gravitational potential
energy. This is equal to the work done against
gravity in lifting it.
Work done equals the upward force an object
needs to move at a constant velocity (weight)
through a height h.

is released from a high place, the potential

energy will then be converted to kinetic
energy as it falls. This perfectly describes the
concept of conservation of energy.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
The law of conservation of energy states
that energy cannot be created nor
destroyed, but it can be transformed from
one form to another without changing the
total amount of energy.
 Our next two examples will focus on the
decreasing momentum over a longer and
shorter period.

PROBLEM 2 (CAR ACCIDENT)

Your car has lost its brakes, and you must
choose between hitting a tree or a bunch of
haystacks. What will you choose and why?
Solution
1. Momentum
Momentum is defined as the product of the mass of Choice A: Tree. If you choose to hit the tree,
the object and its velocity. p = mv where p = you might have thought it is the best choice to
momentum, m = mass of the object, and v = stop the car completely. Technically, yes, but
velocity.In other words, changing the mass and applying the concept of momentum and
increasing or decreasing the velocity will affect the impulse, you will know that the change in
momentum. momentum will occur over a short period,
therefore, the hitting force is greater, making
your car crash (and stop) completely.

Choice B: A bunch of haystacks. Now, this is

the right and the most common choice. A bunch
of haystacks can slow down your car, making
the change in momentum occur over a longer
period and reducing the hitting force.

PROBLEM 3 (BOXING)
Which is best when boxing – moving towards or
away from the punch?
Greater the impulse is, the greater the change in
momentum will be. Solution
Sample Problems with Solutions Choice A: Moving towards the punch. If a boxer
Let us see examples where (Problem 1) the impulse does this, he might be knocked out. Moving
is related to an increasing momentum, (Problem 2) towards the punch can decrease the
decreasing momentum over a longer period, and momentum of the punch since the time is
(Problem 3) decreasing momentum over a shorter reduced; however, the impact force is greater.
period. Choice B: Moving away from the punch. When
the boxer moves away from the punch, the
Problem 1 (Ball) momentum of the punch is decreased since the
Which has a greater momentum: a ball that is hit time is extended. This is the best choice since
once with a large force or a ball that is hit moving away also lessens the impact force (and
repeatedly? gives you a chance to punch back!).
Solution Conservation of Momentum
We know that the greater the impulse, the greater We learned from the law of acceleration that a
the change in momentum will be. A ball that is hit net force must be applied to an object to cause
once has a lesser impulse than a ball that is hit acceleration. Similarly, to change an object’s
repeatedly. momentum, an external impulse must be
Hitting the ball over and over again extends the time exerted.
of contact, which results in increased momentum. We can understand this further by considering a
bullet being fired. By the third law of motion, the
force on the bullet inside the gun barrel is equal
and opposite to the force causing the bullet to
recoil. This makes the impulses equal and
opposite as well. However, these impulses are
internal to the gun barrel-bullet system, causing
no change in momentum.
The law of conservation of momentum can be
stated as.
“In the absence of an external force, the Fluid Mechanics
momentum of a system remains unchanged.” All fluids exhibit density, which is the mass per unit
We can also relate the law of conservation of volume.
momentum to the law of conservation of energy, Mathematically,ρ = m/v Note that density is
that is, the amount of momentum remains represented by the Greek letter, rho, not p.
constant; momentum is neither created nor
destroyed but only changed through the action of
forces as described by Newton’s laws of motion.
In the case of a system where all forces are Sample Problem
internal (e.g., collisions), the net momentum of the If your room has dimensions 3.0 m x 4.0 m
system before and after the event is equal. and a ceiling 5.0 m high, determine the
mass and the weight of the air.

Collision
When an object in motion comes into contact with
another object, a collision occurs.There are two
types of collisions, so the conservation of
momentum can be manifested in various ways as
well.If you play billiards or watch billiard games,
you have probably noticed the motion of the balls.
Usually, when you hit a ball, it will move and
collide with a ball at rest. After the collision, the
first ball stays at rest while the second one moves
with the speed of the colliding ball.Collisions like
this resemble elastic collisions, where objects
remained separated after collisions without
deformation or heat generation. In this type of
collision, the total kinetic energy, as well as the h is the depth below the surface.
total momentum, will be conserved, resulting in When you increase the pressure at the fluid’s
objects bouncing off one another with no energy surface, the pressure at any depth increases
lost.In our example, the momentum of the first ball simultaneously. This is known as Pascal’s law.
is transferred to the second ball, but neither ball is
permanently deformed. The balls look the same THE CONTINUITY EQUATION
as before the collision; they just moved to different The relationship between the area inside the hose
locations on the table.There are several examples (the hose’s internal diameter) and the velocity of
of collisions in real-life situations that are ideal. For the fluid is expressed in the equation of continuity,
example, when you kick a ball, your foot and the written mathematically as
ball separate after a collision, but some heat and
sound are generated. We will refer to this type of
collision as a perfectly elastic collision.
when the colliding objects deform or generate
heat. If two colliding objects stick together, a
perfectly inelastic collision occurs. This is best
demonstrated in a car crash. When two cars
crash, the collision is inelastic, and together they
form a larger body. In this collision, the total
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
momentum is conserved while the total kinetic
Like energy, fluids can also be conserved. This
energy is not conserved. It is converted to other
idea is shown in Bernoulli’s principle, which states
types of energy like sound and heat.
that a quantity involving the pressure p, flow speed
In examining perfectly inelastic collisions, it is easy
v, and height h has the same value anywhere in a
to analyse the momentum since we can treat the
flow tube, assuming steady flow in an ideal fluid.
two objects as one after the collision.
Mathematically,
Mathematically,
 Both amplitude and wavelength describe the distance of the
wave. Amplitude refers to the displacement of the wave. It is
measured from the height of the highest point of the wave
(called a crest) to the midline. The greater the amplitude, the
higher the energy. The wavelength, on the other hand,
measures the horizontal distance between cycles. Simply put,
it measures the length of one cycle.
The wave period refers to the time required to complete one
cycle. The wave frequency is the opposite of the period since
it measures the number of waves per unit of time. This is
usually measured in Hertz (1 Hz).

WAVES AND OPTICS (Part I. Waves) C. WAVE PHENOMENA

All types of waves have certain features or
A. MECHANICAL WAVES behaviours caused by the wave’s interactions
If you try throwing a stone into a still lake, you will with its surroundings. These are reflection,
notice that it creates a disturbance in the lake. This is
usually where waves originate – from an event or refraction, diffraction, and interference.
disturbance that propagates. Reflection occurs when a wave bounces off a
material and travels back in the direction from
A wave is a traveling disturbance that carries energy which it originated. A perfect example is an
from one place to another. echo we hear when we shout at the top of the
Aside from the radial waves in the example, waves mountain.
can also be linear waves, like the waves you create Refraction occurs when a wave travels
when you exercise using a rope. Both these waves from one medium to another. You will see
travel through a material or medium and are what we this when placing a pencil in the water.
call mechanical waves. You probably have noticed that the pencil
appears to be bent, and that is because
Mechanical waves can be transverse waves, where the light waves refract as they move from
the disturbance is perpendicular to the direction of the air to water.
wave, or longitudinal waves, where the disturbance is
parallel to the wave’s direction. Diffraction describes the movement of the
Both types of mechanical waves can be waves as it passes through an opening or
demonstrated using a slinky. When you shake the barrier. This is why you can still hear the
slinky’s end from side to side, a transverse wave is noise coming from the next classroom
formed. On the other hand, when you push and pull when you were still in high school.
the slinky rapidly towards or away from you, a
longitudinal wave is formed. The parts of the slinky D. SOUND
that are compressed are called compression, while Sound is also brought to our ears through
the parts that are stretched in between are called longitudinal waves.Like any type of
rarefaction. A perfect example of a longitudinal wave mechanical wave, sound also requires a
is sound. medium to travel through, like solid, liquid,
or gas. Sound cannot travel in a vacuum
In mechanical waves, the medium does not travel which is the reason why there is no sound
with the wave, only the energy. If you have watched in space.
an international football game, for example, you Each sound wave carries the same
probably have noticed how the crowd does the frequency as the vibration that initiated it.
human wave, where the people act like a wave that When the frequency is high, there are a lot
travels without changing their location, and the overall
motion or energy of the wave moves through the of vibrations per second and vice versa.
crowd. This is also related to the pitch, which
refers to the highness or lowness of the
Unlike mechanical waves, some waves do not need sound. The higher the frequency, the
any medium at all. These waves are known as higher the pitch.
electromagnetic waves. A perfect example of this is
light since it can travel through the vacuum, which Sound properties include amplitude, which
allows us to see the stars in the night sky. We will determines loudness, and intensity,
emphasize this topic in the next section. measuring energy. The Doppler effect
explains how perceived sound frequency
B. ANATOMY OF A WAVE changes as a source moves relative to an
Waves are usually described and measured by five observer. Actual frequency is the true
things: the amplitude, the wavelength, the period, the
frequency, and the wave speed. frequency, while apparent frequency is
what an observer hears, affected by the
source's movement.
 CHEMISTRY
MATTER AND ITS STATES PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Matter is any substance that has mass and In the field of chemistry, observation is very
takes up space. All physical objects are
composed of matter. Particles that compose important, especially in describing a material or
a matter atom, molecules and ions. substances. Properties of matter can be further
classified into (1) according to change involved
Atom - can be thought of as the smallest
part of an element that can take part in a during measurement of the property of matter;
chemical reaction. They are made up of and (2) according to dependence on amount of
even smaller subatomic particles: Neutrons,
protons, and electrons. matter.

Molecules - They are groups of atoms that

are bonded together. It contains atoms PROPERTIES ACCORDING TO CHANGE
bonded together in a fixed number of ratios. INVOLVED DURING MEASUREMENT
Ions - An atom or molecule with a net
electric charge due to the loss or gain of Physical Property - A physical property of
electrons. When an atom gains or loses an
electron, it becomes an ion. Cations have a matter is a characteristic that can be observed
positive charge, and anions have a negative and measured without changing the chemical
charge. identity of a substance.
Examples of physical property includes: Length,
CHARACTERISTICS OF MATTER
Color, Density, Mass, Elasticity, Pressure, Volume,
Matter exists in three states: solids, liquids,
Luster
and gases. Each state has its own unique
characteristic due to the arrangement of its
Chemical Property - A chemical property is a
particles.
characteristic of matter that can only be
observed and measured by performing a
Solid - Composed of tightly packed
chemical reaction or when substance undergoes
particles. A solid will always retain its shape.
chemical change.
The particles are not free to move around
Liquid - Made of more loosely packed
Chemical properties examples: Oxidation State,
particles. It will take the shape of its
Chemical Bonding, Heats of Combustion,
container. Particles can move about within
Toxicity, Flammability, Corrosivity, Reactivity,
liquid, but they are packed densely enough
Coordination Numbers.
that volume is maintained
GAS - Composed of particles packed so
Extensive Properties: Depend on the amount of
loosely. Has neither a definite shape nor
matter (e.g., Length, Mass, Size, Volume, Weight,
volume. Compressible due to particles that
Energy, Enthalpy, Entropy, Gibbs energy, Heat
can move freely
capacity).

Intensive Properties: Do not depend on sample

size or mass, useful for sample identification.

Examples of intensive properties are consistent

across different conditions and sample sizes,
including characteristics like odor, color, density,
and temperature.
PHYSICAL VS. CHEMICAL CHANGE COMPOUNDS
In physical properties, no change in Compounds are chemical substances made
composition takes place during the up of two or more elements that are
determination or measurement of these chemically bound together in a fixed ratio.
properties. While in chemical properties, a Compounds may be broken down by
change in composition occurs during the chemical changes to yield either elements or
determination or measurement of these other compounds, or both. For example,
properties. Mercury (II) oxide can be broken down by
A new compound results from a chemical heat into the elements: mercury and oxygen.
change as the atoms rearrange themselves
to form new chemical bonds. A chemical MIXTURES - Are composed of two or more
change always involves a chemical types of matter that can be present in varying
reaction. amounts and can be separated by physical
No new chemical species forms in a changes.
physical change. A physical change
HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURES - It possesses
involves changes in physical properties, different properties and compositions in
but not chemical properties. various parts, i.e. The properties are not
uniform throughout the mixture. Examples of
heterogeneous mixture includes air, oil, water,
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER etc.
Matter can be classified into several
categories. Two broad categories are SUSPENSIONS - It is a heterogeneous mixture
in which some of the particles settle out of
the mixture upon standing. Usually, particles
mixtures and pure substances. A pure substance in a suspension are far larger than those in the
has a constant composition. All specimens of a solution, so gravity is able to pull them down
out of the dispersion medium. (e.g., Sand in
pure substance have exactly the same makeup
water)
and properties. COLLOIDS - It is a heterogeneous mixture in
which the dispersed particles are
PURE SUBSTANCES intermediate in size between those of the
Pure substances can't be separated into other solution and suspension. The particles are
materials, but the different properties of the spread evenly throughout the dispersion
medium. It can be identified using the Tyndall
components of mixtures can be used to separate
effect.
them into pure substances. Pure substances may
be divided into two classes: elements and HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURES - It can be
compounds. defined as the mixtures which possess the
same properties and combinations
ELEMENTS throughout their mass. A homogeneous
mixture, also called a solution, exhibits a
Elements constitute the simplest chemical
uniform composition and appears visually the
substances in which all the atoms are exactly the same throughout.
same. Elements are pure substances that cannot
be broken down into simpler substances by SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT - Measurement
chemical changes. Iron, silver, gold, aluminum, systems are a collection of units of
sulfur, oxygen, and copper are some examples. measurement and rules relating them to each
other

INTERNATIONAL SYSTEMS OF UNIT - An

international decimal system of weights and
measures derived from and extending the
metric system of units.
ACCURACY AND PRECISION
Accuracy – closeness of a measured value 3. Leading zeros (leftmost zeros) are never
to the accepted value significant
Examples:
Precision – closeness of two or more 0.583 has 3 sigfigs.
measurements 3.0009 has 5 sigfigs.

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT 4. Trailing zeros (rightmost zeros) are significant

Systematic Error – (also called as WHEN there is a decimal point in the number.
systematic bias) in consistent, repeatable Trailing zeros to the right of the decimal point
error associated with faulty equipment or a are significant.
flawed experiment design. Examples:
96.00 has 4 sigfigs
Random Error – (also called as 357.900 has 6 sigfigs
unsystematic error, system noise or random
variation) has no pattern. You can’t predict Trailing zeros in a whole number with no decimal
random error and these errors are usually point shown are insignificant.
unavoidable.
Examples:
302990 has 5 sigfigs.
RULES IN SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
1000000 has 1 sigfig
1. All non-zero digits are significant.
Examples:
216523 has 6 sigfigs 5. For a number in scientific notation (N×10x), all
923.3269 has 7 sigfigs digits comprising N are significant by the first 4
rules; ’10’ and ‘x’ are insignificant.
2. Zeros between two non-zero digits are Examples:
significant. 1.023 x 10^21 has 4 sigfigs.
Examples: 8.130 x 10^8 has 4 sigfigs.
5032 has 4 sigfigs.
3.0009 has 5 sigfigs.
 LAWS OF MATTER
PERCENT YIELD
The laws of matter are founded by some
Theoretical Yield – the calculated or expected
amount of product scientists to provide an explanation about the
Actual Yield – the amount of product actually nature of atoms which composes matter. The
produced. three laws of matter are as follows:
Percent Yield – the relationship between the
actual amount of yield and the theoretical LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
amount of yield.
This law states that mass can neither be
created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
The total mass of the product will always be
equal to the total mass of reactant.

Example: If heating 10.0 grams of Calcium

Carbonate (CaCO3) produces 4.4 grams of
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and 5.6 grams of
Calcium Oxide (CaO), show that these
observations are in agreement with the law of
conservation of mass.

Mass of REACTANTS = Mass of PRODUCTS

10.0 g of CaCO3 = 4.4 g of CO2 + 5.6 g of Ca
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS - Otherwise known Since the mass of the reactant is equal to the
as factor-label method, is the procedure done mass of the product, then it is consistent with
to convert between units and in solving some the law of conservation of mass.
chemistry-related problems.
To apply dimensional analysis, this LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS
relationship is used:
A chemical compound contains the same
GIVEN QUANTITY × CONVERSION FACTOR =
DESIRED QUANTITY elements in exactly the same proportions by
mass regardless of the size of the sample or
source of the compound.

If water coming from different sources are

analyzed, all the samples will contain the same
Example: Convert 146 g/ml to kg/m3 ratio by mass of hydrogen to oxygen.
Conversion Factors: Example: Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
1kg = 1000g The ratio of mass of carbon and oxygen are as
1L = 1000mL follows:
1m3 = 1000L
Carbon = 12 g ; Oxygen = 32 g
These values are based on the mass of each
element. Carbon has 12g, while Oxygen has
16g. Since Carbon Dioxide consists of 2
Oxygen atoms, the mass of Oxygen would be
32g. If we double the mass of carbon, then the
mass of Oxygen must also be doubled to have
the same ratio. (e.g.: 24g C; 64g O)
LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS Neutron
If two or more different compounds are Discovered by James Chadwick.
composed of the same two elements, then It was discovered by using a beryllium foil
the ratio of the masses of the second experiment where the beryllium foil was
element combined with a certain mass of
found to emit a particle without charge.
the first element is always a ratio of small
The experiment’s set-up is just the same
whole numbers.
as with the gold foil experiment
DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
This theory was proposed by John Dalton,
which can be used to explain the laws of
matter.
1. Elements are made up of very small
particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of an element are identical in
mass and size, and are different from
the atoms of another element. Dalton
used different shapes or figures to
represent different elements.
3. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created,
or destroyed.
4. Atoms of different elements combine in
simple whole-number ratios to form
chemical compounds.
5. In chemical reactions, atoms are
combined, separated, or rearranged.

SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES

Electrons
J.J. Thomson discovered the first
subatomic particle in 1897, which is the
electron, while researching cathode
rays.
Thomson proposed a model of the
atom in which negative electrons are
scattered throughout a sphere of
positive charge.
He named the model: Plum-Pudding
Model.

Protons
Discovered by Ernest Rutherford in the
early 1900’s
It was discovered using the Gold Foil
Experiment.
Rutherford tried to bombard a thin
sheet of gold foil using alpha rays
resulting for some of these rays to
deflect and reflect.
He concluded that there is something
that is very dense at the center of the
atom. (He called it nucleus.)
Nuclear Model of Atom
SUBATOMIC PARTICLES For metals, their tendency is to gain
Atomic Mass (A) – the mass of the nucleus, electrons, and form Cations.
measured in atomic mass unit (amu); For Nonmetals, their tendency is to lose
Atomic Number (Z) – the number of electrons, and form Anions.
protons inside the nucleus
ISOTOPES
ATOMIC NOTATION These are atoms of the same elements with
different neutron numbers, resulting in a
different atomic mass.

CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE
The composition of a molecule or an ion can be
represented by a chemical formula. The formula
consists of the symbols of the atoms making up
the molecule. If there is more than one atom
Atomic Mass (A) – sum of neutrons and present, a numerical subscript is used.
protons IONIC BONDING
Atomic Number (Z) – element’s order in he Ionic Compounds are compounds in which
periodic table, tells p+ electrons are transferred from one atom to
another.
Number of Protons (p+) – equal to the atomic
number Ions are atoms who had either gave or received
an electron
Number of Electrons (e-) – equal to the CATION – Net positive charge. More protons
proton (for a neutral atom)
than electrons.
Number of Neutrons (n0) – equal to the ANION – Net negative charge. More electrons
difference of atomic mass and number that protons
of protons Ionic Compounds = Metals + Non-Metals
IONS RULES IN NAMING COMPOUNDS
Electrically charged particles Binary ionic compounds are only made up of a
These are atom or molecules that metal (cation) and a non-metal (anion).
carries a positive or negative electric Rule: Retain the name of the first element then
charge replace the ending of the second element with
The inclusion of charges is due to the “–ide”
removal or addition of electrons Examples:
a. MgO – Magnesium Oxide
b. Li3N – Lithium Nitride
c. AgI – Silver Iodide
d. K2S – Potassium Sulfide
e. Sr3P2 – Strontium Phosphide

For ions with charges:

Charge = p+ - e-
No of e- = p+ - charge
CHARGE IDENTIFICATION
Based on the periodic table, the charges of an
element depend on their groups (horizontal
WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULA OF BINARY Instead of writing CaNO3 2, parenthesis will
IONIC COMPOUNDS be used to indicate that the subscript is

In writing the chemical formula of an ionic distributed to both elements present in the
given ion. Therefore, it will be like this:
compound, the charges are very important
because the numerical charge of one element
would be the subscript of the other.
NAMING IONIC C. WITH VARIABLE VALENCE
Example: Calcium Chloride
Classical Naming System - Uses the Latin
root name of the cation changing its ending
There are also cases where the subscripts to “–ic” (with greater charge) and “–ous”
can be reduced to the lowest term. (with lesser charge).
Example: Magnesium Oxide Stock Naming System - Uses the original
name of the cation and a roman numeral
(which indicates the charge) before the
Instead of writing Mg2O2, we need to reduce
non-metal.
the subscripts to its lowest term. In this case,
it would result as MgO.
The anion will be named the same way as
before. For monoatomic anion, change the
ending to “–ide” and for polyatomic anion, it
NAMING IONIC C. WITH MONATOMIC CATION will retain its name.
AND POLYATOMIC ANIONS Example: CuI2
Rule: Retain the name of both ions.
Examples: The Latin root name of copper is cuprum.

a. Na2SO4 – Sodium Sulfate Now, we need to identify if the suffix to be

used is “–ic” or “–ous” depending on the
b. CaCO3 – Calcium Carbonate
charge of copper in the given. In the list of
c. LiNO2 – Lithium Nitrite
ions, copper has a charge of (+1) and (+2).
d. Mg(OH)2 – Magnesium Hydroxide
We can identify the charge of copper by
e. K2B4O4 – Potassium Tetraborate
doing the reverse crisscross method.

WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULA OF IONIC C. SYMBOLS AND NAMES OF COMMON METAL

WITH POLYATOMIC ANION IONS WITH MORE THAN IONIC CHARGE
The process will be the same.
Example: Calcium Nitrate
COVALENT BONDING
Covalent compounds are compounds resulting from
the mutual attraction of atoms for a shared pair of
electrons.

RULES IN NAMING COVALENT COMPOUND

1. Always have a suffix of “–ide” for the second non-
metal.
2. Use prefixes to indicate the number of each
element in the compound.

3. Do not use the prefix “mono–“ in the first

non-metal if it only has a subscript of 1.
Examples:
SO2 – Sulfur Dioxide
NO – Nitrogen Monoxide
N2O3 = Dinitrogen Trioxide
COVALENT BONDING LEWIS
STRUCTURE
ACIDS
Binary Acids - Acid that consists
of hydrogen and another element.

RULE IN NAMING BINARY ACIDS

Hydro + Base Name of Non-Metal
+ —ic Acid
Examples:
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
Hydrobromic Acid (HBr)
Oxyacids - Acid that consists of
hydrogen, oxygen, and a third
element (usually a non-metal).
RULE IN NAMING BINARY ACIDS
OXYANIONS WITH “—ite” ENDING MOLAR MASS
Base Name of Oxyanion + —ous Acid Element Molar Mass (g) = Atomic Mass (amu)
OXYANIONS WITH “—ate” ENDING The molar mass of a compound( grams/mole or
Base Name of Oxyanion + —ic Acid g/mol IS EQUAL to molecular mass of formula mass
· Examples: (in amu)
o Sulfurous Acid (H2SO3)
o Acetic Acid (CH3COOH) The molecular mass (aka molecular weight) is the
HYDRATES sum of the atomic masses (amu) in the molecule
Compounds that have absorbed water (covalent compound)
molecules from its environment.
The formula mass is the sum of the atomic masses
RULES IN NAMING HYDRATES (amu) of formula units (ionic compound)
Name the Compound
The second part of the name begins
with a prefix. It is determined by the MASS MOLE PARTICLE RELATIONSHIP
number of water molecules in the
hydrate itself determined by the Using the following factors, we can convert Mass,
compound mole, and representative particles between
themselves:
3. Add the word “hydrate” to the
prefix. Avogadro’s Number (mole =
atoms/molecules/formula units) Molar mass (g/mol)
STOICHIOMETRY
A section of chemistry that involves the following conversion factors will be used in
using relationships between computations involving moles of a substance: and
reactants and/or products in a
chemical reaction to determine
desired quantitative data.

MOLE
Amount of a substance that
contains as many elementary entities
(atoms, molecules, or other particles)
A convenient way to express the
quantity of substances containing
very large number of atoms.

AVOGADRO’S NUMBER
The actual number of atoms in
exactly 12g of the carbon-12 isotope
was determined experimentally.
This number was known as the
Avogadro’s Number, named after the
scientist Amedeo Avogadro.
The Avogadro’s Number is
approximately equal to 6.022 x 1023.
The Hydrosphere
Evaporation
happens when a liquid turns into a
gas. It can be easily visualized when
rain puddles “disappear” on a hot day
or when wet clothes dry in the sun

Transpiration
process where plants take up liquid
water from the soil and release water
vapor into the air from their leaves

Evapotranspiration
the sum of all processes by which
water moves from the land surface to
the atmosphere via evaporation and
transpiration

Condensation - process where lighter vapor cools as it reaches a certain altitude, forms
tiny floating droplets, and forming clouds
Precipitation -the release of water from clouds in the form of rain, sleet, hail or snow
On Earth, liquid water exists on the surface in the form of oceans, lakes, and rivers. It also
exists below ground—as groundwater, in wells and aquifers. Water vapor is most visible
as clouds and fog.

The frozen part of Earth's hydrosphere is made of ice: glaciers, ice caps and icebergs.
The frozen part of the hydrosphere has its own name, the cryosphere.

Water moves through the hydrosphere in a cycle. Water collects in clouds, then falls to
Earth in the form of rain or snow. This water collects in rivers, lakes and oceans. Then it
evaporates into the atmosphere to start the cycle all over again. This is called the water
cycle.

How is Water Distributed in the Hydrosphere

97.5% of Earth’s water is seawater and thus salty, leaving only 2.5% fresh water.
Within 2.5%, nearly 70% is frozen, and only 30% is underground. The frozen part of
the hydrosphere consists of glaciers, ice caps, and icebergs. This part of the
hydrosphere is called the cryosphere.

References:
Bailey, R. (2024, May 19). The 6 kingdoms of life. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/six-kingdoms-of-life-373414
Dodd, C. (2021, April 4). The four spheres of the Earth. WorldAtlas. https://www.worldatlas.com/geography/the-four-spheres-of-the-
earth.html
Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). Hydrosphere. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/hydrosphere
 BIOLOGY
The field of biology encompasses the study of living organisms and their processes,
integrating principles from various scientific disciplines like chemistry and physics.
Biology is divided into branches like botany and zoology, yet all share common
biological phenomena such as reproduction and genetic transmission.

Cell biology focuses on cells, the

basic units of living organisms,
observed since the 17th century
with the invention of the
compound microscope. Before
that, organismic biology studied
entire organisms, remaining vital in
biological sciences.

Cell theory
The ideas of all these
early thinkers are
summarized in modern
cell theory, which states:

All living things are composed of Cells: Basic units of life.

one or more cells. Animal cells vs. Plant cells: Both have
The cell is the basic unit of life. membrane-bound organelles; plant cells
New cells arise from pre- have chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
existing cells Cell membrane: Selective barrier allowing
nutrient entry and waste removal.
Organelles: Specialized compartments in
cell; include nucleus (genetic info),
mitochondria (energy production),
lysosomes (waste digestion), endoplasmic
reticulum & Golgi apparatus (protein
synthesis & processing).
Cytosol: Space between organelles;
contains cytoskeleton (cell shape,
movement) and molecules for biosynthesis.
Cell Composition: Cells are enclosed by a
membrane and contain a collection of
molecules.
Cell Function: Cells grow and reproduce
using these molecules.
Cellular Reproduction: Occurs in two steps:
cell growth and cell division.
Cell Growth: Involves ingesting molecules
selectively through the cell membrane.

Enzymes: Large, specialized molecules that act as catalysts. Catalyze chemical alterations
in ingested molecules without being altered themselves. Regulate specific chemical
reactions in many molecules.
 ANIMAL CELL
Nucleolus

Lysosome
Nucleus ORGANELLES
Nuclear Mitochondrion
Membrane
They are the powerhouse of
a cell as they play an
important role in releasing
Cell
energy.
Membrane

Nucleus
It also contains DNA and
Cytoplasm Golgi other genetic materials.
Apparatus

Centrioles
Vacuole
Mitochondrion Centrioles are barrel-shaped
Centrioles organelles which lives
within the centrosome.

Lysosome
All cells contain specialized, subcellular They are round organelles
structures that are adapted to keep the surrounded by a
cell alive. Some of these structures membrane and comprising
digestive enzymes.
release energy, while others produce
proteins, transport substances, and Vacuole
control cellular activities. Collectively, It is involved in maintaining
shape and storing water,
these structures are called organelles.
food, wastes, etc.

Plant and animal cells both contain Golgi Apparatus

It is involved in
organelles, many of which are found in manufacturing, storing,
both types of cells. However, there are packing, and transporting
some organelles (such as chloroplasts, the particles throughout
the cell.
the cell wall, and large vacuoles) that
are only found in plant cells.
 PLANT Cell Structure
The cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, and everything in
between.

NUCLEUS nucleolus
It is the "brain" of the
It regulates different
nucleus. It helps in the
activities in the cell.
ribosomes synthesis and production of cell wall
ribosomes.
It is where It is the cell's outer
protein synthesis cover. It protects and
takes place. gives shape to the cell.

Endoplasmic cell membrane

reticulum (ER)
Found inside the cell
It creates and wall, it controls what
transports materials materials go in and out
into different parts of of the cell.
the cell.
ROUGH Endoplasmic CENTRAL VACUOLE
reticulum
It stores waste, water,
This ER helps in the and nutrients. Most
production and plants only have one
quality control of vacuole.
proteins. It also has
millions of ribosomes. CYTOPLASM

It is a thick liquid
SMOOTH Endoplasmic
reticulum that fills spaces in
the cell to help
This ER helps in the retain its form.
production and
synthesis of lipids. AMYLOPLAST
Unlike rough ER, it
It serves as
does NOT have
starch storage
ribosomes.
for plants.

Mitochondrion
DRUSE CRYSTAL
It breaks down sugar GOLGI APPARATUS It stores excess
(from the
It is a series of calcium, called
chloroplast) into CHLOROPLAST
flattened sacs that calcium oxalate, in
energy that the cell
Through help sort proteins plants. High amounts
can use. It is also
photosynthesis, synthesized in the of this calcium
called the
this organelle rough endoplastic makes a plant
"powerhouse" of the
makes sugar for reticulum. poisonus to humans.
cell.
the cell.
The Cell Cycle
The cell cycle is the series of events that a cell goes through as it grows, replicates its DNA, and divides
into two daughter cells. It is a highly regulated process that ensures that the daughter cells receive the
correct number of chromosomes and genetic information from the parent cell.
3

1. Interphase
2
Interphase is the phase of the cell cycle in which the cell grows, replicates
its DNA, and prepares for cell division. It is the longest phase of the cell
cycle, lasting for about 90% of the total cycle time.
1 4
2. Prophase
In this stage, the chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes, each
consisting of two identical sister chromatids joined at a centromere. The
nuclear membrane disintegrates, and the spindle apparatus begins to
form.

3. Metaphase
During this stage, the chromosomes align at the equator of the cell, called
the metaphase plate, and become attached to the spindle fibers that
extend from opposite poles of the cell.
5 4. Anaphase
6
In this stage, the sister chromatids separate and are pulled to opposite
poles of the cell by the spindle fibers, becoming individual chromosomes.

5. Telophase
The final stage of mitosis, in which the chromosomes reach the poles of
the cell and begin to decondense back into chromatin. A new nuclear
membrane forms around each set of chromosomes, and the spindle fibers
disappear.

6. Cytokinesis
The final stage of cell division, in which the cytoplasm divides to form two
separate daughter cells, each with its own nucleus containing a complete
set of chromosomes.

Photosynthesis: Process in plants and some bacteria that produces sugar molecules.
Provides organic molecules supporting life for nonphotosynthetic organisms.
Dependency: Animals, including humans, rely on plants or organisms that consume
photosynthetic products for sustenance.
Plants and photosynthetic bacteria are unique in their ability to convert the freely
available electromagnetic energy in sunlight into chemical bond energy, the energy that
holds atoms together in molecules and is transferred or released in chemical reactions.
The process of photosynthesis can be summarized by the following equation:

(solar) energy + CO2 + H2O → sugar molecules + O2.

The energy-absorbing photosynthetic reaction is the reverse of the energy-releasing

oxidative decomposition of sugar molecules. During photosynthesis, chlorophyll
molecules absorb energy from sunlight and use it to fuel the production of simple
sugars and other carbohydrates. The resulting abundance of sugar molecules and
related biological products makes possible the existence of nonphotosynthesizing life
on Earth.
 DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid
DNA is a large molecule found inside the cells of living things. It is made up of
different elements that carry genetic information. DNA is made up of four basic
building blocks called nucleotides.

A = adenine NUCLEOTIDES Steps of

DNA replication
T = thymine
The order of nucleotides within a strand
Strand separation:
C = cytosine of DNA forms a special genetic code. This The two DNA strands unwind and
code provides instructions for the separate, breaking the hydrogen
bonds between complementary bases
G = guanine development, growth and functioning of (A-T, C-G).
all living things.

Humans have a total of 46 DNA Complementation:

molecules. These are organised Free nucleotides pair with the
CHROMOSOMES exposed bases on each strand,
into long, coiled-up structures following the rules of
complementarity.
called chromosomes.
A segment of DNA that carries the
instructions for making a specific

Formation of new strands:

protein is called a gene.

Two new DNA strands are formed,

Chromosomes are one for each original strand, using
found in the the paired nucleotides as building
blocks.
nucleus (control
centre) of the cell.
They are responsible for the genetic Two DNA molecules:
The result is the formation of two
information that is passed down from DNA molecules, identical to the
parents to children. Humans have 23 original, ready for cell division.
pairs of chromosomes in each of their
cells.

DNA Components

SUGAR
Desoxyribose Adenine
Deoxyribose, a five-carbon sugar, is crucial A purine nitrogenous base with two fused
in the DNA backbone; its absence of a rings. It always pairs with thymine via two
hydroxyl group sets it apart from ribose. hydrogen bonds.

Thymine Guanine
A pyrimidine nitrogenous base with a single
ring. It specifically pairs with adenine via A purine nitrogenous base with two fused
two hydrogen bonds. rings. It always pairs with cytosine via three
hydrogen bonds.

Phosphate group Cytosine

Comprised of one phosphorus atom and A pyrimidine nitrogenous base with a single
P four oxygen atoms, it connects nucleotides ring. It specifically pairs with guanine via
and imparts structure to the double helix. three hydrogen bonds.
 Cell division is the process by which
cells divide. The type of division
varies based on the organism.
Prokaryotes (bacteria) use binary
fission.
Eukaryotes use mitosis for regular
cell division.
Sexually-reproducing eukaryotes
use meiosis to halve genetic
content, ensuring offspring have the
correct amount of DNA.

These different methods ensure

appropriate growth, development,
and reproduction in various
organisms.
After DNA and organelles replicate during interphase, eukaryotic cells begin mitosis. In
prophase, chromosomes condense to prevent DNA tangling and breaking. Chromosomes,
folded into complex structures by proteins, line up in the cell's center during metaphase. Sister
chromatids, which are identical copies of each chromosome, separate into each half of the cell.
Cytokinesis follows, dividing the cell into two daughter cells. While all eukaryotes use mitosis for
cell division, single-celled organisms use it for reproduction. Multicellular organisms, which
reproduce sexually, use meiosis to create cells with half the genetic information, enabling
genetic combination from two different organisms.

In sexually reproducing animals, reducing genetic information before fertilization is crucial to

avoid detrimental effects from extra chromosomes. Meiosis, a type of cell division, addresses
this by halving the genetic content. DNA and organelles replicate first, followed by two
consecutive divisions. In meiosis I, homologous chromosomes separate, ensuring each daughter
cell has one allele per gene. Meiosis II resembles mitosis, with the separation of sister
chromatids, resulting in four cells, each with half the genetic material. These cells become
gametes, which merge during fertilization to form a zygote. The zygote then undergoes mitosis,
growing into a multicellular organism. Thus, eukaryotes use both mitosis and meiosis at different
lifecycle stages.

Cell Division Stages

Depending upon which type of cell division an organism uses, the stages can be slightly
different.
Mitosis Stages
Mitosis starts with prophase in which the chromosome is condensed. The cell proceeds to
metaphase where the chromosomes are aligned on the metaphase plate. Then the
chromosomes are separated in anaphase and the cell’s cytoplasm is pinched apart during
telophase. Cytokinesis is the final process that breaks the cell membrane and divides the cell
into two.
Meiosis Stages
The stages of meiosis are similar to mitosis, but the chromosomes act differently. Meiosis has
two phases, which include two separate cell divisions without the DNA replicating between
them. Meiosis I and meiosis II have the same 4 stages as mitosis: prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase. Cytokinesis concludes both rounds of meiosis.
Meiosis diagram
In prophase I, the chromosomes are condensed. In metaphase I, the chromosomes line up
across from their homologous pairs. When they are separated in anaphase I and telophase I,
there is only one form of each gene in each cell, known as a reduction division. Meiosis II
proceeds in the same manner as mitosis, which sister chromatids dividing on the metaphase
plate. By telophase II, there are 4 cells, each with half of the alleles as the parent cell and only a
single copy of the genome. The cells can now become gametes and fuse together to create
new organisms.
Cell Division through Mitosis
Mitosis is the process through which somatic cells, which are non-reproductive cells, divide.
These cells form the majority of the body's tissues and organs, such as skin, muscles, lungs, gut,
and hair cells. Unlike somatic cells, reproductive cells like eggs are not considered somatic cells. In
mitosis, it is crucial to note that the daughter cells inherit the same chromosomes and DNA as the
parent cell. These resulting daughter cells are referred to as diploid cells, containing two complete
sets of chromosomes. As the daughter cells possess identical DNA to their parent cell, mitosis
does not introduce genetic variation in normal, healthy cells. This cell division process generates
two genetically identical daughter diploid cells. The key stages of mitosis are illustrated in the
accompanying image.

Meiosis: Cell Division

Meiosis stands as the alternative method of cell division. It's a process that gives rise to sex
cells such as female egg cells or male sperm cells. The essence of meiosis lies in the fact
that each new cell harbors a distinctive set of genetic material. Following meiosis, the sperm
and egg cells can unite to generate a new organism. Meiosis is crucial for the genetic variety
observed in all sexually reproducing organisms. Within meiosis, a fraction of each
chromosome fractures and reattaches to another chromosome, a phenomenon known as
"crossing over" or "genetic recombination." Genetic recombination is why siblings born from
egg and sperm cells of the same parents can exhibit marked differences. The meiosis cell
cycle unfolds in two primary phases - Meiosis I and Meiosis II. Ultimately, meiosis yields four
haploid daughter cells, each bearing unique genetic content compared to both each other
and the parent cell.
Charles Darwin was a British naturalist who proposed the theory of biological
evolution by natural selection.
Darwin defined evolution as "descent with modification," the idea that species
change over time, give rise to new species, and share a common ancestor.

The mechanism that Darwin proposed for evolution is natural selection. Because
resources are limited in nature, organisms with heritable traits that favor survival and
reproduction will tend to leave more offspring than their peers, causing the traits to
increase in frequency over generations.

Natural selection causes populations to become adapted, or increasingly well-

suited, to their environments over time. Natural selection depends on the
environment and requires existing heritable variation in a group.

Four main ideas behind the Theory of Natural Selection, summarized:

Variation Among Individuals: Individuals of the same species have different

traits, both physical and behavioral.
Heritability of Traits: Some traits are passed from parents to offspring through
genetics.
Struggle for Existence: Limited resources lead to competition, and only a
certain number of individuals can survive in a given environment.
Survival of the Fittest: Individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to
survive and reproduce, passing those traits to their offspring.

Artificial Selection -Breeders select individuals or seeds with desired traits (e.g.,
high protein content in corn, high milk yield in cows).

Genetic Engineering - Since the late 20th century, molecular biology techniques
(genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology) have been used to modify or
introduce genes for desired traits.
Achievements previously requiring many generations via artificial selection can now
be accomplished in a single generation.
Genetic Variation:
The success of artificial selection suggests widespread genetic variation in natural
populations.
Ecology is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of life along with the
interactions between different organisms and their natural environment. It is the branch of
biology, and the name Ecology was derived from the Greek word, which refers to the house
or the environment.

What are the 5 Levels of Ecology?

Organism → Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biosphere

Five Types of Ecological

Organism
It is the lowest level of organization, Relationships
which includes both unicellular and 1. Predation: One species benefits by
multicellular organisms. All the living
consuming another, which may
species in this level exhibit all the
characteristics required for the result in death or injury to the prey
existence of life. but can also include parasitism
where the parasite benefits at the
Population expense of the host.
A population is a group of individuals of
a single species living together within a 2. Competition: Multiple organisms vie
particular geographic area. They for the same limited resources,
interbreed and compete with each reducing the fitness of both species
other for resources. involved.
3. Mutualism: Both species benefit
Community
It refers to the several populations that from the interaction, such as in the
interact and inhabit a common case of lichens where algae provide
environment and are interdependent. nutrients through photosynthesis to
fungi, which in turn provide
Ecosystem
It is a set of all living species and abiotic protection and habitat.
components existing and interacting in 4. Commensalism: One species
a given area. There is an interaction with benefits while the other is neither
both living and nonliving components of helped nor harmed significantly,
the environment.
such as birds feeding on insects
Biosphere disturbed by grazing cattle.
It is the highest level of organization. It 5. Amensalism: One species is harmed
is the global ecological system which while the other is unaffected, like
consists of all the living organisms and the production of chemicals by
other factors which support life. The
biosphere mainly refers to the part of black walnut trees that inhibit the
the earth’s crust. growth of nearby plants without
affecting the walnut tree itself.
Living organisms produce urea and uric
acid as waste, which bacteria convert
Denitrification is the process where
back to ammonia through
denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates to
ammonification. Ammonia can be
nitrogen in soil and oceans. Bacteria like
further processed into nitrate by soil
Pseudomonas and Thiobacillus are
bacteria.
involved in this conversion, allowing
nitrogen to escape into the atmosphere,
completing the cycle.
Nitrification Process:
Ammonia Conversion: Ammonium ions (NH₄⁺) are oxidized to nitrites (NO₂⁻) by
bacteria like Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus.
Further Oxidation: Nitrites are then oxidized to nitrates (NO₃⁻) by bacteria like
Nitrobacter.
Chemoautotrophic Bacteria: These nitrifying bacteria use inorganic chemical
energy sources to convert ammonia and ammonium ions into nitrites and nitrates.
Role in Plants: Plants absorb nitrates, which are transported to leaves and reduced
to ammonia. Ammonia is used in the synthesis of amino acids, essential for protein
formation.
Agriculture: Nitrification is crucial in agricultural systems where fertilizers are
applied as ammonia. It increases nitrogen availability but also leads to nitrogen
leaching due to the higher solubility of nitrates.
Wastewater Treatment: Nitrification is key in municipal wastewater treatment,
where it is followed by denitrification to remove nitrogen efficiently.

C TION PHYSIOLOGY
Nof There are 12 major
S

Cranium (skull) anatomy systems:

FU

Mandible (jaw)
Skeletal, Muscular,
the Clavicle (collarbone)
Cardiovascular,
Scapula (shoudler blade)
Digestive, Endocrine,
Nervous, Respiratory,
SUPPORT Sternum (breastbone)
Rib (rib cage) Immune/Lymphatic,
Keeps the body
upright and prevents
Humerus (upper arm)
Urinary, Female
it from collapsing
Reproductive, Male
Spinal column (backbone) Reproductive,
PROTECTION
Integumentary.
Ulna (forearm)
Shields soft organs
such as the brain, Radius (forearm)
heart, and lungs Carpals (wrist bones)
Metacarpals (hand bones) The skeletal system
MOVEMENT Phlanages (fingers) comprises bones and
Allows movement by joints, serving as a
working together with
the muscles
Pelvic Girdle (pelvis) scaffold for support
Sacrum
and protection. It
Cocyx (tailbone)
FACTORY allows movement
Forms red blood cells, Femur (thigh bone)
through muscle
specifically in the bone's
Patella (kneecap) attachments and
red marrow
Tibia (shin bone) produces blood cells.
STORAGE Fibula (calf bone)
Bones store minerals
Stores and releases
and energy, grow
Tarsals (ankle bones)
calcium to the body during childhood, and

S k eletaSYSTEM
Metatarsals (foot bones)
Phalanges (toe bones) provide a framework
l

for overall body

growth.
 The appendicular skeleton is made up of 126 bones
The skull is composed of 22 bones that are fused together except for the
mandible
The ribcage consists of 12 pairs of ribs:
The first seven are "true ribs" connected directly to the sternum.
Ribs 8-10 are "false ribs" connected to the sternum through cartilage linked to the
seventh rib.
Ribs 11 and 12, also "false ribs," are "floating ribs" without cartilage attachment to the
sternum.
The femur is the largest bone in the body, part of the thigh region, forming the hip
and knee joints. The patella, or kneecap, develops in early childhood to support
knee function.
The tibia and fibula are leg bones, with the tibia bearing most body weight.
The tarsals form the heel and ankle joints, connecting to the metatarsals and
phalanges in the foot. Each toe has three phalanges, except the big toe, which has
two.

The adult skeleton accounts for 30-40% of body mass, comprising nonliving bone
matrix with bone cells. The matrix consists of water, collagen protein, and solid
calcium carbonate and phosphate crystals.

The muscular
system is
responsible for the
movement of the
human body and is
composed of three
main types of
muscle tissue:
visceral (smooth),
cardiac, and
skeletal muscles.

Types of Muscle Tissue

Visceral Muscle - Found in internal organs like the stomach, intestines, and blood
vessels.Involuntary (controlled by the unconscious part of the brain), smooth
appearance under a microscope due to lack of striations. Contracts to move
substances through organs like food in the intestines or blood through vessels.

Cardiac Muscle -Found exclusively in the heart. Involuntary muscle that contracts to
pump blood throughout the body. Striated appearance under a microscope due to the
arrangement of protein fibers; contains intercalated discs for strong cell-to-cell
connections.
 Cardiovascular System Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes): Carry
oxygen using hemoglobin; lack a nucleus to
The heart is a muscular organ located maximize space for hemoglobin.
in the thoracic cavity, responsible for White Blood Cells (Leukocytes): Play a key
pumping blood throughout the body. role in the immune response; include
It has four chambers: two atria and granular (neutrophils, eosinophils,
two ventricles.
basophils) and agranular (lymphocytes,
Blood enters the right atrium, passes monocytes) types.
through the right ventricle to the
lungs for oxygenation (pulmonary Platelets: Cell fragments involved in blood
circulation), then returns to the left clotting and wound healing.
atrium, passes through the left
ventricle, and is pumped to the body
Plasma: Liquid part of blood containing
(systemic circulation).
water, proteins (like antibodies and
Circulatory Loops: albumins), nutrients, gases, and wastes.
Pulmonary Circulation: Moves Physiological Functions:
deoxygenated blood from the heart Transportation: Carries nutrients, oxygen,
to the lungs for oxygenation and hormones, and waste products throughout
returns oxygenated blood to the
the body.
heart.
Protection: White blood cells defend against
Systemic Circulation: Delivers
oxygenated blood from the heart to pathogens, and platelets initiate clotting to
all body tissues (except the heart and prevent blood loss.
lungs) and returns deoxygenated
blood to the heart. Regulation: Maintains homeostasis by
Blood Vessels: regulating pH, body temperature, and fluid
balance.
Arteries: Carry oxygenated blood
away from the heart; have thick, Regulation of Blood Pressure and
muscular walls to withstand high Hemostasis:
blood pressure. Blood Pressure Regulation: Controlled by
heart rate, stroke volume, and diameter of
Capillaries: Microscopic vessels blood vessels (vasoconstriction and
where exchange of gases, nutrients, vasodilation).
and waste occurs between blood and
tissues. Hemostasis: Process of blood clotting
involving platelet activation, formation of
Veins: Return deoxygenated blood to
fibrin, and clotting factor release to prevent
the heart; have thinner walls and
excessive bleeding.
contain valves to prevent backflow.
Blood Components:

Clinical Relevance:
Understanding the cardiovascular system is crucial for diagnosing and managing various
disorders like hypertension, heart disease, and clotting disorders.

Regular cardiovascular health checks and awareness of risk factors (e.g., diet, exercise,
genetics) are essential for maintaining heart health.
 Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle The digestive system converts
Gross Anatomy: Each skeletal muscle food into energy and nutrients
attaches to bones via tendons. The origin is through a series of processes.
where the tendon attaches to the
Major functions include
stationary bone, while the insertion is where
it attaches to the moving bone. The belly of
ingestion, secretion, mixing and
the muscle is the fleshy part between movement, digestion,
tendons that contracts during movement. absorption, and excretion.

Naming Conventions: Skeletal muscles are 1. Mouth: Begins mechanical

named based on various criteria including
digestion; saliva contains
location, origin/insertion points, number of
amylase for carbohydrate
origins, shape, size, direction of fibers, and
function. digestion.
2. Esophagus: Transports food to
the stomach via peristalsis;

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM guarded by the lower

esophageal sphincter.
3. Stomach: Stores food,
continues mechanical digestion,
MOUTH pancreas and initiates chemical digestion
When food is chewed, Many kinds of digestive
saliva starts digesting enzymes are made with hydrochloric acid and
carbohydrates here
enzymes.
1
4. Small Intestine: Main site of

small intestine digestion and nutrient

esophagus
Muscles, in a process Food is mixed with bile absorption; divided into
called peristalsis, push 2 from your liver and
juices from you
the food down into your
stomach pancreas to be sent duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
back to your liver for
more processing 5. Liver and Gallbladder: Liver
produces bile for fat digestion,
stomach 4
stored and concentrated in the
Everything is blended
large intestine
with digestive juices. 3
Indigestible food and
gallbladder.
Hydrochloric Acid kills water are processed,
bacteria. Enzymes
break down proteins. 5 stored and dispersed. 6. Pancreas: Produces digestive
enzymes (pancreatic juice) that
6
7 further break down
liver carbohydrates, proteins, and
A green liquid called
anus
8 fats.
bile, which is stored in Solid waste passes
your liver, is secreted to from the rectum in
break down fats. order to leave your
body
7. Large Intestine: Absorbs water
and electrolytes, forms and
expels feces.
 Ingestion: Intake of food through the Parts of the
mouth.
Secretion: Release of digestive juices and Endocrine
enzymes throughout the GI tract.
Mixing and Movement: Includes
swallowing, peristalsis, and segmentation
System
to move food along and aid in digestion.
HYPOTHALAMUS
connects the nervous system and
Digestion: Mechanical (chewing, stomach endocrine system; controls hormones
from the central nervous sytem
churning) and chemical (enzymes PITUITARY GLAND
breaking down food molecules).
PINEAL GLAND
monitors and regulates growth
hormones; also controls
produces melatonin
Absorption: Nutrient uptake across the reproductive glands
that regulates sleep

intestinal wall into blood or lymphatic

vessels. THYROID
Excretion: Removal of indigestible regulates metabolism
and use of energy

materials as feces through the rectum

ADRENAL GLAND
and anus. PANCREAS
produces hormones
that help regulate
metabolism and other produces hormones
body functions that regulate blood
glucose

The endocrine system is a

collection of glands that produce O(INVFEAMRALYES) TESTIS
(IN MALES)
and secrete hormones directly
produces estrogen produces testosterone
into the bloodstream. These that controls female that controls male
puberty and puberty and ability to
hormones regulate various bodily progesterone that produce sperm
manages fertility
functions, including metabolism,
growth, reproduction, and mood.
Here’s an overview of the major
components and functions of the
endocrine system:

Endocrine System vs. Nervous System

The endocrine system works slower but has widespread and long-lasting effects compared
to the fast and targeted responses of the nervous system.

Hormone Properties - travel through the bloodstream and affect only target cells with
specific receptors.

Hormonal Regulation - Hormone levels are regulated by the nervous system, tropic
hormones, nutritional factors, and receptor sensitivity.

Classes of Hormones
Water-Soluble Hormones: Include peptide and amino-acid hormones (e.g., insulin,
epinephrine).
Lipid-Soluble Hormones: Include steroid hormones (e.g., testosterone, estrogen).
 Nervous System
The nervous system
BRAIN includes the brain, spinal
cord, and nerves
control center of the
nervous system connecting the body
parts. It controls the body
SPINAL CORD and facilitates
a bundle of
communication. The
nerves that relay 1) Frontal lobe: speech, motor central nervous system
messages control, cognitive skills (CNS) processes
between the brain
and the neural 2) Parietal lobe: information and makes
pathway touch, pressure, taste,
decisions, while the
VES spatial awareness
AUTONOMIC NER 3) Temporal lobe: peripheral nervous
hearing, facial
system (PNS) monitors
regulates recognition,
4) Occipitalprocessing
lobe: vision
involuntary body memory internal and external
5) Cerebellum:
processes such conditions, sending data
as digestion and coordination, balance
heart rate to the CNS. Efferent
nerves in the PNS
PERIPHERAL NERVES transmit signals from the
controls our CNS to regulate muscle,
senses and
voluntary actions gland, and organ
such as functions.
movement and
coordination

Neurons, or nerve cells, transmit signals in the body through

electrochemical signals. They have a cell body with dendrites
to receive stimuli and axons to send signals. Neurons are
classified as afferent (sensory), efferent (motor), and
interneurons which integrate and direct signals within the
central nervous system.

The brain, weighing about 3 pounds and containing around 100 billion neurons, is situated in the
cranial cavity protected by the skull. It serves as the main control center of the body and, along
with the spinal cord, forms the central nervous system (CNS). Responsible for higher mental
functions and regulating bodily processes like respiration and digestion, the brain plays a crucial
role in consciousness, memory, and voluntary actions.

The spinal cord is a bundle of neurons running from the brain's medulla oblongata through the
spine to the lumbar region. In the lumbar region, it separates into nerves called the cauda equina.
White matter carries signals from the brain, while grey matter integrates reflexes.

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord, regulating body
functions and processing sensory information. It controls conscious and subconscious actions to
maintain homeostasis and higher functions like language and emotions.

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes nerves outside the CNS.
The somatic nervous system (SNS) controls voluntary actions, while the autonomic nervous
system (ANS) regulates involuntary functions like muscle and gland activity.
Nerve Types
Afferent Nerves (Sensory Nerves) -Carry
sensory information from sensory
receptors to the central nervous system
(CNS). One-way, towards the CNS.
Example: Sensory nerves transmitting
information about touch, temperature, and
pain to the brain.

Efferent Nerves (Motor Nerves) -

Transmit signals from the CNS to effectors
like muscles and glands. One-way, away
from the CNS.Example: Motor nerves
causing muscle contraction or gland Synapses are the junctions between a
secretion. neuron and another cell, either another
neuron or an effector cell. There are two
Mixed Nerves - Contain both afferent and main types of synapses:
efferent axons, allowing for two-way
communication. Direction: Both towards Chemical Synapses
and away from the CNS. Example: Most Structure: The axon terminal of a neuron is
spinal nerves. separated from the next cell by a small gap
called the synaptic cleft.
Cranial Nerves - Extend from the inferior
side of the brain. Number: 12 pairs, Mechanism: When an action potential (AP)
identified by Roman numerals I to XII. reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the
Function: Connect the brain to various opening of voltage-gated calcium ion
parts of the head, neck, and trunk. channels. The influx of calcium ions causes
vesicles containing neurotransmitters (NT)
The nervous system has 3 main functions: to release their contents into the synaptic
sensory (collecting information from cleft through exocytosis. NT molecules then
sensory receptors), integration cross the synaptic cleft and bind to receptor
(processing sensory signals in the CNS), molecules on the postsynaptic cell, opening
and motor (stimulating efferent neurons to ion channels. This can either stimulate or
respond to stimuli). Integration occurs in inhibit the postsynaptic cell from generating
the brain and spinal cord by interneurons a new AP.
forming complex networks for processing
sensory information and decision-making. Electrical Synapses - Formed by gap
Efferent neurons carry signals to effector junctions that connect two neurons, allowing
cells for a response in smooth, cardiac, or direct passage of electric current.
skeletal muscle tissue or glandular tissue. Mechanism: An AP in one neuron is passed
directly to the other neuron through these
gap junctions, enabling rapid and
synchronous activity.

Myelination - is the process by which axons

are covered with myelin, a fatty substance
that speeds up nerve conduction. Myelin is
produced by two types of glial cells:
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The nose and nasal cavity form the main external opening of the respiratory system. They warm,
moisturize, and filter air before it reaches the lungs. Hairs and mucus in the nasal cavity trap
contaminants, while exhaled air returns moisture and heat before being released.
The mouth, also known as the oral
cavity, Breathing through the
mouth serves as an additional
respiratory option but lacks the
warming, moisturizing, and filtering
functions of the nose. It enables
faster air intake due to its wider
pathway.

The Pharynx
commonly known as the throat, is a
muscular funnel that plays a crucial
role in both the respiratory and
digestive systems. It extends from
the posterior end of the nasal cavity
to the superior end of the
esophagus and larynx.

Regions of the Pharynx

Nasopharynx - The superior
region of the pharynx, situated
posterior to the nasal cavity. The Epiglottis - A flap of elastic cartilage located at the
Acts as a passageway for entrance of the larynx.
inhaled air from the nasal cavity. Function: Acts as a switch between the trachea (airway)
and the esophagus (food passage).
Oropharynx -The middle region During Breathing: The epiglottis remains open, allowing air
of the pharynx, located posterior to pass into the trachea.
to the oral cavity. Serves as a During Swallowing: The epiglottis moves to cover the
conduit for air inhaled through trachea, ensuring that food enters the esophagus and
both the nasal and oral cavities. preventing choking.

Laryngopharynx -The inferior The larynx, commonly known as the voice box, is a
region of the pharynx, leading to crucial part of the respiratory system located in the
the esophagus and larynx. anterior portion of the neck. It serves as the connection
Directs inhaled air into the between the laryngopharynx and the trachea.
larynx and food into the
esophagus.

The trachea is a 5-inch long tube made of C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings lined with
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. It connects the larynx to the bronchi, allowing
air passage, and is kept open by cartilage rings facing the esophagus. Its main function is to
provide an airway for lung ventilation while producing mucus to trap contaminants, which is
moved by cilia towards the pharynx for digestion.
 The trachea splits into primary
bronchi which lead to each lung
and further divide into secondary
Rep roductive
THE FEMALE

System
bronchi.
Secondary bronchi branch into
tertiary bronchi within each lung
lobe, then into smaller bronchioles
and terminal bronchioles. prepares its lining to

FALLOPIAN TUBE
nourish a fertilized
The structure changes from ovum until birth; if there
where the sperm and egg is no fertilization, the
cartilage rings in primary bronchi to
cell often meet during
UTERUS lining sheds during
smooth muscle and elastin in fertilization; connects the mentstuation
ovary to the uterus
bronchi and bronchioles.
Bronchioles lack cartilage, making
them more flexible and contractile.
Bronchi and bronchioles regulate
airflow with smooth muscle tissue,
dilating during increased air CERVIX OVARY
demand like in exercise. produces and
Smooth muscle contraction passage to and stores egg cells
from the uterus
prevents hyperventilation during
VAGINA
rest. a muscular opening where
Mucus and cilia lining help trap and menstrual blood leaves or a
baby goes out during birth
remove contaminants from the lungs.

The lungs are spongy organs in the

THE MALE

Reproductive
thorax with a pleural membrane
allowing expansion. The left lung is
smaller with 2 lobes, while the right
lung has 3 lobes. Inside, alveoli
facilitate gas exchange between air
and blood via capillaries.
System
SEMINAL VESICLE

Oxygen and carbon dioxide are produces seminal fluid

that makes up majority
transported in the blood mainly by of the semen
hemoglobin in red blood cells.
VAS DEFERENS
Hemoglobin carries most oxygen and a a tube that transports PROSTATE GLAND
small amount of carbon dioxide. mature sperm out of
the testes
also poduces fluid for
Carbon dioxide is mostly carried as transporting sperm

bicarbonate ion in plasma. In tissues, PENIS

carbonic anhydrase converts carbon TESTIS
external male

dioxide to carbonic acid, which produces sperm and

testosterone
reproductive organ

dissociates into hydrogen and

bicarbonate ions. In the lungs, carbon
dioxide is released for exhalation. URETHRA
a tube from the bladder to
the penis, where urine and
sperm passes

Sperm
male sex ce
ll
Scrotum - is a sac-like organ comprised of The ovaries, located on each side of the
skin and muscles, situated inferior to the penis uterus, produce female sex hormones like
in the pubic region. It plays a crucial role in
estrogen and progesterone, along with eggs.
housing and protecting the testes, the male
reproductive organs responsible for producing
sperm and testosterone. The fallopian tubes are muscular tubes
Composition: Made up of two side-by-side extending from the uterus to the ovaries.
pouches, each containing a testis. They end in a funnel-shaped structure called
Contains smooth muscles that allow it to the infundibulum with fimbriae that pick up
regulate the distance between the testes and ova from the ovaries. Cilia and smooth
the body.
muscles help transport the ovum to the
uterus.
Epididymis -is a crucial part of the male
reproductive system, functioning as a storage The uterus is a hollow, muscular, pear-
and maturation area for sperm. It wraps
shaped organ located posterior and superior
around the superior and posterior edge of the
testes and is composed of numerous long, thin to the urinary bladder. Connected to the two
tubules tightly coiled into a small mass. fallopian tubes on its superior end and to the
vagina (via the cervix) on its inferior end, the
Ejaculatory Duct -The ductus deferens passes uterus is also known as the womb, as it
through the prostate and joins with the urethra surrounds and supports the developing fetus
at the ejaculatory duct, which also includes
during pregnancy. The inner lining of the
ducts from the seminal vesicles. During
ejaculation, it expels sperm and secretions uterus, known as the endometrium, provides
from the seminal vesicles into the urethra. support to the embryo during early
development. The visceral muscles of the
Urethra - is an 8 to 10-inch long muscular tube uterus contract during childbirth to push the
that carries semen from the ejaculatory duct fetus through the birth canal.
to the exterior of the body. It also serves as
the passage for urine from the urinary bladder. The vagina is an elastic, muscular tube that
connects the cervix of the uterus to the
Prostate - is a walnut-sized exocrine gland exterior of the body. It is located inferior to
located at the inferior end of the urinary the uterus and posterior to the urinary
bladder, surrounding the urethra. Fluid bladder. The vagina functions as the
Production - Produces a large portion of the
receptacle for the penis during sexual
fluid in semen, which is milky white and
contains enzymes, proteins, and other intercourse and carries sperm to the uterus
chemicals to support and protect sperm. and fallopian tubes. It also serves as the birth
canal by stretching to allow delivery of the
The penis is the male external sexual organ fetus during childbirth. During menstruation,
located above the scrotum and below the the menstrual flow exits the body via the
umbilicus. It is cylindrical and contains the
vagina.
urethra. Erectile tissue allows it to fill with blood
and become erect, increasing in size and
firmness. The penis delivers semen into the The vulva is the collective name for the
vagina during intercourse and also excretes external female genitalia located in the pubic
urine through the urethra. region of the body. The vulva surrounds the
external ends of the urethral opening and the
Semen is the fluid produced by males for vagina and includes the mons pubis, labia
sexual reproduction and is ejaculated out of majora, labia minora, and clitoris.
the body during sexual intercourse. Semen
contains sperm, the male reproductive
gametes, along with a number of chemicals
suspended in a liquid medium.
Endocrine System Musculoskeletal System
The endocrine system includes all Human skeleton consists of more than
glands and the hormones they produce. 200 bones bound together by tough
These glands are controlled by the and relatively inelastic connective
nervous system, chemical receptors in tissues called ligaments. The different
the blood, and hormones from other parts of the body vary greatly in their
glands. They regulate organ functions to degree of movement. Movements of
maintain the body’s homeostasis. the bones of the skeleton are effected
by contractions of the skeletal
Digestive and Excretory System muscles, to which the bones are
The digestive system breaks down food attached by tendons. These muscular
and absorbs nutrients for the body. It contractions are controlled by the
includes the mouth, esophagus, nervous system
stomach, small intestine, large intestine,
Immune System
and rectum. Organs like the liver aid in
A collection of structures and
food breakdown, nutrient absorption,
processes within the body-is to
and elimination of waste.
protect against disease or other
potentially damaging foreign bodies.
The integumentary system consists of
Parts of the
Endocrine
the largest organ in the body, which is
the skin. It is stretched over the surface
of the body and protects it from drying
or losing fluid, from harmful or external
substances, and from extremes of
temperature. The epidermis, the outer
System
layer, is only a few cells thick, HYPOTHALAMUS
containing pigments, pores, and ducts. connects the nervous system and
endocrine system; controls hormones
from the central nervous sytem
Its surface is made of dead cells that it
PITUITARY GLAND
sheds from the body. The dermis, the PINEAL GLAND
monitors and regulates growth

inner layer, contains sweat glands,

hormones; also controls
reproductive glands produces melatonin
that regulates sleep

blood vessels, and nerve endings, as

well as the bases of hair and nails. THYROID
Sweat glands excrete waste and cool regulates metabolism
and use of energy
the body through evaporation of fluid
droplets; blood vessels in the dermis ADRENAL GLAND
PANCREAS
aid in temperature regulation by produces hormones
that help regulate
produces hormones
contracting to preserve body heat and
metabolism and other
body functions that regulate blood
glucose

expanding to dissipate it. Different

kinds of receptors convey pressure, O(INVFEAMARLEYS) TESTIS
(IN MALES)
temperature, and pain. Fat cells in the
produces estrogen produces testosterone
dermis insulate the body, and oil glands that controls female
puberty and
that controls male
puberty and ability to

lubricate the epidermis.

progesterone that produce sperm
manages fertility
 EARTH SCIENCE
You’d probably see land, bodies of water, and clouds. These units you observe are actually parts of the
physical environment of the earth. We call them traditionally as the three spheres of the earth however
an additional unit was added which is the biosphere. The spheres or four subsystems of Earth are the
atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
Atmosphere makes up all of the gasses on our planet. Geosphere includes all the soil,rocks, and minerals
present in the crust to the core of the earth. Hydrosphere is composed of all the water on earth in any
form: water vapor, liquid water, and ice. Biosphere consists of all living things and the areas where they
are found. It includes all microbes, plants, and animals.

The word atmosphere comes from the Greek roots atmos which means gas, and sphaira which means
globe or ball. The atmosphere extends outward about 10 000 km from the surface of the earth. It is
composed of 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 350 ppm carbon dioxide, and other
components.

F O U R S U B S Y S T E M O F T H E E A R T H

which we casually refer to as simply ‘air’

Provides a combination of essential chemicals in the air
ATMOSPHERE
Creates a barrier against harmful rays from the sun.
Supports the thriving of animals, plants, and human life

The lithosphere is the 'earth' or land portion of the Earth.

Refers specifically to the rocky outer surface: Earth's crust
& upper portion of the mantle
GEOSPHERE Lithosphere includes only the solid, minimally viscous upper
portion. Excludes the more liquid molten lower layers. The
lithosphere is the land on which biological life (the
biosphere) exists.

Hydro is a Greek root which means water. Hydrosphere is

97.5% saltwater and 2.5% freshwater.
HYDROSPHERE It includes all the bodies of water such as oceans, lakes,
rivers, and marshes. Clouds and rain are also part of the
hydrosphere.

Bio is a Greek root that means life.

includes all organic life from mountains to oceans: insects,
fungi, animals, birds, plants, and bacteria. It's classified into
kingdoms (animal, plant, fungi, protist, monera), and further
BIOSPHERE
into biomes and ecosystems—specific systems of plants
and animals. Together, they form a balanced web of life
crucial for Earth's harmony.
 The Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a band of air composed of multiple layers surrounding the Earth.

EXOSPHERE
satellites float here, up to
as do low density 10,000 km
particles

E
FAC
thermopause

SUR
THERMOSPHERE n, helium, and hydrogen
oxyge

TH'S
can reach up
to 2500°C but

EAR
400 km
lacks enough

THE
air molecules
to transfer heat

OM
mesopause

E FR
bon dioxide, and nitro
en, car gen
oxyg 50 km

ANC
MESOSPHERE
where meteors that

DIST
enter the Earth
burn up, protecting
TED
us from the effects stratopause IMA
of impact nitrogen and oxygen
mostly 30 km
EST

STRATOSPHERE
has the ozone tropopause
layer, which nitrogen and oxygen 10 km
protects us from mostly
the Sun's ultraviolet
rays

TROPOSPHERE
where most clouds
are, and weather
occurs
Weather - The day-to-day state of the atmosphere in a particular place ( Sunny, rainy,
cloudy, stormy)

Climate - The long-term average of weather patterns in a particular area (tropical, arid,
temperate, polar)

Ozone Layer - A layer in the Earth's stratosphere containing a high concentration of ozone
(O3). Protects living organisms by blocking most of the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation.
-Ozone depletion caused by chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

Greenhouse Gases - gases in the atmosphere that trap heat, contributing to the
greenhouse effect. (Carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), water
vapor (H2O).
- Contribute to global warming and climate change.

Air Pressure - The force exerted by the weight of air in the atmosphere on a surface.
Measurement: Barometers are used to measure air pressure, usually in millibars (mb) or
inches of mercury (inHg).

Winds - The movement of air from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.

Water Vapor -strongest greenhouse gas because it is the most variable component of the
atmosphere

The Geosphere
Geo is a Greek root which means
ground. Geosphere is divided into
three layers namely crust, mantle,
and core.

Crust-outermost layer of the

geosphere made mostly of silicate
materials
2 Types of crust: Oceanic crust
lies beneath the oceanic floors that is
about 5-10 km thick. Continental
crust makes up the continents that is
about 15-70 km thick

Mantle lies just below the crust, made mostly of silicate rocks rich in magnesium and iron
2900 km thick has increasing temperatures at increasing depths.

Core has a radius of 3400 km, the innermost layer of the earth made up of iron and nickel
source of internal heat as it contains radioactive materials that release energy.
Tectonic Plates - are massive slabs of Earth's lithosphere that fit together like a jigsaw
puzzle covering the Earth's surface. These plates float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere
beneath them. Driven by convection currents in the mantle, tectonic plates move at varying
speeds. These movements can cause them to collide, pull apart, or slide against each other.

Types of Boundaries:
Divergent Boundaries: Plates move
apart from each other. New crust is
formed as magma rises to the surface,
cools, and solidifies (e.g., the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge).
Convergent Boundaries: Plates move
towards each other. This can result in
one plate being forced below another in
a process called subduction, forming
mountains or volcanic activity (e.g., the
Himalayas, Andes).
Transform Boundaries: Plates slide past
each other horizontally. This lateral
movement can cause earthquakes (e.g.,
the San Andreas Fault).

Divergent Margins
Continental Rifting - Upwelling magma causes the lithosphere to uplift and stretch, forming
rift valleys (e.g., East African Rift Valley).

Seafloor Spreading - New oceanic crust forms as magma rises at spreading centers, creating
oceanic ridges.
 Shield Volcanoes
These volcanoes have a broad, gently sloping cone
shape, similar to a warrior's shield laid on the ground.
They are formed by numerous lava flows that spread Convergent Margins
out in all directions from a central vent.
Subduction Zones -
Shield volcanoes typically have non-explosive
eruptions and produce thin, runny lava that flows for
Oceanic crust subducts
long distances. beneath continental or
younger oceanic plates,
forming deep trenches
Stratovolcanoes and volcanic arcs (e.g.,
These are tall, steep-sided volcanoes with a classic, Mariana Trench, Andes).
cone-shaped appearance. They are formed by
alternating layers of lava, ash, and other volcanic
debris.
Continental Collision -
Stratovolcanoes can have explosive or non-explosive
eruptions and are known for their powerful
When two continental
explosions and pyroclastic flows. plates collide, they form
towering mountain ranges
(e.g., Himalayas).
Cinder Cones
These are small, steep-sided volcanoes made up of
loose, pyroclastic materials such as ash, cinders, and
volcanic bombs.

They are usually formed by explosive eruptions that

eject the material from a single vent, piling it up
around the vent.

Volcanic Activity - formed at divergent

boundaries and subduction zones.
THE ROCK CYCLE Types include shield volcanoes,
stratovolcanoes, and cinder cones.
Earthquakes: Result from the movement
The different types of rocks found in the Earth's crust are created along faults and plate boundaries.
and altered through a sequence of events known as the rock cycle. Shallow earthquakes occur at divergent and
transform boundaries, while deep
earthquakes are common in subduction
zones.

Volcanic Eruption

The rock cycle is a continuous process

Igneous Rocks magma through which rocks are transformed
from one type to another over
geological time scales. It describes the
processes by which rocks are formed,
altered, and recycled over millions to
sediments Metamorphic Rocks billions of years. The key processes
involved in the rock cycle include:

Sedimentary Rocks
 1. Igneous Rocks- form from the cooling and solidification of molten rock material
(magma or lava). Formed beneath the Earth's surface from slowly cooling magma.
Examples include granite and diorite. Formed on the Earth's surface from quickly cooling
lava. Examples include basalt and pumice.
2. Sedimentary Rocks - form from the accumulation and lithification of sediment
(fragments of rocks, minerals, and organic material). Formed from the deposition and
lithification of fragments of pre-existing rocks. Examples include sandstone, shale, and
conglomerate.
3. Metamorphic Rocks - form from the transformation of pre-existing rocks (igneous,
sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks) due to heat, pressure, and/or chemical
processes.

Mountains - formed by tectonic forces such as folding, faulting, and volcanic activity.
Types include fold mountains, fault-block mountains, and volcanic mountains.

Minerals - naturally occurring, inorganic solids with definite chemical compositions and
crystalline structures. Examples include quartz, feldspar, and mica.

Fossils -preserved remains or impressions of ancient organisms. Provide information about

past life and environments.

Plate Tectonics Theory - Explains the movement of Earth's plates and the resulting
formation of geological features.

Divergent Boundaries - Create new crust and are associated with volcanic activity and
shallow earthquakes.

Convergent Boundaries - Lead to subduction, mountain building, deep trenches, and

volcanic arcs.

Transform Boundaries - Cause shear and frequent earthquakes.

Geological Evidence - Includes the age of oceanic crust, patterns of seismic activity, and
the distribution of volcanoes and mountain ranges.

Faults - A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock along which
movement occurs. When stress along a fault exceeds the strength of the rocks, sudden
movement occurs, releasing stored energy in the form of seismic waves.
Types of Faults
Normal Fault: Forms when tensional forces cause one block of rock to move downward
relative to the other.
Reverse Fault: Forms when compressional forces cause one block of rock to move
upward relative to the other.
Strike-slip Fault: Forms when rocks on either side of the fault slide horizontally past each
other.
 Effects of Earthquakes
Ground Shaking - The primary effect of an
earthquake is the shaking of the ground due to
the release of energy in the form of seismic
waves.
Ground shaking intensity depends on the
magnitude of the earthquake and the distance
from the epicenter.

Surface Rupture: In large earthquakes, the

ground surface may rupture along the fault line,
causing visible displacement.

Tsunamis: Earthquakes occurring under the

ocean floor can displace large volumes of
The epicenter of an earthquake is the
water, generating tsunamis (large sea waves)
point on the Earth's surface directly above
that can travel long distances and cause
the focus or hypocenter.
widespread coastal devastation.
It is the location where the seismic
waves generated by the earthquake
Landslides: Seismic shaking can trigger
first reach the surface.
landslides on steep slopes, potentially leading
Seismologists determine the epicenter
to further damage and loss of life.
by analyzing the arrival times of seismic
waves at different seismograph
Fires: Earthquakes can rupture gas lines and
stations.
damage electrical infrastructure, leading to
fires in affected areas. Focus (Hypocenter) of an earthquake is
the actual point within the Earth where
Aftershocks: Aftershocks are smaller the rupture or fault slip occurs and
earthquakes that follow the main shock and seismic energy is released.
can continue for days, months, or even years It is typically located beneath the
after the initial event. Earth's surface, not at the surface
itself.
Measuring Earthquakes: The depth of the focus can vary from
Magnitude: The magnitude of an shallow (near the surface) to
earthquake measures the amount of intermediate (within the crust) to
energy released at the source. It is typically deep (in the mantle).
reported on the Richter scale or the
moment magnitude scale (Mw). Each unit
increase on the Richter scale represents a A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures
tenfold increase in amplitude and between two blocks of rock along which
approximately 32 times more energy movement has occurred.
release. Faults are the primary locations where
earthquakes originate due to the
Intensity: Intensity measures the strength release of accumulated stress.
of shaking and its effects at a specific Different types of faults include
location. It is usually described using the normal faults (tensional forces),
Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale, reverse faults (compressional forces),
which ranges from I (not felt) to XII (total and strike-slip faults (shearing forces).
destruction).

The epicenter is above the focus on the Earth's surface, with the focus along the fault where
earthquake energy is released. Seismic waves travel outward from the focus, reaching the
epicenter first. Earthquake activity results from movement along faults due to accumulated
stress from tectonic plate interactions.
 The Biosphere
The biosphere refers to portions of the
Earth where life exists. It is an
interactive system that supports both
living and nonliving things.

Six Kingdoms of Life

Archaebacteria, in the Archaea domain,
have unique ribosomal RNA. Their cell wall The Protista kingdom comprises diverse
composition enables survival in extreme eukaryotic organisms with characteristics
environments like hot springs and of animals (protozoa), plants (algae), or
hydrothermal vents. Methanogen species fungi (slime molds). They have a nucleus
can also inhabit animal and human guts. enclosed in a membrane and may have
organelles like mitochondria or
Eubacteria, classified under Bacteria domain, chloroplasts. Plant-like protists can
are true bacteria living in various photosynthesize, while many are parasitic
environments. They form the human pathogens causing diseases or exist in
microbiota, aiding in bodily functions and symbiotic relationships.
outnumbering body cells. Reproducing
rapidly through binary fission, bacteria All organisms are traditionally classified
exhibit different cell shapes like round, spiral, into three domains and further
and rod shapes. subdivided into one of six kingdoms of
life: Archaebacteria, Eubacteria,
Fungi include both unicellular (yeast and Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. In
molds) and multicellular (mushrooms) other words, kingdoms are the second
organisms. Unlike plants, fungi are not highest taxonomic rank. The three
capable of photosynthesis. Fungi are domains are Bacteria, Archaea, and
important for the recycling of nutrients back Eukaryota.
into the environment. They decompose
organic matter and acquire nutrients through Organisms are placed into these
absorption. categories based on similarities or
common characteristics. Some of the
Plantae play a vital role by providing oxygen, characteristics that are used to
shelter, food, and medicine. They include determine placement are cell type,
various types such as vascular, nonvascular, nutrient acquisition, and reproduction.
flowering, nonflowering, seed-bearing, and
non-seed-bearing plants, all essential as The two main cell types are prokaryotic
primary producers supporting life in different and eukaryotic cells. Common types of
biomes. nutrient acquisition include
photosynthesis, absorption, and
The Animalia kingdom consists of animal ingestion, and types of reproduction
organisms ranging in size. They rely on plants include asexual reproduction and
and other organisms for nutrition, reproduce sexual reproduction.
through sexual reproduction with fertilization,
and inhabit various aquatic environments.
A food chain is a linear sequence that depicts how energy and nutrients are
transferred from one organism to another in an ecosystem. It illustrates the
feeding relationships between different organisms, starting from producers and
ending with top predators or decomposers. Here’s a detailed explanation of how
a food chain works

1. Producers - are the foundation of every food chain. They are typically green
plants or algae that can perform photosynthesis. Producers convert sunlight,
water, and carbon dioxide into energy-rich organic molecules (like glucose)
through photosynthesis. Example: Grass, trees, phytoplankton in aquatic
ecosystems
2. Primary Consumers (Herbivores) - directly consume producers for energy and
nutrients. They obtain energy by eating plants or algae. Their diet consists mainly
of plant material. Example: Grazing animals such as deer, rabbits, insects like
caterpillars, and herbivorous fish like zooplankton.
3. Secondary Consumers (Carnivores and Omnivores) - feed on primary
consumers. They obtain energy by consuming herbivores or other animals.
Predatory animals like wolves, snakes, birds of prey (carnivores); bears, humans
(omnivores).
4. Tertiary Consumers (Top Predators) - feed on other carnivores or omnivores.
They are typically at the top of the food chain and may not have predators
themselves. Example: Apex predators such as lions, sharks, eagles.
5. Decomposers - play a vital role in the food chain by breaking down dead
organisms and organic matter. They recycle nutrients back into the soil or water,
which can then be reused by producers. Example: Bacteria, fungi, certain insects
like earthworms.

Energy flows through a food chain from one trophic level to another. It begins with
producers converting solar energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis.
Primary consumers obtain this energy by consuming producers, and then secondary
consumers acquire energy by eating primary consumers, and so on.
Energy is transferred along the food chain but is not 100% efficient. It is lost as heat
during metabolism and through waste products.
Nitrogen Cycle - movement of nitrogen
between the four spheres involves
conversion of nitrogen into various forms

Nitrogen Fixation - process of converting

atmospheric nitrogen into biologically
available nitrogen

Nitrification - process that converts

ammonia and ammonium compounds into
nitrite and then to nitrate

Ammonification/ Nitrogen Mineralization

- process wherein fungi and prokaryotes
decompose the dead tissue of organisms
and release the inorganic nitrogen back into
the ecosystem as ammonia

Denitrification - process by which nitrogen

is released back to the atmosphere

Carbon Cycle
describes how carbon moves between the atmosphere, soils, living creatures, the
ocean, and human sources

Carbon present in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis

These plants are then consumed by animals and carbon gets bio accumulated
into their bodies
These animals and plants eventually die, and upon decomposing, carbon is
released back into the atmosphere
Some of the carbon that is not released back into the atmosphere eventually
become fossil fuels
These fossil fuels are then used for man-made activities, which pump more
carbon back into the atmosphere
The Hydrosphere
Evaporation
happens when a liquid turns into a
gas. It can be easily visualized when
rain puddles “disappear” on a hot day
or when wet clothes dry in the sun

Transpiration
process where plants take up liquid
water from the soil and release water
vapor into the air from their leaves

Evapotranspiration
the sum of all processes by which
water moves from the land surface to
the atmosphere via evaporation and
transpiration

Condensation - process where lighter vapor cools as it reaches a certain altitude, forms
tiny floating droplets, and forming clouds
Precipitation -the release of water from clouds in the form of rain, sleet, hail or snow
On Earth, liquid water exists on the surface in the form of oceans, lakes, and rivers. It also
exists below ground—as groundwater, in wells and aquifers. Water vapor is most visible
as clouds and fog.

The frozen part of Earth's hydrosphere is made of ice: glaciers, ice caps and icebergs.
The frozen part of the hydrosphere has its own name, the cryosphere.

Water moves through the hydrosphere in a cycle. Water collects in clouds, then falls to
Earth in the form of rain or snow. This water collects in rivers, lakes and oceans. Then it
evaporates into the atmosphere to start the cycle all over again. This is called the water
cycle.

How is Water Distributed in the Hydrosphere

97.5% of Earth’s water is seawater and thus salty, leaving only 2.5% fresh water.
Within 2.5%, nearly 70% is frozen, and only 30% is underground. The frozen part of
the hydrosphere consists of glaciers, ice caps, and icebergs. This part of the
hydrosphere is called the cryosphere.

References:
Bailey, R. (2024, May 19). The 6 kingdoms of life. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/six-kingdoms-of-life-373414
Dodd, C. (2021, April 4). The four spheres of the Earth. WorldAtlas. https://www.worldatlas.com/geography/the-four-spheres-of-the-
earth.html
Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). Hydrosphere. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/hydrosphere
 LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY
I. PRONOUNS SUBSTITUTE FOR
NOUNS III. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

They are classified by function and case. 1. Use the comparative degree
Classification according to function and of the adjective and adverb
case. to compare two or more
persons or things.
1. Personal 2. Do not create a double
2. Relative comparative or superlative by
3. Demonstrative using –er with more or –est
4. Interrogative with most.
5. Indefinite 3. A linking verb may introduce
6. Impersonal a word that describes the
7. Distributive verb’s subject.
8. Reflexive 4. Two or more adjectives that
9. Reciprocal are joined to create a
compound modifier before a
II. GUIDELINES FOR FORMING noun should be hyphenated.
PLURALS 5. Keep adjectives and adverbs
close to the words they
1. Add s to most nouns modify.
2. Add es to nouns ending in s, x, z, ch 6. Don’t confuse the adverb
or sh there with the possessive
3. Change the spelling in irregular noun pronoun their on the
plurals contraction they’re.
4. Add s to nouns that end in y when y
is preceeded by a vowel (attorney, IV. SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
attorneys; valley, valleys; journey, RULES
journeys)
5. Drop the y and add ies to nouns ➢ A verb must agree with its subject in
ending in y when y is preceded by a number.
consonant ● A singular subject indicates one and
6. Add s to the principal word in most requires a singular verb.
compound expressions ● Plural subjects indicate more than
7. Add s to most numerals, letters in one and require plural verbs.
the alphabet, words referred to as
words, degrees, and abbreviations ● An exception to this rule occurs with
8. Add ‘s only to clarify letters of the the pronouns I and you which both
alphabet that might be misread. An require the form of a verb without -s
expression like c.o.d.s requires no or -es even when you refers to one
apostrophe because it would only be person.
misread. ● When I is the subject, the verb form
is am.
 LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY
➔ Do not mistake a word in an ➢ To refer to a place, use the
intervening phrase for the subject of prepositions "in" (the point itself),"at"
a sentence. (the general vicinity),"on" (the
● The simple subject is never a surface), and "inside" (something
prepositional phrase. contained).
● When a singular subject is linked to
another noun by a phrase, the ➢ To refer to an object higher than a
subject is still considered singular. point, use the prepositions "over"
and "above."
V. PREPOSITION
➢ To refer to an object lower than a
a word or group of words used before a point, use the prepositions "below,"
noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to show "beneath," "under," and
direction, time, place, location, spatial "underneath."
relationships, or to introduce an object.
Some examples of prepositions are words ➢ To refer to an object close to a point,
like "in," "at," "on," "of," and "to." use the prepositions "by," "near,"
"next to,""between," "among," and
PREPOSITIONS OF TIME "opposite."

To refer to one point in time, use the PREPOSITIONS OF LOCATION

prepositions "in," "at," and "on."
➢ To refer to a location, use the
➢ Use "in" with parts of the day (not prepositions "in" (an area or
specific times), months, years, volume), "at" (a point), and "on"
and seasons. (a surface).

➢ Use "at" with the time of day. Also PREPOSITIONS OF SPATIAL

use "at" with noon, night, and RELATIONSHIPS
midnight.
➢ To refer to a spatial relationship,
➢ Use "on" with days. use the prepositions "above,"
"across," "against," "ahead of,"
To refer to extended time, use the "along," "among," "around,"
prepositions "since," "for," "by," "during," "behind," "below," "beneath,"
"from...to," "from...until," "with," and "beside," "between," "from," "in
"within." front of," "inside," "near," "off,"
"out of" "through," "toward,"
"under," and "within."
PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE
SYNONYM
 LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY
a word or phrase that means exactly or
nearly the same as another word or phrase
in the same language.

ANTONYM

a word which means the opposite of

another.
 READING COMPREHENSION
Directions complexes of Orchard Road.
They are kids of Asia’s great
● Always go through the questions cities, avant-garde, rebellious,
first and then the passage. modernized. They are exposed to
● Make sure to read the Title of the imported television that usher in
Passage to get an idea of what international values.
the Passage is about. 4. In Hong Kong, the kids have
● Always Read the First sentence been described as precocious,
as it sometimes contains the world-wise, and materialistic,
Topic Sentence. governed less by teachers and
parents than by the omnipresent
Selection (1 - 6) television. Peer group influence is
great. Their trademarks are
1. Asia’s new generation of kids has smoking, foul language, bizarre
more than just youth in common. and attention-getting appearance,
Whether in Manila,Hong Kong, and rude mannerisms.
Kuala Lumpur, Singapore, 5. In Japan, they look like a different
Jakarta or Tokyo, whether rich or race to the old generation. There
poor, urban or rural, delinquent or is rising drug abuse, sexual
not, Asia’s youngsters share freedom, crime and
many things. They go to schools, homosexuality among the youth.
sing-along bars, fast food outlets, There’s less respect given to
rock concerts and rallies. They parents and to the aged.
are dressed in wild costumes of
screaming colors or black, leather Questions
jackets, outsized t-shirts and
candy-colored sneakers. 1. The selection is about Asia’s
____.
2. In Manila, they are particularly
called “bagets”. Their pursuits, a. Lost generation
though seemingly inane are b. Delinquent youth
innocent – singing - along with c. Urbanized society
the gang at the malls, sharing d. New generation of youth
cheeseburgers and soda for
cruising the commercial center of 2. It can be inferred from the
Cubao and Makati. selection that Asia’s youth _______

3. In Bangkok, they will wander a. Have senseless pursuits.

about the Siam Shopping Center, b. Share many common goals.
in Singapore, in the Shopping
 READING COMPREHENSION
c. Have been influenced by western 6. What literary technique was used
culture. by the author in writing the
d. Have varied dreams and selection?
ambitions.
a. Comparing
3. What is worth observing and good b. Describing
about the youth beneath the modern c. Making a profile
image and westernized lifestyle? d. Narrating events

a. The youth are still the PASSAGE 1 (7 - 9)

easy-go-lucky type
b. Many of them still believe in Artificial intelligence (AI) is rapidly
traditional values transforming many aspects of our lives,
c. They share a common character from the way we work to the way we
as influenced by the media. interact with the world around us. AI is
d. The values of the new generation already being used in a wide range of
have been modified by applications, including healthcare,
modernization. transportation, and manufacturing. And
as AI technology continues to develop,
4. When the author said that Asian we can expect to see even more
youth are avant-garde, it means that innovative and transformative uses in
they _______ the years to come.

a. are behind the times 7. What is the main topic of the

b. have old-fashioned thoughts passage?
c. are promiscuous and stubborn
d. practice new and experimental a. The history of artificial
ideas intelligence.
b. The current state of artificial
5. If the youth are exposed to too intelligence.
much western television they will c. The future of artificial intelligence.
likely _____ d. The impact of artificial
intelligence on society.
a. develop foreign values and forget
traditional ones. 8. Which of the following is NOT an
b. become complacent and example of an application where AI is
indifferent. being used today?
c. become aggressive and violent
d. develop an independent mind. a. Healthcare
b. Transportation
 READING COMPREHENSION
c. Manufacturing 11. What are some of the effects of
d. Education climate change that we are already
seeing today?
9. According to the passage, what
can we expect to see in the years to a. More extreme weather events
come as AI technology continues to b. Rising sea levels
develop? c. Changes in plant and animal life
d. All of the above
a. More innovative and
transformative uses of AI 12. What can we do to address the
b. A decrease in the use of AI in challenge of climate change?
society
c. A slowdown in the development a. Reduce our emissions of
of AI technology greenhouse gasses
d. None of the above b. Transition to renewable energy
sources
PASSAGE 2 (10-12) c. Develop adaptation strategies to
deal with the impacts of climate
Climate change is one of the most change
pressing challenges facing our planet d. All of the above
today. It is caused by the release of
greenhouse gasses into the PASSAGE 3 (13-16)
atmosphere, which trap heat and warm
the planet. The effects of climate change Globalization is the process of
are already being felt around the world, increasing interconnectedness and
in the form of more extreme weather interdependence between different
events, rising sea levels, and changes in countries and societies. It is driven by a
plant and animal life. number of factors, including trade,
investment, technology, and migration.
Questions Globalization has had a profound impact
on the world, both positive and negative.
10. What is the main cause of climate
change? Questions

a. The release of greenhouse 13. What is the process of increasing

gasses into the atmosphere Interconnectedness and
b. Deforestation interdependence between different
c. Population growth countries and societies called?
d. Industrialization
a. Globalization
 READING COMPREHENSION
b. Westernization Questions
c. Americanization
d. Modernization 17. What are some of the benefits of
education?
14. What are some of the factors that
drive globalization? a. Knowledge
b. Skills
a. Trade c. Values
b. Investment d. All of the above
c. Technology
d. All of the above 18. Why is education important for
societal development?
15. What are some of the positive
impacts of globalization? a. It promotes social cohesion.
b. It contributes to economic growth.
a. Increased economic growth c. It helps to reduce poverty.
b. Reduced poverty d. All of the above
c. Increased cultural exchange
d. All of the above 19. What are some of the challenges
facing education today?
16. What are some of the negative
impacts of globalization? a. Inequality of access to education
b. Poor quality of education in some
a. It helps to reduce poverty parts of the world
b. Environmental degradation c. The need to adapt education to
c. Equal access to education meet the demands of the 21st
d. Promotes social cohesion century
d. All of the above
PASSAGE 4 (17-19)

Education is essential for individual

and societal development. It provides
people with the knowledge, skills, and
values they need to succeed in life and
to contribute to their communities.
Education also helps to promote social
cohesion and economic growth.
 READING COMPREHENSION
20. What is the tone of the d. Both A and C
infographic?
For questions 24 - 25
a. Biased
b. Concerned Rhesus monkeys use facial
c. Displeased expressions to communicate with each
d. Sympathizing other and to enforce social order. For
example, the “fear grimace,” although it
21. Which of the following titles looks ferocious, is actually given by a
wouldbest fit the infographic? __________ monkey who is intimidated
by a __________ member of the group.
a. The Taxes Paid by Professionals
b. Who Pays Less: A Teacher of A 24. What is the meaning of the
Self-Employed Professional? underlined word grimace as it is
c. Which Profession Makes More used in the passage?
Money?
d. How Unfair Taxation May Look a. Wrinkle
Like b. Contortion
c. Shriek
22. What is the tone of the line “Baka d. Simper
kailangang i-enroll ang mga ito sa
DSWD Conditional cash Transfer 25. Which pair of words, if inserted
Program?” into the blanks in sequence,
makes the most sense in the context
a. Compassion of the passage?
b. Concern
c. Sarcasm a. calm . . .aggressive
d. All of the above b. dominant . . . subordinate
c. confident . . . fearless
23. Which of the following is d. subordinate . . . dominant
statement(s) is true?
For questions 26 - 27
a. All accountants pay less taxes
than public school teachers. In prolonged space flight, besides the
b. A doctor paid tax amounting to obvious hazards of meteors, rocky
more than an average jeepney debris, and radiation, astronauts will
ride. have to deal with muscle atrophy
c. Some-self employed taxpayers in brought on by weightlessness;
the Philippines pay more taxes therefore, when they return to Earth,
than teachers.
 READING COMPREHENSION
they face a protracted period of weight d. Skilled
training to rebuild their strength.
30. The preacher used a euphemism
26. What is the most likely meaning for an unpleasant subject.
of the underlined word debris as it is
used in this passage? a. ugly picture
b. substituted word
a. Fragments c. homeless person
b. Decay d. visual aid
c. Bacteria
d. Alien life

27. The underlined word atrophy, as

used in the paragraph, most nearly
means

a. pain
b. wasting
c. weakening
d. cramping

For questions 28 - 30

28. When people heard that timid Bob

had taken up skydiving, they were
incredulous.

a. fearful
b. outraged
c. convinced
d. disbelieving

29. The technical department

enthusiastically hired Ms. Long
because she was proficient in the use
of computers.

a. sincere
b. adequate
c. competent
 READING COMPREHENSION
KEY TO CORRECTION

1. D
2. B
3. C
4. D
5. B
6. C
7. D
8. D
9. A
10. A
11. D
12. D
13. A
14. D
15. D
16. B
17. D
18. D
19. D
20. B
21. D
22. C
23. C
24. C
25. A
26. A
27. B
28. D
29. C
30. B
 FILIPINO LANGUAGE
MGA BAHAGI NG PANANALITA Perpektibo:
Pangungusap: Kumain siya ng adobo.
PANGNGALAN (NOUNS) Pandiwa: kumain
Pangngalan ay mga salitang tumutukoy sa ngalan Kahulugan: Natapos na ang kilos ng pagkain.
ng tao, hayop, bagay, lugar, pangyayari, at iba pa.
Imperpektibo:
Halimbawa: Pangungusap: Naglalakad ang bata sa parke.
Tao: Juan, doktor Pandiwa: naglalakad
Lugar: Maynila, parke Kahulugan: Kasalukuyang nagaganap ang
Bagay: libro, mesa kilos ng paglalakad.
Hayop: aso, pusa
Uri ng Pangngalan: Kontemplatibo:
Pangungusap: Kakain ako mamaya.
Pantangi (Proper Noun) Pandiwa: kakain
Tumutukoy sa tiyak na ngalan ng tao, bagay, Kahulugan: Gagawin pa lamang ang kilos ng
hayop, lugar, o pangyayari. pagkain
Halimbawa:
Tao: Jose Rizal PANG-URI (ADJECTIVES)
Lugar: Pasig River
Bagay: Mona Lisa Pang-uri ay mga salitang naglalarawan o
Hayop: Hachiko nagbibigay-turing sa pangngalan o panghalip.
Pangyayari: Pasko, Bagong Taon
Layon: Paglalarawan ng pangngalan o
Pambalana (Common Noun) panghalip.
Tumutukoy sa pangkalahatang ngalan ng tao, Halimbawa: maganda, matalino, mataas
bagay, hayop, lugar, o pangyayari.
Halimbawa: Gamit sa Pangungusap:
Tao: guro, tindero Maganda ang bahay.
Lugar: ilog, bayan Matalino siya.
Bagay: aklat, mesa Mataas ang bundok.
Hayop: pusa, isda
Pangyayari: kasalan, pista Iba Pang Halimbawa:
Pandiwa (Verbs) Mabait na bata.
Pandiwa ay mga salitang nagsasaad ng kilos o Maliit na aso.
galaw. Malinis na mesa.
Pang-abay (Adverbs)
PANDIWA (VERBS) Pang-abay ay mga salitang nagbibigay-turing
Pandiwa ay mga salitang nagsasaad ng kilos o sa pandiwa, pang-uri, o kapwa pang-abay.
galaw.
PANG-ABAY (ADVERBS)
ASPEKTO NG PANDIWA: Pang-abay ay mga salitang nagbibigay-turing
Perpektibo (Completed Action) sa pandiwa, pang-uri, o kapwa pang-abay.
Tumutukoy sa kilos na naganap na o tapos na.
Uri ng Pang-abay:
Halimbawa: kumain, sumulat, naglakad,
Pamaraan (Manner)
uminom Tumutukoy sa paraan kung paano ginagawa
ang kilos.
Imperpektibo (Ongoing Action) Halimbawa: mabilis, dahan-dahan
Tumutukoy sa kilos na kasalukuyang Gamit sa Pangungusap:
nagaganap. Mabilis siyang tumakbo.
Halimbawa: naglalakad, nagsusulat, umiinom, Dahan-dahan siyang naglakad.
kumakain
Pamanahon (Time)
Kontemplatibo (Future Action) Tumutukoy sa panahon kung kailan ginawa ang
Tumutukoy sa kilos na gagawin pa lamang. kilos.
Halimbawa: kakain, magsusulat, iinom, lalakad Halimbawa: kahapon, ngayon, bukas
Gamit sa Pangungusap:
Kahapon kami nag-aral.
Ngayon ang eksaminasyon.
Bukas kami aalis.
Gamit sa Pangungusap:
Mabilis siyang tumakbo.
Dahan-dahan siyang naglakad.
Pamanahon (Time)
Tumutukoy sa panahon kung kailan ginawa
ang kilos.
Halimbawa: kahapon, ngayon, bukas
Gamit sa Pangungusap:
Kahapon kami nag-aral.
Ngayon ang eksaminasyon.
Bukas kami aalis.
Panlunan (Place)
Tumutukoy sa lugar kung saan ginawa ang Pang-ukol na nagpapakita ng tagaganap ng
kilos. kilos (Agent Marker):
Halimbawa: dito, doon, sa bahay
Gamit sa Pangungusap: Halimbawa: Kumain ng mangga si Ana.
Dito kami nag-aral kahapon. Kahulugan: Si Ana ang kumain ng mangga.
Doon siya nagtatrabaho. Paliwanag: Ang "ng" sa kontekstong ito ay
Sa bahay kami kumain. nagtatakda kung sino ang nag-aksiyon
(kumain ng mangga). Ipinapakita nito kung
Iba Pang Halimbawa ng Pang-abay: sino ang gumawa ng kilos na tinutukoy.
Pamaraan: mabilis, mabagal, maingat
Pamanahon: ngayon, mamaya, sa susunod Bahagi ng kabuuan (Partitive Marker):
Panlunan: sa loob, sa labas, sa itaas
Halimbawa: Isang baso ng tubig.
PANG-UKOL Kahulugan: Isang bahagi ng kabuuan na tubig.
Ang "pang-ukol" ay tumutukoy sa mga Paliwanag: Ang "ng" dito ay nagpapakita ng
salitang ginagamit upang magbigay ng bahagi ng kabuuan. Ipinapakita nito ang uri o
kaugnayan o relasyon ng isang salita sa iba kategorya ng bagay na tinutukoy.
pang bahagi ng pangungusap. Karaniwang "nang"
ginagamit ito upang magpahayag ng pag- Ang salitang "nang" naman ay ginagamit sa
aari, layon, o tagaganap ng kilos sa Filipino bilang pangatnig na nagpapakita ng:
pangungusap. Narito ang ilang halimbawa at
kahulugan ng mga pang-ukol: Oras ng pangyayari (Time of Action):

"ng" - Ginagamit bilang pang-ukol sa pag- Halimbawa: Dumating siya nang hapon.
aari, layon, o tagaganap ng kilos. Kahulugan: Dumating siya sa oras na hapon.
Halimbawa: Ang bahay ng bata. (Ang bahay Paliwanag: Ang "nang" ay nagtatakda ng oras
na pag-aari ng bata.) kung kailan nangyari ang isang pangyayari.
Halimbawa: Kumain ng kanin si Maria. (Si Ipinapakita nito ang eksaktong oras o panahon
Maria ang kumain ng kanin.) ng araw kung kailan naganap ang pangyayari.

"sa" - Pang-ukol na nagpapahiwatig ng Pamaraan (Manner):

direksiyon, lugar, o kaayusan.
Halimbawa: Pumunta kami sa palengke. Halimbawa: Tumakbo siya nang mabilis.
(Direksiyon ng aming pagpunta.) Kahulugan: Tumakbo siya sa paraang mabilis.
Halimbawa: Nagsalita siya sa klase. (Lugar Paliwanag: Ang "nang" ay naglalarawan ng
ng kanyang pagsasalita.) paraan kung paano ginawa ang isang kilos.
"para sa" - Pang-ukol na nagpapahiwatig ng Ipinapakita nito ang paraan o paraang ginamit
layunin, pakay, o benepisyo. sa pagganap ng isang kilos.
Sanhi (Cause):
Halimbawa: Binili niya ang regalo para sa
kaibigan. (Layunin ng kanyang pagbili.) Halimbawa: Umiyak siya nang malakas dahil
Halimbawa: Mag-aral ka para sa iyong sa sakit.
kinabukasan. (Pakay ng pag-aaral.) Kahulugan: Umiyak siya dahil sa malakas na
sakit.
"kay" - Pang-ukol na nagpapahiwatig ng Paliwanag: Ang "nang" ay nagpapaliwanag ng
pagmamay-ari, kausap, o layon. dahilan o sanhi ng isang pangyayari.
Halimbawa: Binigyan niya ng regalo kay Ipinapakita nito ang pinagmulan ng isang
Maria. (Regalo para kay Maria.) pangyayari o ang dahilan ng isang emosyonal
Halimbawa: Nagpadala siya ng sulat kay na reaksyon.
Jose. (Sulat para kay Jose.
Mga Uri ng Teksto Talumpati - Isang pormal na pagpapahayag ng
kaisipan o damdamin sa harap ng isang madla,
Tekstong Impormatibo (Informational Texts) karaniwang may layuning manghikayat,
magturo, o magbigay-inspirasyon.
Layunin: Magbigay ng kaalaman o impormasyon
sa mga mambabasa. Dula - Isang anyo ng panitikan na isinasagawa
o isinusulat para sa entablado, kadalasang
Halimbawa: Artikulo sa balita, sanaysay, naglalaman ng mga pag-uusap ng mga
talumpati. karakter na may layuning magpatawa,
Halimbawa ng Teksto: magpaiyak, mag-edukar, o magbigay-aral.
"Ang mga sanhi ng pagbabago ng klima ay dahil Editoryal - Isang uri ng panitikan na
sa pagtaas ng greenhouse gases sa atmospera." karaniwang lumalabas sa pahayagan o
magasin na naglalaman ng opinyon o pananaw
ng patnugot o may-akda ukol sa isang
Tekstong Naratibo (Narrative Texts) napapanahong isyu.
Layunin: Magkuwento o maglahad ng mga
Balita - Isang uri ng panitikan na naglalaman
pangyayari o karanasan. ng impormasyon ukol sa mga pangyayari o
Halimbawa: Kuwento, nobela, alamat. kaganapan sa lipunan o mundo, karaniwang
Halimbawa ng Teksto: sumusunod sa obhetibong pamantayan ng
pagsulat.
"Noong unang panahon, sa isang malayong
kaharian, may isang prinsesang napakaganda na Pabula - Isang uri ng kuwentong pambata na
nagngangalang Maria." naglalaman ng mga hayop na nag-uugali ng
mga tao, karaniwang may aral na nakapaloob
sa kabuuan ng kuwento.
Tekstong Argumentatibo (Argumentative
Epiko - Isang mahabang salaysay na patula na
Texts) karaniwang naglalarawan ng kabayanihan at
Layunin: Manghikayat o mangumbinsi sa mga mga kahanga-hangang gawain ng mga bayani,
mambabasa. at karaniwang may kababalaghan.
Halimbawa: Editoryal, opinyon, debate. Alamat - Isang uri ng kuwentong bayan na
Halimbawa ng Teksto: nagpapaliwanag sa mga pambihirang mga
"Dapat ipagbawal ang plastic dahil ito ay pangyayari o kababalaghan sa paraang
nagdudulot ng polusyon sa karagatan." moralistikong aral o edukasyon.

Sa larangan ng panitikan, may iba't ibang uri o anyo na may

kani-kaniyang katangian at layunin. Parabula - Isang maikling
kuwento na may layuning
magturo ng moral na aral
Tula - Isang anyo ng panitikan na may ritmo, tugma, at o katuruan sa
karaniwang naglalaman ng masining na paglalarawan ng pamamagitan ng mga
damdamin, karanasan, o kaisipan. tanyag na tauhan,
Maikling Kuwento - Isang kuwento na may isang karaniwan ng mga hayop.
pangunahing pangyayari na karaniwang may isang Awit - Isang uri ng tula na
tauhan o mga tauhan. inaawit na karaniwang
Nobela - Isang mahabang salaysay na kathang-isip na naglalarawan ng mga
kahinaan at mga
karaniwang may masalimuot na plot, mga karakter, at kakayahan ng tao.
tema. Oda - Isang uri ng tula na
Sanaysay - Isang uri ng pag-uulat o pagsasalaysay na karaniwang naglalaman
naglalaman ng personal na pananaw o opinyon ng may- ng pambihirang
akda tungkol sa isang tiyak na paksa. damdamin ng
pagmamahal o
Kuwentong-bayan - Isang uri ng panitikan na nagmula paggalang.
sa tradisyonal na oral na panitikan ng isang lugar o
kultura. Karaniwang naglalaman ito ng mga aral,
kababalaghan, o pambansang kasaysayan.
BAHAGI NG PANANALITA Kasingkahulugan: Mga salitang may
parehong o halos parehong kahulugan.
1. Pangngalan (Nouns) - Ito ang mga salitang
nagpapakilala sa mga tao, bagay, lugar, o Kasalungat: Mga salitang may
konsepto. Halimbawa: tao, lapis, bayan, pag-ibig. magkasalungat na kahulugan.
2. Pandiwa (Verbs) - Ito ang mga salitang Hiram na Salita (Loanwords)
nagpapahayag ng kilos o galaw. Naglalarawan ito Ito ay mga salitang hiniram mula sa iba't
ng pagkilos, pagkikilos, o pagkakaroon ng ibang mga wika o banyagang wika na naging
aksyon. Halimbawa: tumakbo, kumain, sumulat, bahagi na ng wikang Filipino.
umibig. Mahalaga ang pag-unawa sa mga hiram na
salita upang mapalawak ang bokabularyo at
3. Pang-uri (Adjectives) - Ito ang mga salitang maunawaan ang impluwensya ng iba't ibang
nagbibigay ng katangian o kalagayan sa mga kultura sa Filipino. Halimbawa ng mga hiram
pangngalan o mga panghalip. Naglalarawan ito na salita ay "kape" (mula sa Kastila),
ng kulay, sukat, timbang, tibay, at iba pa. "kompyuter" (mula sa Ingles), at "telebisyon"
Halimbawa: maganda, maliit, matapang, malakas. (mula sa Griyego).
4. Pang-abay (Adverbs) - Ito ang mga salitang Pangngalan Pantangi (Proper Nouns)
naglalarawan ng mga pandiwa, pang-uri, o kapwa Ang pangngalang pantangi ay mga pangalan
pang-abay. Naglalarawan ito ng kalakasan, ng tao, lugar, bagay, o pangyayari na
katumpakan, oras, lugar, pamaraan, at katayuan tinutukoy ng tiyak at kapansin-pansin na
ng kilos. Halimbawa: mabilis, maayos, nang pangalan. Hindi binabago ang anyo nito
mabuti, kahapon. kapag ginagamit sa mga pangungusap.
Halimbawa: Maria, Pilipinas, Mga Kapuluan
5. Panghalip (Pronouns) - Ito ang mga salitang ng Pilipinas
ginagamit upang palitan o ipalit sa pangngalan.
Halimbawa: ako, ikaw, siya, kami, sila. Pangngalan Pambalana (Common Nouns)
Ang pangngalang pambalana ay mga
6. Pang-ugnay (Conjunctions) - Ito ang mga pangalan ng tao, lugar, bagay, o pangyayari
salitang ginagamit upang mag-uugnay ng mga na tinutukoy sa pangkalahatan. Ito ay
salita, parirala, o sugnay. Halimbawa: at, o, pero, maaaring baguhin ang anyo upang maging
kaya, dahil. plural.
Halimbawa: bata (bata - mga bata), silya
7. Pang-ukol (Prepositions) - Ito ang mga (silya - mga silya), guro (guro - mga guro)
salitang nagpapakita ng relasyon ng mga salita sa
isang pangungusap. Halimbawa: sa, ng, para sa, Pagbuo ng Plural sa mga Pangngalang
mula sa, sa loob ng. Pambalana
Karaniwang ginagamit ang mga sumusunod
na paraan upang gawing plural ang mga
Ang tula ay binubuo ng iba't ibang bahagi na pangngalang pambalana:
nagbibigay-kahulugan at kaayusan sa pagbuo
nito. Narito ang mga pangunahing bahagi ng tula: Mga Pangngalang may Huling Tunog na
Patinig:
Sukat at Tugma - Ito ay ang pagkakaroon ng Ang huling tunog na patinig ay madalas na
patnubay sa pagsusulat ng tula, na may tiyak na ginagamit upang gawing plural ang mga
bilang ng pantig sa bawat taludtod at ang salitang ito.
pagkakaroon ng parehas o magkatugmang tunog Halimbawa: bata (bata - mga bata), lapis
ng huling pantig ng bawat taludtod. (lapis - mga lapis), upo (upo - mga upo)
Taludtod - Ito ang bawat linya ng tula, na Mga Pangngalang may Huling Tunog na
kadalasang binubuo ng isa o higit pang mga Katinig:
pantig. Kapag ang pangngalan ay may huling tunog
na katinig, madalas na idinaragdag ang -ng
Saknong - Ito ang mga bahagi ng tula na binubuo bago ang -s o -es.
ng isa o higit pang taludtod. Ang bilang ng mga Halimbawa: guro (guro - mga guro), aral
saknong ay maaaring mag-iba-iba depende sa (aral - mga aral), bahay (bahay - mga
anyo o estruktura ng tula. bahay)
Tema - Ito ang pangunahing paksa o mensahe na
Mga Pangngalang may Huling Tunog na
ipinapahayag ng tula. Ito ang nagbibigay ng "e" o "i":
direksyon sa pagbuo ng mga taludtod at saknong
Kadalasan, inilalagay ang -ng bago ang -s
ng tula. upang gawing plural ang mga pangngalang
ito.
Imaherya - Ito ang mga salitang gumagambala Halimbawa: rehiyon (rehiyon - mga
ng 5 pandiwa rehiyon), babae (babae - mga babae),
pintuan (pintuan - mga pintuan)
Alin sa mga sumusunod ang hindi pangngalan? Ano ang pang-uring naglalarawan sa kalidad o
a. bahay katangian?
b. lumilipad a. pamilang
c. puno b. panghalip
d. lapis c. pang-uri
d. pambalana
Aling pangngalan ang may dalawang pantig?
a. mabuti Alin sa mga sumusunod ang pang-uring hindi
b. lapis naglalarawan ng kalagayan?
c. kalabaw a. maayos
d. karunungan b. maalinsangan
c. masaya
Ano ang tawag sa pangngalang tumutukoy sa d. kahoy
damdamin o emosyon?
a. konkreto Ano ang pang-uring naglalarawan sa tindi ng
b. abstrak damdamin o emosyon?
c. pantangi a. mabuti
d. pambalana b. malungkot
c. mabilis
Alin ang pangngalang walang kasalungat na d. malinis
kasalungat?
a. kahoy Alin sa mga sumusunod ang pang-uring hindi
b. tubig naglalarawan sa anyo o hugis?
c. tao a. bilog
d. kagubatan b. mabango
c. malapad
Ano ang tawag sa pangngalang tumutukoy sa d. maganda
pangalan ng tao, lugar, o bagay na tiyak?
a. pangunahin Ano ang tawag sa pang-uring ginagamit na pamalit
b. pantangi sa pangngalan?
c. pambalana a. panghalip
d. panghalip b. pang-ugnay
c. pang-abay
Ano ang pandiwa sa pangungusap na d. pang-uri
"Naglalaro si Maria sa parke tuwing Linggo."?
a. naglalaro Alin sa mga sumusunod ang pang-abay na
b. si Maria naglalarawan ng lugar?
c. sa parke a. narito
d. tuwing Linggo b. doon
c. mabilis
Alin sa mga sumusunod ang pandiwang may d. kahapon
kasalungat na kahulugan?
a. tulungan Ano ang tawag sa pang-abay na naglalarawan ng
b. bihagin kaayusan ng mga pangyayari?
c. sumulat a. pamaraan
d. umibig b. panukala
c. panuring
Ano ang pandiwa sa pangungusap na "Bumibili d. pang-abay
ng gulay si Juan sa palengke."
a. bumibili Alin sa mga sumusunod ang pang-abay na
b. si Juan naglalarawan ng panahon?
c. ng gulay a. ngayon
d. sa palengke b. kahapon
c. maaga
Alin sa mga sumusunod ang pandiwang hindi d. dito
nagpapakita ng kilos o galaw?
c. mahusay

Ano ang pang-abay sa pangungusap na

c. nang mabilis

a. narito b. kahapon

b. nagtanim "Naglakad si Maria nang mabilis."? a. pamaraan

b. doon

c. lumalakad a. naglakad IV. Pang-abay (Adverbs)

a. panghalip

d. tumatawa b. si Maria b. mabango

c. nang mabilis
b. malungkot
b. maalinsangan

Ano ang tawag sa pandiwa na ginagamit upang d. mabilis c. pang-uri

III. Pang-uri (Adjectives)
a. aktibo
magpahayag ng kilos na nagaganap? a. narito

a. aktibo Alin sa mga sumusunod ang hindi pang-abay?

a. bumibili

a. ngayon
b. bihagin

b. pasibo a. naglalaro

c. neutro b. matagal II. Pandiwa (Verbs)

b. pantangi

d. di-aktibo c. mahusay d. kagubatan

b. abstrak
d. tumatakbo b. lapis
b. lumilipad
I. Pangngalan (Nouns)
 READING COMPREHENSION - FILIPINO
3. Mahihinuha sa ikatlong saknong na:
TULA
a. Nalaman niyang naglalaban sila tungkol sa
pamamaalam sa panahong yaon.
Sansaglit b. Natuklasan niyang laging may problema sa
ni Lean Borlongan pamamaalam sa mga sandaling iyon.
c. Nabatid niyang pakikipagtunggali ito sa
Hindi mo masabi patuloy na pagpapaalam sa pagkakataong iyon.
kung kalian ka dadaan d. Nahinuha niyang kailangang umalis ng
sa UP. sinisinta noong oras na iyon.

Noong minsan kitang makita 4. Ano ang inaasikaso ng taong pinag-uusapan

sa Mendiola, ng persona?
ilang pangungusap lamang
ang nagsalita sa ating bibig. a. ang pag-walk out ng mga estudyante
Sabi ko’y marami kaming b. ang pakikialam at pakikisangkot sa partido
estudyanteng napa-walk out sa kolehiyo politikal
maraming napasali sa Anakbayan. c. ang paghahanda para sa araw ng kababaihan
Sabi mo’y abala ka sa paghahanda sa paparating d. ang pakikipag-ugnayan sa magsasaka
na araw ng kababaihan.
TULA
Hanggang lapitan ka ng isang magbubukid
at iginuhit ng palad mo sa hangin
ang paglisan. Sa Aking Mga Kabata

Kapagka ang baya’y sadyang umiibig

Sa sandaling iyon
Sa kanyang salitang kaloob ng langit,
muli kong nabatid, Sanlang kalayaan nasa ring masapit
pakikibaka ito ng palagiang pamamaalam Katulad ng ibong nasa himpapawid.

at dito kita inibig. Pagka’t ang salita’y isang kahatulan

Sa bayan, sa nayo’t mga kaharian,
At ang isang tao’y katulad, kabagay
1. Tungkol saan ang akda? Ng alin mang likha noong kalayaan.

a. Ang pagmamahal sa munting pagkikita Ang hindi magmahal sa kanyang salita

Mahigit sa hayop at malansang isda,
b. Ang giyerang nararamdaman sa bawat
Kaya ang marapat pagyamanin kusa
pagmamahalan Na tulad sa inang tunay na nagpala.
c. Ang mga pagkakataon at panahong sa
sinisinta ay kailangang mamaalam. Ang wikang Tagalog tulad din sa Latin
d. Ang kalungkutan sa bawat na pamamaalam Sa Ingles, Kastila at salitang anghel,
Sapagka’t ang Poong maalam tumingin
2. Ano ang kahulugan ng salitang nagsasalita sa Ang siyang naggawad, nagbigay sa atin.
Ang salita nati’y huwad din sa iba
ikalawang saknong? Na may alfabeto at sariling letra,
Na kaya nawala’y dinatnan ng sigwa
a. nagpasa Ang lunday sa lawa noong dakong una.
b. nagpasahan
c. nagpalit
d. nagpalitan
 READING COMPREHENSION - FILIPINO
5. Ang tula ay tungkol sa 8. Ano ang ibig sabihin ng salitang “iniirog” sa
unang linya?
a. pagsasalita
b. wikang Tagalog a. Hinahanap
c. alpabetong banyaga b. MInamahal
d. pag-ibig sa isang Tao c. Ipinaglalaban
d. Isinasakdal
6. Ayon sa tula, sino ang nagbigay ng wika sa
atin? 9. Sino ang tinutukoy na “estranghero” sa linya
14?
a. Poon
b. Jose Rizal a. Ang buhay, na parang estrangherong lumipas
c. Ang mga Kastila b. Ang lahat ng mga taong tumulong na hindi
d. Ang mga Amerikano niyakakilala
c. Ang kasintahan niya.
7. Nais ng may-akda na: d. Ang mga estranghero na dumaan sa buhaya
niya at nagpaligay dito.
a. Itakwil ang sariling wika.
b. Mahalin ang sariling wika. 10. Ano ang lugar na tinutukoy sa linya 5-8?
c. Kalimutan ang sariling wika
d. Huwag gamitin ang sariling wika. a. Langit
b. Pilipinas na Malaya
TULA c. Isla ni Bathala
d. Ang kalawakan

Piling bahagi ng: 11. Ano ang tinutukoy ni Rizal sa salitang

“Katagalugan” sa linya 2?
Mi Ultimo Adios
Jose Rizal; a. Ang bayang Tagalog
Pagsasalin ni Andres Bonifacio b. Ang kabuuhan ng Pilipinas
c. Ang wika at kulturang Tagalog
1 Bayang iniirog, sakit niyaring hirap, d. Ang kanyang paraan ng pananalita
Katagalugang ko pinakaliliyag,
dinggin mo ang aking pagpapahimakas;
diya'y iiwan ko sa iyo ang lahat. TULA
5 Ako'y patutungo sa walang busabos,
walang umiinis at berdugong hayop;
SA PAMILIHAN NG PUSO
pananalig doo'y di nakasasalot,
si Bathala lamang doo’y haring lubos.
Huwag kang iibig nang dahil sa pilak
pilak ay may pakpak
9 Paalam, magulang at mga kapatid
dagling lumilipad
kapilas ng aking kaluluwa't dibdib
pag iniwan ka na, ikaw’y maghihirap.
mga kaibigan bata pang maliit
sa aking tahanan di na masisilip.
Huwag kang iibig nang dahil sa ganda ganda’y
13 Pag pasasalamat at napahinga rin,
nagbabawa
paalam estranherang kasuyo ko't aliw,
kapag tumanda na
paalam sa inyo, mga ginigiliw;
ang lahat sa mundo’y sadyang nag-iiba.
mamatay ay siyang pagkakagupiling!
Huwag kang iibig sa dangal ng irog
kung ano ang tayog
 READING COMPREHENSION - FILIPINO
C. Huwag iibig nang dahil lamang sa sarling
siya ring kalabog
walang taong hindi sa hukay nahulog. kagustuhan.
D. Huwag iibig nang dahil sa katayuan ng
Huwag kang iibig dahilan sa nasang mangingibig.
maging masagana
sa aliw at tuwa 16. Ano ang implikasyon ng “pilak ay may
pagkat ang pag-ibig ay di nadadaya... pakpak” sa mensahe ng tula?
Kung ikaw’y iibig ay yaong gusto mo
at mahal sa iyo A. walang mararating ang pera
kahit siya’y ano, B. madaling nauubos ang pera
pusong-puso lainang ang gawin mong dulo. C. hindi nawawala ang pera
D. higit na mahalaga ang pera
Kung ikàw’y masawi’y sawi kang talaga
ikaw na suminta 17. Sino ang kinakausap ng persona sa loob ng
ang siyang magbata; tula?
kung maging mapalad, higit ka sa iba.
A. ang kanyang mangingibig
Sa itong pag-ibig ay lako ng puso B. ang kanyang inibig
di upang magtubo C. isang mangingibig
kaya sumusuyo D. isang iniibig
pag-ibig ay hukay ng pagkasiphayo.
18. Anong uri ng tula ang binasa?
12. Sino ang persona sa loob ng tula?
A. tulang may sukat
A. Isang baguhang mangingibig B. tulang may tugma
B. Isang mangingibig na nagdaan na sa C. tulang may sukat at tugma
maraming kasawian D. malayang taludturan
C. Isang maalam na mangingibig
D. Isang mangingibig na puno ng hinanakit TULA

13. Para sa persona, ang pag-ibig ay

“Ang Sasabitan ng Ating Bandera”
ni Roberto Anonuevo
A. nagdudulot ng pighati.
B. pinagmumulan ng opresyon. Mahal na Senador na kagalang-galang,
C. susi sa maluwalhating pagsasama. kung ang salitaan nati’y pataasan,
D. nagbibigay sigla sa lahat. kung itong medida ay sa patangkaran,
. . . . . . puede ka pong tagdan
14. Ano ang layunin ng persona sa loob ng tula? . . . . . . sais talampatakan,
isasasabit namin sa tenga mong mahal,
ang aming bandilang karangal-rangalan,
A. magbigay-babala
at ikaw ang siyang puno ng kawayan.
B. magturo Kung ang taas naman nitong isip natin,
C. magpayo ang pagtatangkaan na iyong sukatin, mga
D. maglabas ng hinanakit malaking kahoy, nguni’t walang lilim,
. . . . . . dapat mong basahin
15. Alin sa mga sumusunod ang hindi . . . . . . iyang good manner,
ipinahihiwatig ng persona? maliit mang bayan, ang amin ay amin,
at imbesilidad na iyong nasain,
ang di ninyo lupa’y piliting sakupin.
A. Huwag iibig nang dahil sa pera. At naiinis ka tuwing makikita
B. Huwag iibig nang dahil sa itsura
 READING COMPREHENSION - FILIPINO
. . . . . . iyang salanggapang”?
dalawang bandera ay nagkakasama
ang sa pilipino’t sa amerikana?
. . . . . . alisin ang isa A. Ang bandila ng Pilipinas ay perpekto.
. . . . . . isa ang itira. . . B. Ang bandila ng Pilipinas ay masining.
C. Ang bandila ng Pilipinas ay walang bahid ng
Lupang hindi iyo’y huwag kang manguha, pagkakamali.
tanggalin sa amin ang p’ranha’t estrelya, bayaang D. Ang bandila ng Pilipinas ay makasaysayan at
ang aming bandila’y mag-isa.
makatarungan.
Ang bandila namin kahi’t na nga ganyan,
iyan ay dakila, iyan ay marangal,
dito kailan man ay hindi sumilang, 23. Alin sa mga sumusunod na damdamin ang
. . . . . . iyang mangangamkam, hindi ipinahihiwatig sa tula?
. . . . . . iyang salanggapang,
at kung mayro’n dapat alisi’t ilagay, A. Galit
ilagay sa amin ang sa aming bayan, B. Pagkasuklam
at alisin dito ang mga militar.
C. pighati
D. pagkamuhi
19. Ang ipinahihiwatig ng pamagat ay ukol sa

A. uri ng material para sa tagdan. SANAYSAY

B.kadakilaan ng tagdan ng bandila ng Pilipinas.
C. pananakop ng bansang Amerika.
D. paghingi ng kalayaan para sa bansa. Tawanan Mo ang Iyong Problema
(ni Greg L. Laconsay)
20. Ano ang tinutukoy ng may-akda sa mga
Buod ng isang kanta ni Freddie Aguilar iyan.
salitang “tanggalin sa amin ang p’ranha’t
Tawanan mo ang iyong problema. Ngunit ano ang
estrelya”? ginagawa ang karaniwang tao sa kanyang
problema? Sinisimangutan niya. Ikinagagalit niya.
A. Pagkokondena sa banyagang pamamahala Sinusukuan niya. Kinabibiguan niya. Kinatatakutan
B. pagpapakita ng pagsuporta sa mga banyaga niya.
C. pagbibigay pag-asa sa mga mananakop D.
pagpapakita ng poot sa mga Pilipinong Gayong ang problema ay bahagi ng buhay.
Kung wala ito, wala kang trabaho, wala kang
sumasang-ayon sa banyaga hanapbuhay. Kung walang problema, walang
negosyo, hindi ka magkakaroon ng kurso, wala
21. Sino sa mga sumusunod ang nalalapit sa kang kaalaman. Saan ka? Wala.
tinutukoy na kinamumuhian sa ula?
Lahat ng tao’y may problema. Gaano ka man
A. Pilipinong walang kredibilidad kasimple, gaano man kamunti ang iyong mga
hangarin, tiyak na may problema ka. Kung gayon,
B. mga negosyanteng dayuhan
bakit mo kinatatakutan ang problema?
C.mapagbalatkayong pinuno ng pamahalaan
D. mga Amerikanong pilit na nanghihimasok sa Dapat nga’y ituring mong isang baitang na
buhay ng mga Pilipino aakyatan mo papanhik sa tagumpay. Isang
katukong upang maging malakas ka, matalino,
22. Ano ang ibig sabihin ng may-akda sa mga marunong, malusog at maligaya.
salitang “Ang bandila namin kahi’t na nga
Ang mga problema’y simula ng kaunlaran. Kung
ganyan, iyan ay dakila, iyan ay marangal,
hindi dahil sa patung-patong na problema ng tao,
ng industriya, ng mga bansa, ng mga ekonomiya,
dito kailan man ay hindi sumilang, hindi sana nakaisip ang tao ng mga pamamaraan
upang umunlad ang daigdig.
. . . . . . iyang mangangamkam,
 READING COMPREHENSION - FILIPINO
“Necessity is the mother of invention”, wika nila.
Ang pangangailangan daw ay siyang nagluluwal ng 24. Ginamit ang salitang ‘sinisimangutan’ dahil
mga imbensyon. Totoo. ang problema ay:

Kailangan natin ang isang bagay upang a. masakit

mapagkabit-kabit ang mga papel at hindi liparin ng b. nakakainis
hangin. Hayun, may umimbento ng paper clip, ng
c. nakakatawa
stapler, ng paper fastener.
d. makakamuhi
Kailangan natin ang mabilis-bilis na masasakyan.
May umimbento ng kariton, ng kalesa, ng auto, ng 25. Tinukoy ng may-akda ang kasabihang
jeep, ng bus, at iba pang uri ng sasakyan, ‘Necessity is the mother of invention” upang
hanggang sa maimbento ang submarine, ang patunayan na ang suliranin ay:
eroplano, ang rocket ship, at nitong huli, ang skylab
at kauri na umiikot sa kalawakan upang maging
laboratory at experiment station ng mga astronaut. a. pandaigdig
b. pansarili
Kailangan natin ang pantitik ng mga letra. May c. panandalian lamang
tumuklas ng pakpak ng pabo na panulat, may d. nakatutulong din sa kaunlaran
umimbento ng lapis, ng fountain pen, ng ballpen, ng
makinilya, ng imprenta, ng tinta, ng….marami pang 26. Ang “nahahasa”, ang “dunong”, at
iba.
“tumatalim” ang imahinasyon ay magkatulad ng
Alalaon baga, dahilan sa mga problema ng tao, kahulugan at ginamit upang:
dahil sa pangangailangan ng tao, na lumikha ng
samu’t saring mga suliranin, lalo namang lumalakas a. lumalim ang kaisipang gustong ipaalam ng
ang tao, bilang kasama ng isang grupo ng sumulat
karamihan na naghahanap ng kalutasan. b. gawing konkreto ang mensaheng dahil sa
suliranin ay lumalakas ang tao
Kaya nga’t hindi natin dapat katakutan o iwasan,
c. maging matalinhaga ang pangungusap
o kabiguan ang problemang dumarating sa ating
buhay. d. mag-isip ang babasa

Nahahasa ang ating dunong, isip, dahil sa mga MAIKLING KWENTO

problemang iyan. Tumatalim ang ating imahinasyon
sa paghahanap ng solusyon sa ating problema. At
umuunlad ang ating wido, ang ating kakayahan. Sipi mula sa Uuwi na ang Nanay Kong si Darna
ni Edgar Samar
Kung hindi dahil sa ating trabaho at sa mga
problemang kaakibat ng ating hanapbuhay, sa Tuwang-tuwa si Tatay sa balita niya sa akin. “Uuwi
palagay mo ba’y magsisikap ka? na ang Nanay mo!” sabi niya habang nasisilip ko
na halos ang ngala-ngala niya sa kaniyang
pagtawa. Hindi ko alam kung matutuwa rin ako.
Kasi, hindi ko pa naman talaga nakikita nang
totohanan si Nanay.

Maliit na maliit pa raw ako nung umalis si Nanay

papuntang Hong Kong. Karga-karga nga raw ako
ni Nanay nang ihatid siya sa airport ng buong
angkan namin. “Tatay, bakit po ba umalis si
Nanay?” Tinitigan muna ako ni Tatay bago siya
sumagot. Laging ganoon si Tatay kapag may
itinatanong ako tungkol kay Nanay. “Alam mo
anak, kailangan kasi ang tulong ng Nanay mo sa
 READING COMPREHENSION - FILIPINO
b. Umuusal
ibang bansa. Aba, ang galing naman kasi ng
Nanay mo.” c. Nagsasalita
d. Tumitibay
Ang Nanay mo kasi, kayang-kayang talunin ang
milyon-milyong mikrobyo sa bahay. Isang pasada Para sa mga tanong na 30 - 32:
lang niya ng wonder walis niya, Swissss! Patay
lahat ng dumi na nagdadala ng sakit 30. “Ngunit sinasabi ko sa inyo: Kapag hindi
ninyo pinagsisihan at tinalikdan ang inyong mga
“Kayang-kaya ring pataubin ng Nanay mo ang kasalanan, mapapahamak din kayong lahat”
gabundok mang labahin. Sa maghapon, kuskos Ang damdaming sinasaad ng tallinhaga ay?
dito, piga doon. Walang sinabi ang mantsa! Lilinis
at puputing tiyak ang labada.” a. Pagkatakot
b. Pagsisisi
“Para po palang si Darna si Nanay, Tay! May c. Babala
power .” Anong parang si Darna? Si Darna talaga
ang Nanay mo, pagmamalaki ni Tatay. “Aba, kahit d. Pagkamuhi
sino’y hindi niya inuurungan! Sinumang umiiyak
na bata’y tumatahan agad kapag kaniyang 31. Malamig ang gabi ngunit nag-aalab ang
inawitan. Kaya nga gustong-gusto siya ng damdamin sa mananakop. “Hindi lahat ay
kaniyang tinutuluyan at ayaw na siyang paalisin.” nagkakaroon ng pagkakataong mamatay ng
dahil sa Inang Bayan”, ang panghuling wika ng
“Pero ‘Tay, kung si Darna po si Nanay, bakit bukas
bayani. Ano ang nararamdaan ng bayani nang
pa siya darating? Bakit di na lang niya liparin
papunta rito sa ‘tin para mabilis?” Napangiti lang bigkasin niya ang huling pananalita?
si Tatay. “Liliparin nga niya. Kaso lang, kailangan
niyang tawirin ang isang malawak na dagat bago a. Lungkot at galak
siya makarating dito sa atin.” b. Galit at pangamba
c. Sindak at takot
27. Ano ang ginawa ng ama upang d. Sakit ng loob
maipaliwanag sa isang malikhaing pamamaraan
ang pangingibang bansa ng ina? 32. Ang pagpapakitang - halimbawa sa mga
halamang gamot ay mabuting paglilingkod sa
a. Inihalintulad ang ina sa isang superhero. kapwa. Alin ang nais ipahiwatig ng
b. Hindi ipinaalam sa bata ang dahilan ng pangungusap?
pangingibang bansa ng ina.
c. Binigyang-diin ang mga pagpapasakit ng ina. a. Pagsunod sa iba
d. Nabanggit ang muling pagbabalik ng ina. b. Pagtaliwas sa madla
c. Pagkainis
28. Ang sumusunod ang kapangyarihan ng ina d. Sala sa init at lamig
ng persona ayon sa ama maliban sa:

a. Paglipad
b. Pagpaputi ng damit
c. Pagpatay sa mikrobiyo
d. Paglaba nang mabilis

29. Ano ang kahulugan ng salitang tumatahan

sa ikalimang talata?

a. Kumakalma
READING COMPREHENSION - FILIPINO

KEY TO CORRECTION

1. C
2. C
3. C
4. C
5. B
6. A
7. B
8. B
9. C
10. A
11. B
12. B
13. A
14. A
15. C
16. B
17. C
18. C
19. D
20. A
21. D
22. D
23. C
24. B
25. D
26. B
27. A
28. A
29. A
30. C
31. B
32. A
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
I. Choose the correct answer. C. Cruise Lining International
1. What is the program launched Association
by the Department of D. Cruise Liners Industry
Transportation in 2017 to Association
create an efficient and
environmentally- friendly 5. What is the name of the cruise
transportation system? ship that sank in April 1912?
a. Number Coding a. SS Valetta
b. Public Utility Vehicle b. RMS Titanic
Modernization Program c. Wonder of the Seas
c. Livelihood Program d. Love Boat
d. DOTr Scholarship
Program 6. What does the RMS in Titanic
stand for?
2. There are __ circumferential a. Registered Mail Services
roads in the Philippines. b. Registered Main Ship
a. 6 c. Royal Mail Ship
b. 10 d. Royal Main Services
c. 8
d. 3 7. What is the contribution of the
Titanic incident to the cruise
3. What government agency is line industry?
responsible for registrations a. Improve the aesthetic of
and issuance of driver’s the cruise ships
licenses? b. Improve the maritime
a. Metropolitan Manila safety
Development Authority c. Improve the marketing
b. Toll Regulatory Board strategy of the cruise
c. Land and Transportation company
Franchising and d. Improve the security
Regulatory Board system of cruise ships
d. Land Transportation Office
8. What does SOLAS mean?
4. In the cruise industry, what a. Safety of Life at Sea
does CLIA stand for? b. Sea of Life Safety
A. Cruise Line Industry c. Safety of Lines at Sea
Authority d. Safety of Love at Sea
B. Cruise Lines International
Association
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
9. How long is the Channel 14. Which of the following colors
Tunnel? is not in the Philippine Railway
a. 50.5 km system?
b. 60. 3 km a. Violet
c. 40. 5 km b. Orange
d. 30 km c. Yellow
d. Brown
10. What is the meaning of PNR?
a. Philippine National Road 15. What are the former names of
b. Pal National Road LRT 2 extension stations?
c. Philippine National a. Emerald and Masinag
Railways b. Marikina and Pasig
d. Philippine Naturalized c. Marikina-Pasig and
Railways Antipolo
d. Marikina and Masinag
11. What is the latest expressway
in Southern Philippines? 16. In what part of the aircraft that
a. South Luzon Expressway the insignia of a flag country
b. Cebu-Cordova Link can be found?
Expressway a. Livery
c. Manila- Cavite b. Fuselage
Expressway c. Cockpit
d. NAIA Expressway d. Wing

12. What are the provinces that 17. What is the flag air carrier of
connect the San Juanico Germany?
Bridge? A. Lufthansa
a. Masbate and Samar B. KLM
b. Samar and Leyte C. Qantas
c. Cebu and Iloilo D. Etihad
d. Cebu and Leyte
18. What airline is the flag carrier
13. Which of the following of the Philippines?
countries has the first LRT a. Cebu Pacific
system in Southeast Asia? b. Air Asia
a. Philippines c. Philippine Airlines
b. Singapore d. Air Republiq
c. Korea
d. Japan
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
19. What color is the black box 24. What is the name of the
recorder? Philippine Eagle in the
a. Orange Philippine Polymer banknote?
b. Black a. Ligaya
c. Red b. Diwata
d. Yellow c. Sinag
d. Malaya
20. _____________is the world’s
best airport in 2023 25. When was the Philippine Space
a. Singapore Changi Airport Act ( RA 11363) enacted?
b. Mactan Cebu International a. August 8, 2016
Airport b. August 9, 2018
c. Narita International Airport c. August 8, 2019
d. Ninoy Aquino International d. August 3, 2017
Airport

21. Fernando Poe Jr. Station was

formerly known as? 26. What is the name of the
a. Roosevelt Philippines’ first micro-satellite
b. R. Papa launched into space on March
c. Santolan 3, 2016?
d. Pedro Gil a. Mir
b. Gamma
22. How much are the new c. Maya- 1
polymer banknotes released by d. Diwata- 1
Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas?
a. 100 pesos 27. Who among the Philippine
b. 500 pesos Women’s Football team
c. 1000 pesos roosters made the first score
d. 200 pesos during their first FIFA Women’s
World Cup appearance?
23. Which of the following a. Sarina Bolden
Philippine Peso banknotes b. Inna Palacios
contain the image of the whale c. Olivia McDaniel
shark? d. Hali Long
a. 20 pesos
b. 100 pesos 28. Ernest John “EJ” Obiena is the
c. 200 pesos world’s 2nd-ranked athlete in
d. 500 pesos _____ sport?
a. Taekwondo
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
b. Pole Vault c. Francisco Sionil Jose
c. Archery d. Nestor Vicente Gonzales
d. Weightlifting
34. Who is the first Filipina to be
29. Who is the first Filipino to part of the McLaren
receive the Nobel Peace Prize Development Program?
in 2021 alongside Dmitry a. Inna Palacios
Muratov? b. Christine Jaime Lim
a. Ricky Lee c. Nadine Lustre
b. Maria Ressa d. Bianca Bustamante
c. Dolly De Leon
d. Alexa Eala 35. Who is the First Filipino athlete
who brought home the
30. Who is the Author of Death in a country’s first Olympic gold
Factory? medal?
a. Liwayway Arceo a. EJ Obiena
b. Francisco Arcellana b. Hidilyn Diaz
c. Nick Joaquin c. Carlos Yulo
d. Mars Ravelo d. Carlos Palaam

31. Which of the following is the 36. When was the last time the
famous work of Lualhati Philippines hosted the SEA
Bautista? GAMES?
a. Dekada ‘70 a. 2019
b. Titser b. 2020
c. Darna c. 2022
d. The Ballad of the Five d. 2023
Battles
32. Who is the Japanese novelist 37. How many regular holidays are
that Dr. Jose P. Rizal met at in the Philippines for 2024 as
Yokohama? declared by virtue of
a. Dazai Osamu Proclamation No. 368, series of
b. Tetcho Suehiro 2023?
c. Haruki Murakami a. 5
d. Akiko Yosano b. 10
c. 12
33. ______ is known as King of d. 15
Philippine Komiks
a. Mars Ravelo
b. Nick Joaquin
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
38. What is the name of the annual
sports event in the Philippines 42. Who is the Greek counterpart
competed by athletes under of Venus?
fifteen (15) years old? a. Athena
a. Palarong Pambansa b. Medusa
b. Batang Pinoy c. Aphrodite
c. State Colleges and d. Artemis
Universities Athletic
Association ( SCUAA) 43. Which among the listed
d. University Athletic countries has the same time
Association of the zone as the Philippines?
Philippines (UAAP) a. Taiwan
b. Korea
39. What are the three countries c. Japan
that hosted the 2023 FIBA d. Spain
Basketball World Cup?
a. USA, Japan, and 44. Who is the well-known UPCM
Philippines Professor and Filipino forensic
b. Korea, Japan, and Pathologist in the Philippines?
Indonesia a. Dr. Willie Ong
c. Japan, Singapore, and b. Dr. Raquel Fortun
China c. Kara David
d. Philippines, Japan, and d. Jose Manuel “ Chel”
Indonesia Diokno

40. Who is the athlete with the 45. Which among the following
most medals in Olympic Philippine state universities
history? was established by virtue of
a. Usain Bolt Act No. 74 of the Philippine
b. Michael Phelps Commission?
c. Larisa Latynina a. Polytechnic University of
d. Takashi Ono the Philippines
b. Technological University of
41. In Greek mythology, how many the Philippines
heads do the underworld c. University of the
watch dog “Cerberus” have? Philippines
a. 5 d. Philippine Normal
b. 4 University
c. 3
d. 2
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
46. In the phonetic alphabet, the
Letter F stands for?
a. Fan
b. France
c. Foxtrot
d. Fox

47. What is the tactile writing

system that is used by visually
impaired people?
a. Alibata
b. Braille
c. Morse code
d. Telegraphy

48. In what country the Stockholm

syndrome was first identified?
a. Spain
b. Singapore
c. Switzerland
d. Sweden

49. What is the citizenship

process that can be acquired
by a foreigner?
a. Passport
b. Naturalization
c. Visa Application
d. Rebirth

50. What is the Sustainable

Development Goal (SDG) 4?
a. Good Health and
Well-Being
b. Quality Education
c. No Poverty
d. Gender Equality
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
38. B.
KEY TO CORRECTION 39. D.
40. B.
1. B. 41. C.
2. A. 42. C.
3. D. 43. A.
4. B. 44. B.
5. B. 45. D.
6. C. 46. C.
7. B. 47. B.
8. A. 48. D.
9. A. 49. B.
10. C. 50. B.
11. B.
12. B
13. A.
14. D.
15. A.
16. A,
17. A.
18. C.
19. A.
20. A.
21. A.
22. C.
23. B.
24. C.
25. C
26. D.
27. A.
28. B.
29. B.
30. B.
31. A.
32. B.
33. A.
34. D.
35. B.
36. A.
37. B.
 ABSTRACT REASONING
I. Choose the figure that best completes the series.
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.
 ABSTRACT REASONING
II. Choose the letter of the figure that does NOT belong to the series.
8.

9.

III. Which figure belongs in neither group?

10.

IV. Choose the figure that best completes the series/pair.

11.

12.

13.
 ABSTRACT REASONING
14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21. Which one is identical to this figure?

 ABSTRACT REASONING
22. Which box contains the same shape as the top series?

23. Which of the following frames completes the pattern?

Options:

24. Which of the following frames does not belong to the group?

25. A three-dimensional object is shown. Which front side view is

correct?
 ABSTRACT REASONING
26. Which of the four figures below is the result when the figure is folded along the
dotted lines?

27. Which of the four choices below is the rotated version of the given figure?

28. If you rotate the given figure, which of the following will be the result?
 ABSTRACT REASONING
29. Which is the next figure in the series?

30. Which cube cannot be made based on the unfolded cube?

31. Which of the answer cubes is the original cube rotated in any direction?
 ABSTRACT REASONING

32. Two pieces of the cube puzzle with three adjacent faces in each piece are shown
and to be used to form a cube. Each face is drawn with figure different to other
sides. Which view fits to the arrangement of the symbol when the cube is
assembled?

33. A three-dimensional object is shown. Which top side view is correct?

 ABSTRACT REASONING

34. Create a three-dimensional object out of the two given views below.

35. Which of the four choices below is the rotated version of the given figure?

36. If you rotate the given figure, which of the following will be the result?

37. Which is the next figure in the series?

 ABSTRACT REASONING

38. Which of the four choices is the result when the figure is cut by a plane as shown
below?

39. Which of the four choices is the result when the figure is cut by a plane as shown
below?
 ABSTRACT REASONING
KEY TO CORRECTION

ABSTRACT REASONING I

1. A
2. C
3. C
4. D
5. C
6. A
7. A
8. C
9. A
10. C

ABSTRACT REASONING II

11. C
12. B
13. C
14. B
15. B
16. D
17. A
18. A
19. A
20. D

21. C
22. D
23. D
24. D
25. A
26. B
27. C
28. C
29. C
30. B
31. D
32. A
33. B
34. A
35. B
36. D
37. D
38. B
39. D
40. Bonus
 LOGICAL REASONING
I. Choose the letter of the best 5. All spink are twink. All sponk are
answer. twonk. If it is a twink, then it is a twonk.
Kink is either a sponk or a spink.
1. All artists are smokers. Some smokers Therefore, a ____________.
are drunkards. Therefore ________.
a. spink is a sponk
a. All smokers are artists b. twonk is a spink
b. Some artists are drunkards c. kink is a spink
c. All drunkards are artists d. kink is a twonk
d. Not all smokers are artists
II. Evaluate the conclusions drawn for
2. In a family, there is a husband, a wife, each passage.
three sons, and one daughter. All the
males were invited to the party. The 6. If I am happy then I am contented.
daughter went out with friends. The wife Going to parties makes me happy.
accompanied the sons to the party. Who Therefore, if I go to a party, then I will be
was at home? contented.

a. One son a. Affirmative

b. The husband b. Negative
c. The wife c. Probably affirmative
d. No one d. Probably negative

3. Dancers are generally whimsical. 7. If Mon wants to get rich, then he must
Some of them are frustrated. Few open a business. Either Mon pursues
frustrated people are drug users. Which teaching or he will open a business.
of the following is TRUE? Therefore, Mon will get rich.

a. All drug users are whimsical a. Affirmative

b. All drug users are artists b. Negative
c. All frustrated people are dancers c. Probably affirmative
d. Some dancers are frustrated or d. Probably negative
whimsical
8.) All lowdy are kastow. Few seldow are
4. If A is the son of B, B and C are lowdy. No nikey is seldow. Most kastow
sisters, D is the mother of C, and E is the are nikey. Carl is a seldow. Therefore,
son of D, which of the following Carl is a nikey.
statements is correct?
a. Affirmative
a. E is the maternal uncle of A b. Negative
b. B. E and C are sisters c. Probably affirmative
c. A and E are cousins d. Probably negative
d. D, C, and E are sisters
 LOGICAL REASONING
9. UPCAT passers are intelligent. UPCAT b. 12
passers are industrious. Therefore, c. 10
UPCAT passers are both intelligent and d. 13
industrious.
14. Look at this series: 2, 1, (1/2), (1/4), …
a. Affirmative What number should come next?
b. Negative
c. Probably affirmative a. (1/3)
d. Probably negative b. (1/8)
c. (2/8)
10. It is not true that chemical X is d. (1/16)
stronger than chemical Y. Neither
chemical X nor chemical Y is stronger 15. Look at this series: 80, 10, 70, 15, 60,
than chemical Z. Therefore, chemical Y is … What number should come next?
as strong as chemical Z.
a. 20
a. Affirmative b. 25
b. Negative c. 30
c. Probably affirmative d. 50
d. Probably negative
IV. Analogies
III. Number Series
16. CUP : LIP :: BIRD : ?
11. Look at this series: 12, 11, 13, 12, 14,
13, … What number should come next? a. GRASS
b. FOREST
a. 10 c. BEAK
b. 16 d. BUSH
c. 13
d. 15 17. Paw : Cat :: Hoof : ?

12. Look at this series: 36, 34, 30, 28, 24, a. Lamb
… What number should come next? b. Horse
c. Elephant
a. 22 d. Tiger
b. 26
c. 23 18. Safe : Secure :: Protect :
d. 20
a. Lock
13. Look at this series: 7, 10, 8, 11, 9, 12, b. Guard
… What number should come next? c. Sure
d. Conserve
a. 7
 LOGICAL REASONING
19. Melt : Liquid :: Freeze : b. Serena and Maria have each
secured 1 set in the game.
a. Ice c. The umpire tosses a coin to decide
b. Solid which team will have bat first.
c. Condense d. RCB and KKR each finished at 140
d. Push all out.

20. Parts : Strap :: Wolf : 23. The Sharks and the Bears each
finished with 34 points, and they are now
a. Flow battling it out in a five-minute overtime.
b. Animal
a. When he is offered a better paying
c. Wood
position, Jacob leaves the restaurant
d. Fox
he manages to manage a new
restaurant on the other side of town.
V. Matching Definitions
b. Catherine is spending her junior year
of college studying abroad in
France.
21. An Informal Gathering occurs when a
c. Malcolm is readjusting to civilian life
group of people get together in a casual,
after two years of overseas military
relaxed manner. Which situation below is
service.
the best example of an Informal
d. After several miserable months,
Gathering?
Sharon decides that she can no
a. A debating club meets on the first longer share an apartment with her
Sunday morning of every month. roommate Hilary.
b. After finding out about his salary
24. Reentry occurs when a person leaves
raise, Jay and a few colleagues go
his or her social system for a period of
out for a quick dinner after work.
time and then returns. Which situation
c. Meena sends out 10 invitations for a
below best describes Reentry?
bachelorette party she is giving for
her elder sister. a. When he is offered a better paying
d. Whenever she eats at a Chinese position, Javed leaves the hotel he
restaurant, Roop seems to run into manages to manage another one in
Dibya. a neighboring city.
b. Charan is spending her final year of
college studying abroad in China.
22. A Tiebreaker is an additional contest
c. Manan is readjusting to civilian life
carried out to establish a winner among
after 2 years of overseas merchant
tied contestants. Choose one situation
navy service.
from the options below that best
d. After 5 miserable months, Sneha
represents a Tiebreaker.
decides that she can no longer
a. At halftime, the score is tied at 2-2 in share her room with roommate Hital.
a football match.b
 LOGICAL REASONING
25. Posthumous Award occurs when an 27. The car dealer found that there was a
award is given to someone, after their tremendous response for the new XYZ’s
death. Choose one situation below as car booking with long queues of people
the best example of Posthumous Award. complaining about the duration of
business hours and arrangements.
a. Late yesteryear actress Sridevi was
awarded with a Lifetime Courses of action:
Achievement Award posthumously
in Filmfare 2019. I. People should make their arrangement of
b. Chitra never thought she’d live to lunch and snacks while going for car XYZ’s
receive a third booker prize for her booking and be ready to spend several
novel. hours.
c. Emanuel has been honored with a II. Arrangement should be made for more
prestigious literary award for his booking desks and increase business hours
writing career and his daughter to serve more people in less time.
accepted the award on behalf of her
a. If only I follows
deceased father.
b. If only II follows
d. Meenal’s publisher canceled her
c. If either I or II follows
book contract after she failed to
d. If neither I nor II follows
deliver the manuscript on time.
e. If both I and II follow
VI. VERBAL REASONING
28. The ‘M’ state government has
26. The ‘A’ state government has chalked decided hence forth to award the road
out a plan for the underdeveloped ‘B’ construction contracts through open
district where 66% of the funds will be tenders only.
placed in the hands of a committee of
Courses of action:
local representatives.
I. The ‘M’ state will not be able to get the
Courses of action:
work done swiftly as it will have to go
I. The ‘A’ state government should decide through tender and other procedures.
guidelines and norms for the functioning of II. Hence forth the quality of roads
the committee. constructed may be far better.
II. Other state government may follow
a. If only I follows
similar plan if directed by the Central
b. If only II follows
government.
c. If either I or II follows
a. If only I follows d. If neither I nor II follows
b. If only II follows e. If both I and II follow
c. If either I or II follows
29. Alert villagers nabbed a group of
d. If neither I nor II follows
bandits armed with murderous weapons.
e. If both I and II follow
Courses of action:
 LOGICAL REASONING
I. The villagers should be provided d. if neither I or II is implicit.
sophisticated weapons. e. if both I and II are implicit.
II. The villagers should be rewarded for their
courage and unity. 32. Statement:

a. If only I follows Medicine ‘P’ is a drug which is causing

b. If only II follows ripples in the medical field.
c. If either I or II follows
Assumptions:
d. If neither I nor II follows
e. If both I and II follow I. No other drug is causing ripples in the
medical field.
30. 10 coaches of a passenger train have
II. Medicine ‘P’ is a great drug.
got derailed and have blocked the
railway track from both ends. a. If only assumption I is implicit.
b. If only assumption II is implicit.
Courses of action:
c. if either I or II is implicit.
I. The railway authorities should d. if neither I or II is implicit.
immediately send men and equipment and e. if both I and II are implicit.
clear the spot
33. “Use PQR Ceramics tiles to decorate
II. All the trains running in both directions
your house” – An advertisement.
should be diverted immediately via other
routes. Assumptions:
a. If only I follows I. People want to decorate their house.
b. If only II follows II. Only ceramic tiles can make a house
c. If either I or II follows decorative.
d. If neither I nor II follows Options:
e. If both I and II follow
a. If only assumption I is implicit.
VII. STATEMENT AND ASSUMPTION b. If only assumption II is implicit.
c. if either I or II is implicit.
31. Statement:
d. if neither I or II is implicit.
Anger is energy, in a more proactive way e. if both I and II are implicit.
and how to channelize it is in itself a skill.
34. The new ABC policy envisages major
Assumptions: changes in the earlier policy.

I. Anger need to be channelized. Assumptions:

II. Only skillful people can channelize anger
I. ABC Policy should not be consistent with
to energy.
economic conditions of India and abroad.
a. If only assumption I is implicit. II. There were some flaws in the earlier ABC
b. If only assumption II is implicit. policy.
c. if either I or II is implicit.
 LOGICAL REASONING
a. If only assumption I is implicit.
b. If only assumption II is implicit.
c. if either I or II is implicit
d. if neither I or II is implicit
e. if both I and II are implicit.

35. It is a waste of time to discuss

corruption online in forums. Corruption
is rampant and cannot be erased, ever
from India.

Assumptions:

I. Corruption is inevitable in any system.

II. Corruption is a serious concern.

a. If only assumption/ I is implicit.

b. If only assumption II is implicit.
c. if either I or II is implicit.
d. if neither I or II is implicit.
e. if both I and II are implicit.
 LOGICAL REASONING
KEY TO CORRECTION 20. A

I. V. Matching Definition

1. A 21. B

2. C 22. D

3. C 23. C

4. D 24. C

5. B 25. A & C

II. VI. Verbal Reasoning

6. D 26. A

7. B 27. B

8. D 28. D

9. B 29. B

10. B 30. E

III. Number Series VII. Statement & Assumption

11. D 31. B

12. A 32. D

13. C 33. A

14. B 34. B

15. A 35. E

IV. Analogies

16. C

17. B

18. B

19. B