A

PRACTICAL FILE
ON
“COMPUTER NETWORKS
AND DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS”
20MCA22DA2
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in Masters of Computer Applications Sem-02

Session: 2024-26

Submitted to: Submitted By: Ritwika Panda

Ma'am Shruti Bhalla Student
Assistant Professor Stud Id: 145484
Dept. Of Computer Science MCA Sem 02
DPG STM
 INDEX
S.No. TOPIC SIGNATURE

1. Study of different types of network cables.

2. Study of different network devices.

a) Repeater
b) Hub
c) Gateway
d) Bridge
e) Switch
f) Router

3. Study of network IP classification of

a) IP Address
b) Sub-netting
c) Super-netting
{
Range of IP Address
Class A :- 0 to 126
Class B :- 128 to 191
Class C :- 192 to 223
Class D :- 224 to 239 (used for multicasting)
Class E :- 240 to 255 (Reserved)
}

4. Connect the computers in local area network.

 Practical No 1:- Study of different types of network cables.

1. Twisted Pair Cable: Twisted pair is a copper wire cable in which two insulated copper wires are
twisted around each other to reduce interference or crosstalk. It uses 10BASE-T, 100BASE-T, and some
other newer ethernet variants. It uses RJ-45 connectors.
Design: A twisted pair cable usually contains two or more conducting wires either shielded by an insulator
or not and, further these twisted pairs of wires are coated for protection from any damage.

Types of twisted pair cable:

• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable: In STP the wires are covered by a copper braid
covering or a foil shield, this foil shield adds a layer that protects it against interference leaking
into and out of the cable. Hence, they are used for longer distances and higher transmission rates.
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable: Unshielded twisted pair cable is one of the
most commonly used cables in computer networks at present time. UTP consists of two insulated
copper wires twisted around one another, the twisting of wires helps in controlling interference.

2. Coaxial Cables: A coaxial cable is used to carry high-frequency electrical signals with low losses. It
uses 10Base2 and 10Base5 Ethernet variants. It has a copper conductor in the middle that is surrounded by
a dielectric insulator usually made of PVC or Teflon. The dielectric insulator is surrounded by a braided
conducting metallic shield which reduces EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) of the metal and outside
interference; and finally, the metallic shield is covered by a plastic covering called a sheath usually made
of PVC or some other fire-resistant plastic material. Its maximum transmission speed is 10 Mbps. It is
usually used in telephone systems, cable TV, etc.
• Design: Coaxial cable design choices affect physical size, frequency performance, attenuation,
power handling capabilities, flexibility, strength, and cost.It consists an inner conductor which might
 be solid or stranded surrounded by an insulator and, to provide flexibility, it is further surrounded
by a copper mesh and which is further surrounded by a plastic or insulating jacket.

3. Fiber Optic Cable: Fiber optic cables use optical fibers which are made of glass cores surrounded
by several layers of cladding material usually made of PVC or Teflon, it transmits data in the form of light
signals due to which there are no interference issues in fiber optics. Fiber optics can transmit signals over
a very long distance as compared to twisted pairs or coaxial cables. It uses 10BaseF, 100BaseFX,
100BaseBX, 100BaseSX, 1000BaseFx, 1000BaseSX, and 1000BaseBx ethernet variants. Hence, it is
capable of carrying information at a great speed.
Design: An optical fiber consists of a core and a cladding, chosen for their total internal reflection due to
the difference in refractive index between the two. In real optical fibers, the cladding is usually covered
with a layer of acrylate or polyimide polymer. The coating protects the fiber from damage and several layers
of protective sheathing, depending on the application, are added to form the cable.

Types of Fiber Optics:

• SMF (Single-mode fiber)- it uses one single ray of light to transmit data, it is used for
long-distance transmission.
• MMF (Multi-mode Fiber)- it uses multiple light rays to transmit data, it is comparatively
less expensive.
Types of Connectors Used: Mainly these four connectors are used with fiber optic cable:
• ST (Straight-tip) Connector
• FC (Fiber Channel) Connector
• SC (Subscriber) Connector
• LC (Lucent) Connector
Practical No.2:- Study of different network devices.
A)Repeater:-
Repeaters are defined as a networking device that is used to amplify and generate the incoming signal.
Repeaters work at the physical layer of the OSI model. The main aim of using a repeater is to increase the
networking distance by increasing the strength and quality of signals. The performance of Local Area
Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs) repeaters are used. Using repeaters helps to reduce
error, and loss of data and provides with delivery of data at specified locations only. The major advantage
of using a repeater is that it provides with transfer of data with more security and over a long distance.

B) Hub:-
A hub is a multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches, for
example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data
packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts connected
through hub remains one. Hub does not have any routing table to store the data of ports and map
destination addresses., the routing table is used to send/broadcast information across all the ports .

❖ Features of Hubs:-
Hubs are the hardware device that operates in the physical layer of the OSI model.
• It supports half-duplex transmission
• It works with shared bandwidth and broadcasting.
• The hub can provide a high data transmission rate to different devices.
• It can detect collisions in the network and send the jamming signal to each port.
• Hub does not support Virtual LAN(VLAN) and spanning tree protocol.
• It is unable to filter the data and hence transmit or broadcast it to each port.
• It cannot find the best route/ shortest path to send any data, which makes it an inefficient device.

C) Gateway:-
A gateway is a connecting point of any network that helps it to connect with different networks. The
gateway monitors and controls all the incoming and outgoing traffic of the network. Suppose there are two
different networks and they want to communicate with each other, so they need to set up a path between
them. Now that path will be made between gateways of those different networks. Gateways are also
known as protocol converters because they help to convert protocol supported by traffic of the different
networks into that are supported by this network. Because of that, it makes smooth communication
between two different networks.

How does Gateway Work?

Gateway has a simple working methodology of five steps:
• Step 1: It gets data from the network
• Step 2: It intercepts and analyzes the received data.
• Step 3: It routes the data to the destination address.
• Step 4: It converts the received data to make that compatible with the receiver network.
• Step 5: It sends the final data inside the network.

D) Bridge:-
A bridge in a computer network is a device used to connect multiple LANs together with a larger Local
Area Network (LAN). The mechanism of network aggregation is known as bridging. The bridge is a
physical or hardware device but operates at the OSI model’s data link layer and is also known as a layer of
two switches.
The primary responsibility of a switch is to examine the incoming traffic and determine whether to filter
or forward it. Basically, a bridge in computer networks is used to divide network connections into
sections, now each section has separate bandwidth and a separate collision domain. Here bridge is used to
improve network performance.
Types of Bridges:-
There are three types of bridges in computer networks, which are as follows:
1. Transparent bridge
2. Source routing bridge
3. Translational bridge

E) Switch:-
The Switch is a network device that is used to segment the networks into different subnetworks called
subnets or LAN segments. It is responsible for filtering and forwarding the packets between LAN
segments based on MAC address.
Switches have many ports, and when data arrives at any port, the destination address is examined first and
some checks are also done and then it is processed to the devices. Different types of communication are
supported here like unicast, multicast, and broadcast communication.
Features of Network Switches
• It operates in Data Link Layer in OSI Model.
• It performs error checking before forwarding data.
• It transfers the data only to the device that has been addressed.
• It operates in full duplex mode.
• It allocates each LAN segment a limited bandwidth.
• It uses Unicast (one-to-one), multicast (one-to-many), and broadcast (one-to-all) transmission
modes.
• Packet Switching techniques are used to transfer data packets from source to destination.
• Switches have a more significant number of ports.

Why Are Network Switches Valuable?

Switches are one of the most important things for transferring information between different endpoints.
Some of the benefits are mentioned below.
• Switches are having full-duplex communication which helps in making effective use of
bandwidth.
• Switches help to provide a wired connection to printers, IoT devices, wireless points, and many
more devices.
• IoT Devices send data through Network Switches that help in making smarter surroundings
with the help of Artificial Intelligence.
• Network Devices are made with the help of Switches that carry a large number of traffic in
telecommunication.

F) Router:-
A Router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. One or
more packet-switched networks or subnetworks can be connected using a router. By sending data packets
to their intended IP addresses, it manages traffic between different networks and permits several devices
to share an Internet connection.
Let us understand this by a very general example, suppose you search for www.google.com in your web
browser then this will be a request that will be sent from your system to Google`s server to serve that
webpage, now your request which is nothing but a stream of packets don`t just go to the google’s server
straightaway they go through a series of networking devices known as a router which accepts this packets
Practical No.3:- Study of network IP classification of
a) IP Address
b) Sub-netting
c) Super-netting
{
Range of IP Address
Class A :- 0 to 126
Class B :- 128 to 191
Class C :- 192 to 223
Class D :- 224 to 239 (used for multicasting)
Class E :- 240 to 255 (Reserved)
}

a) IP Address
All the computers of the world on the Internet network communicate with each other with underground or
underwater cables or wirelessly. If I want to download a file from the internet or load a web page or
literally do anything related to the internet, my computer must have an address so that other computers can
find and locate mine in order to deliver that particular file or webpage that I am requesting. In technical
terms, that address is called IP Address or Internet Protocol Address.
Let us understand it with another example, like if someone wants to send you a mail then he/she must
have your home address. Similarly, your computer too needs an address so that other computers on the
internet can communicate with each other without the confusion of delivering information to someone
else’s computer. And that is why each computer in this world has a unique IP Address. Or in other words,
an IP address is a unique address that is used to identify computers or nodes on the internet. This address
is just a string of numbers written in a certain format. It is generally expressed in a set of numbers for
example 192.155.12.1. Here each number in the set is from 0 to 255 range. Or we can say that a full IP
address ranges from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255. And these IP addresses are assigned by IANA(known as
Internet Corporation For Internet Assigned Numbers Authority).
But what is Internet protocol? This is just a set of rules that makes the internet work. You are able to read
this article because your computer or phone has a unique address where the page that you requested has
been delivered successfully.
Working of IP addresses
The working of IP addresses is similar to other languages. It can also use some set of rules to send
information. Using these protocols we can easily send, and receive data or files to the connected devices.
There are several steps behind the scenes. Let us look at them
• Your device directly requests your Internet Service Provider which then grants your device
access to the web.
• And an IP Address is assigned to your device from the given range available.
• Your internet activity goes through your service provider, and they route it back to you, using
your IP address.
• Your IP address can change. For example, turning your router on or off can change your IP
Address.
 • When you are out from your home location your home IP address doesn’t accompany you. It
changes as you change the network of your device.

Types of IP Address

IP Address is of two types:

1. IPv4: Internet Protocol version 4. It consists of 4 numbers separated by the dots. Each number can be
from 0-255 in decimal numbers. But computers do not understand decimal numbers, they instead change
them to binary numbers which are only 0 and 1. Therefore, in binary, this (0-255) range can be written as
(00000000 – 11111111). Since each number N can be represented by a group of 8-digit binary digits. So, a
whole IPv4 binary address can be represented by 32-bits of binary digits. In IPv4, a unique sequence of bits
is assigned to a computer, so a total of (2^32) devices approximately = 4,294,967,296 can be assigned with
IPv4.
IPv4 can be written as:-
189.123.123.90
Classes of IPv4 Address: There are around 4.3 billion IPv4 addresses and managing all those addresses
without any scheme is next to impossible. Let’s understand it with a simple example. If you have to find a
word from a language dictionary, how long will it take? Usually, you will take less than 5 minutes to find
that word. You are able to do this because words in the dictionary are organized in alphabetical order. If
you have to find out the same word from a dictionary that doesn’t use any sequence or order to organize the
words, it will take an eternity to find the word. If a dictionary with one billion words without order can be
so disastrous, then you can imagine the pain behind finding an address from 4.3 billion addresses. For easier
management and assignment IP addresses are organized in numeric order and divided into the following 5
classes :

IP Class Address Range Maximum number of networks

Class A 1-126 126 (27-2)

Class B 128-191 16384

Class C 192-223 2097152

Class D 224-239 Reserve for multitasking

Class E 240-254 Reserved for Research and development

The 0.0.0.0 is a Non-routable address is that indicates an invalid, or inapplicable end-user address.
A loopback address is a distinct reserved IP address range that starts from 127.0.0.0 ends at 127.255.255.255
though 127.255.255.255 is the broadcast address for 127.0.0.0/8. The loopback addresses are built into the
IP domain system, enabling devices to transmit and receive the data packets. The loopback address 127.0.0.1
is generally known as localhost.

2. IPv6: But, there is a problem with the IPv4 address. With IPv4, we can connect only the above number
of 4 billion devices uniquely, and apparently, there are much more devices in the world to be connected to
the internet. So, gradually we are making our way to IPv6 Address which is a 128-bit IP address. In human-
friendly form, IPv6 is written as a group of 8 hexadecimal numbers separated with colons(:). But in the
computer-friendly form, it can be written as 128 bits of 0s and 1s. Since, a unique sequence of binary digits
is given to computers, smartphones, and other devices to be connected to the internet. So, via IPv6 a total
of (2^128) devices can be assigned with unique addresses which are actually more than enough for
upcoming future generations.
b) Sub-Netting
When a bigger network is divided into smaller networks, to maintain security, then that is known as
Subnetting. So, maintenance is easier for smaller networks. For example, if we consider a class A address,
the possible number of hosts is 224 for each network, it is obvious that it is difficult to maintain such a
huge number of hosts, but it would be quite easier to maintain if we divide the network into small parts.

Uses of Subnetting
1. Subnetting helps in organizing the network in an efficient way which helps in expanding the
technology for large firms and companies.
2. Subnetting is used for specific staffing structures to reduce traffic and maintain order and
efficiency.
3. Subnetting divides domains of the broadcast so that traffic is routed efficiently, which helps in
improving network performance.
4. Subnetting is used in increasing network security.
The network can be divided into two parts: To divide a network into two parts, you need to choose one bit
for each Subnet from the host ID part.

In the above diagram, there are two Subnets.

Note: It is a class C IP so, there are 24 bits in the network id part and 8 bits in the host id part.

How Does Subnetting Work?

The working of subnets starts in such a way that firstly it divides the subnets into smaller subnets. For
communicating between subnets, routers are used. Each subnet allows its linked devices to communicate
with each other. Subnetting for a network should be done in such a way that it does not affect the network
bits.
In class C the first 3 octets are network bits so it remains as it is.
• For Subnet-1: The first bit which is chosen from the host id part is zero and the range will be
from (193.1.2.00000000 till you get all 1’s in the host ID part i.e, 193.1.2.01111111) except for
the first bit which is chosen zero for subnet id part.
Thus, the range of subnet 1 is: 193.1.2.0 to 193.1.2.127
Subnet id of Subnet-1 is : 193.1.2.0
The direct Broadcast id of Subnet-1 is: 193.1.2.127
The total number of hosts possible is: 126 (Out of 128,
2 id's are used for Subnet id & Direct Broadcast id)
The subnet mask of Subnet- 1 is: 255.255.255.128
• For Subnet-2: The first bit chosen from the host id part is one and the range will be from
(193.1.2.100000000 till you get all 1’s in the host ID part i.e, 193.1.2.11111111).
Thus, the range of subnet-2 is: 193.1.2.128 to 193.1.2.255
Subnet id of Subnet-2 is : 193.1.2.128
The direct Broadcast id of Subnet-2 is: 193.1.2.255
The total number of hosts possible is: 126 (Out of 128,
2 id's are used for Subnet id & Direct Broadcast id)
The subnet mask of Subnet- 2 is: 255.255.255.128
The best way to find out the subnet mask of a subnet
is to set the fixed bit of host-id to 1 and the rest to 0.
Finally, after using the subnetting the total number of usable hosts is reduced from 254 to 252.

c) Super-Netting
Supernetting is the process of aggregating routes to multiple smaller networks. Thus saving storage space
in the routing table, simplifying routing decisions, and reducing route advertisements to
neighbouring gateways. Supernetting has helped address the increasing size of routing tables as the Internet
has expanded. Supernetting is mainly used in Route Summarization, where routes to multiple networks with
similar network prefixes are combined into a single routing entry, with the routing entry pointing to a Super
network, encompassing all the networks. This in turn significantly reduces the size of routing tables and
also the size of routing updates exchanged by routing protocols.

More specifically,
• When multiple networks are combined to form a bigger network, it is termed super-netting
• Super netting is used in route aggregation to reduce the size of routing tables and routing table
updates.

Important Points for Supernetting

• All the Networks should be contiguous.
• The block size of every network should be equal and must be in form of 2n.
• First Network id should be exactly divisible by whole size of supernet.

Example: Suppose 4 small networks of class C:

200.1.0.0,
200.1.1.0,
200.1.2.0,
200.1.3.0

Build a bigger network that has a single Network Id.

Explanation: Before Supernetting routing table will look like as:

Network Id Subnet Mask Interface

200.1.0.0 255.255.255.0 A

200.1.1.0 255.255.255.0 B

200.1.2.0 255.255.255.0 C

200.1.3.0 255.255.255.0 D
Practical No.4:- Connect the computers in local area network.
To connect computers in a local area network (LAN), you typically need the following components and
steps:

Network Devices:
Router: A router serves as the central point of the network, allowing devices to communicate with each
other and with other networks (such as the internet). It assigns IP addresses to devices and manages data
traffic.

Switch: A switch connects multiple devices within the LAN and allows them to communicate with each
other. It forwards data packets only to the intended recipient device, improving network efficiency.

Ethernet Cables: Ethernet cables are used to physically connect devices to the router or switch. These
cables typically use RJ45 connectors and come in various categories (e.g., Cat 5e, Cat 6) depending on the
network speed and bandwidth requirements.

Configuration Steps:
Connect Devices to the Switch: Use Ethernet cables to connect each computer (or other network
devices) to the Ethernet ports on the switch. Ensure that each device is connected securely and that the
cables are properly inserted into the ports.

Connect the Switch to the Router (if necessary): If you're using a separate router and switch,
connect one of the switch ports to one of the LAN ports on the router using an Ethernet cable. This allows
the devices connected to the switch to access the internet (if the router is connected to the internet).

Configure Network Settings (if necessary): In most cases, modern routers handle IP address
assignment automatically through DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol). However, if you need to
configure static IP addresses or other network settings, you can do so through the router's web interface or
configuration software.

Test the Network Connection: Once all devices are connected and configured, test the network
connection by attempting to ping other devices within the LAN or accessing shared resources (such as files
or printers) to ensure that communication is working properly.