Biology for Engineers BBOC407

Module-II: BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE)

Carbohydrates (cellulose-based water filters, PHA and PLA as bioplastics), Nucleic acids (DNA
Vaccine for Rabies and RNA vaccines for COVID-19, Forensics – DNA fingerprinting), Proteins
(Proteins as food – whey protein and meat analogs, Plant-based proteins), lipids (biodiesel, cleaning
agents/detergents), Enzymes (glucose-oxidase in biosensors, lignolytic enzyme in bio- bleaching).

CARBOHYDRATES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

CELLULOSE-BASEDWATERFILTERS
Cellulose, the most abundant organic polymer on Earth, is the structural foundation for plants,
providing strength and rigidity to cell walls. Derived primarily from plant sources such as wood
pulp, cotton, cellulose possesses remarkable properties that make it an ideal candidate for water
filtration applications. Its fibrous structure, composed of long chains of glucose molecules, forms
a porous matrix capable of trapping contaminants while
Allowing water molecules to pass through.

Composition and Construction:

Construction of cellulose-based water filters involves the following

steps:
1. Cellulose Material Selection: The type of cellulose material used in the water filter will depend on
the desired properties such as strength, porosity, and chemical resistance. Common cellulose
materials include paper, cotton, and wood fibers.
2. Cellulose Preparation: The cellulose material is prepared by cutting it into small pieces, washing
it to remove impurities, and drying it for use.
3. Cellulose Layer Formation: The cellulose material is formed into a layer by either stacking it or
compacting it using heat and pressure.
4. Filter Medium Attachment: The cellulose layer is attached to a filter medium such as ameshora
support structure to provide stability and increase the filter surface area.
5. Housing Assembly: The filter medium is assembled into a housing that provides a means to
attach it to a water source and to collect the filtered water.
6. Filter Testing: The completed filter is tested to ensure that it meets the desired specifications,
such as filtration efficiency and flow rate.

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Filtration Mechanism:
The filtration mechanism of cellulose-based filters relies on physical barriers and adsorption
phenomena. As water flows through the porous structure of the filter, contaminants such as
bacteria, viruses, sediment, and organic compounds are mechanically trapped within the cellulose
matrix. Additionally, certain filters incorporate activated carbon, which adsorbs chemical impurities
and improves taste and odor. This synergistic approach ensures comprehensive purification while
maintaining high water flow rates.

Properties of Cellulose-Based Filters:

Sustainability: Derived from renewable plant sources, cellulose-based filters of fer an eco-friendly
alternative to synthetic materials, reducing reliance on non-renewable resources and minimizing
environmental impact.
Biodegradability: Unlike plastic-based filters, cellulose filters are biodegradable, posing minimal
risk to ecosystems and reducing landfill waste.
Cost effectiveness: - Cellulose is widely available and relatively in expensive, making cellulose- based
filters a cost-effective option, particularly for large-scale water treatment.
Versatility: Cellulose filters can be tailored to target specific contaminants, offering versatility in
addressing diverse water quality challenges.
Compatibility: Cellulose-based filters are compatible with existing filtration systems and can be
seamlessly integrated into various water treatment processes.
Applications:
Cellulose-based water filters find applications across a spectrum of settings, including:
1. House hold water purification systems
2. Industrial water treatment facilities
3. Emergency relief efforts in disaster-stricken areas
4. Remote or off-grid communities lacking access to centralized water infrastructure.
5. Recreational activities such as camping and hiking.
.

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BIOPLASTICS

Bioplastics are moldable plastics made from renewable resources, such as corn, sugarcane,
vegetable oils, and starches.

They may break down naturally or remain intact and are sourced from chemical compounds created
by micro organisms or genetically engineered plants.

They are more sustainable alternatives to traditional petroleum-based plastics and offer several
environmental advantages over their conventional counterparts.

Bioplastics provide the opportunity to mitigate environmental impacts by reducing reliance on non-
renewable resources, decreasing greenhouse gas emissions, and promoting circular economy
principles through Compostability or biodegradability.
They can be broadly classified into two main categories:

1. Bio-based Plastics: These are derived from renewable biomass sources such as corn starch,
sugarcane, cellulose, or vegetable oils. Bio-based plastics include polymers like polylactic acid
(PLA), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), starch-based plastics, and cellulose-based plastics.
2. Biodegradable or Compostable Plastics: These bioplastics can break down into natural
elements under specific conditions, such as exposure to microbes, heat, or moisture. Biodegradable
plastics include PLA, PHA, PBS, and bio-based and petroleum-based polymer blends.
Poly hydroxyalkanoates or PHAs are polyesters produced in nature by numerous
microorganisms, including through bacterial fermentation of sugars or lipids.When produced by
bacteria they serve as both a source of energy and a carbon store. More than 150 monomers can be
combined within this family to give materials with extremely different properties.These plastics are
biodegradable and are used in the production of bioplastics.

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Properties of PHA
1. Biodegradability: One of the key advantages of PHA is its biodegradability. Unlike
traditional plastics derived from fossil fuels, which can persist in the environment for
hundreds of years, Bacteria provided with proper circumstances may breakdown PHA into
carbon dioxide and water. This property makes PHA an attractive option for reducing
plastic pollution and addressing environmental concerns.
2. Renewable Source: PHA can be produced from renewable resources such as sugars,
vegetable oils, and agricultural by-products. This renewable feedstock reduces dependence
on non-renewable fossil fuels.
3. Versatility: PHA can be produced with varying degrees of stiffness, flexibility, and
durability, making it suitable for diverse applications including packaging, agriculture,
medical devices, and consumer goods.
4. Biocompatibility: PHA is generally considered biocompatible and non-toxic, making it
suitable for medical and biomedical applications such as sutures, implants, drug delivery
systems, andtissue engineering scaffolds. Its compatibility with livingtissues reduces the risk
of adverse reactions and promotes tissue regeneration.
5. ProductionProcess:TheproductionofPHAtypicallyinvolvesfermentationprocessesusing
microorganismssuchasbacteria,yeast,oralgae.Thesemicroorganismsareengineeredor selected
for their ability to convert renewable carbon sources into PHA.

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Engineering applications of PHA bioplastic:

 Packaging: PHA is used in various forms of packaging such as foodcontainers, beverage
cups ,and clams hell containers.
 Medical Devices :PHA is biocompatible and can be used in the manufacture of medical
devices such as sutures,implants ,and drug delivery systems.
 Textiles: PHA is used in the production of biodegradable textiles ,as well as for the
production of biodegradable composites for use in construction and furniture.
 Agricultural Mulch Films: PHA is used in the production of biodegradable mulch films for
agriculture to reduces oil erosion and conserve moisture.

PLA, or polylactic acid, is a bioplastic that has gained significant attention recently due to its
renewable nature and potential to replace traditional petroleum-based plastics.
Chemical Composition: PLA is a thermoplastic polymer derived from renewable resources such as
corn starch or sugarcane. It is composed of repeating lactic acid units.
Stereochemistry : PLA can exist in Poly (L-lacticacid) (PLLA)andPoly(D-lacticacid)(PDLA),and a
racemic mixture of L- and D-lactic acid forms Poly(DL-lactic acid) (PDLLA).
Properties: It is generally transparent, biodegradable under certain conditions, and can have
mechanical properties comparable to traditional plastics.
General Production steps areas follows.
Step 1 - Lactic Acid Production: Lactic acid, the precursor to PLA, can be produced through the
fermentation of sugars derived from renewable resources such as corn, sugarcane, or cassava.
Step2-Lactide Formation: Lactic acid under goes dehydration to form lactide, acyclic dimer.
Step 3-Polymerization: Lactide monomers are then polymerized through ring-opening
polymerization (ROP) to form PLA chains catalyzed by metal catalysts or enzymes.
Step4- Processing: The resulting PLA can be further processed into pellets, fibers ,or films using
conventional polymer processing techniques like extrusion, injection molding, or blow molding.
Applications:
1. Packaging: PLAiscommonlyusedinpackagingapplicationssuchasfoodcontainers,cups, and
films due to its transparency, barrier properties, and biodegradability.
2. Textiles: PLA fibers are used in textile applications including clothing, upholstery,
andnonwoven fabrics.
3. Medical Devices: PLA's biocompatibility and biodegradability make it suitable for medical
applications such as sutures, implants, and drug delivery systems.
4. 3DPrinting: PLAisapopularmaterialfor3Dprintingduetoitseaseofprocessing,
biodegradability, and wide availability in filament form.

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Environmental Impact:

1. Biodegradability: PLA is often marketed as a biodegradable alternative to traditional

plastics. However, its biodegradation rate varies depending on environmental conditions
such as temperature, moisture, and microbial activity.
2. Renewable Source: PLA's production from renewable resources reduces reliance on fossil
fuels, contributing to lower carbon emissions.
3. End-of-Life Options: PLA can be composted under industrial composting conditions,where
it breaks down into carbon dioxide and water, or recycled through mechanical or chemical
processes to produce new PLA or other products.

NUCLEIC ACIDS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS DNA VACCINE FOR RABIES

Rabies is a viral disease that affects wild and domestic animals and is transmitted to humans through
animal contact. It's classified as a widespread zoonotic disease.
DNA vaccines for rabies represent a promising approach to rabies prevention, offering advantages
such as stability, ease of production, and safety.

Mechanism:

➔ DNA Encoding Rabies Antigen: The DNA vaccine contains a small circular piece of DNA
that encodes specific antigens from the rabies virus. These antigens, typically the rabies
virus glycoprotein (RVG), are crucial for eliciting an immune response.
➔ Intramuscular Injection: The vaccine is administered via injection into muscle tissue. Once
inside the muscle cells,the DNA is taken up and begins the process of antigen expression.
➔ Antigen Production: Within the host cells,the DNA is transcribed into mRNA,which is then
translated into the rabies virus antigenprotein(s).The antigen proteins are then presented on
the surface of the host cells.
➔ Immune Response Activation: The presence of rabies virus antigens triggers the host
immune system. This leads to the activation of both cellular and humoral immune
responses, which are essential for fighting off rabies virus infection.

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Immunization and Application:

Preventive Vaccination: DNA vaccines for rabies are administered to individuals or animals a trisk
of rabies exposure.
Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP): DNA vaccines can also be used as part of post-exposure
prophylaxis for individuals bitten or scratched by animals suspected of carrying the rabies virus.
They complement traditional rabies vaccines and rabies immunoglobulin (RIG) administration.
Advantages:
Stability: DNA vaccines are stable at room temperature, eliminating the need for cold chain storage
and transportation.
Ease of Production: DNA vaccines can be produced using recombinant DNA technology, offering a
scalable and cost-effective manufacturing process.

Safety: DNA vaccines do not contain live viruses, reducing the risk of vaccine-associated adverse
events.

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RNA VACCINES FOR COVID-19

It represents a groundbreaking approach to vaccination that has been at the forefront of efforts to
combat the pandemic. These vaccines utilize messenger RNA (mRNA) to instruct cells in the body
to produce a protein like the spike protein found on the surface of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which
causes COVID-19. The immune system then recognizes this spike protein and mounts a response,
including the production of antibodies, to protect against future infection.
RNA vaccines for COVID-19 works typically as follows:

➔ mRNA Selection: Scientists identify the genetic sequence encoding the spike protein of the
SARS-CoV-2virus.This sequence is used as the template for generating them RNAvaccine.
➔ mRNA Formulation: The mRNA encoding the spike protein is formulated into lipid
nanoparticles. These nano particles protect the mRNA and help deliver it into cells once the
vaccine is administered.
➔ Vaccination: The mRNA vaccine is administered to individuals through intramuscular
injection, typically into the upper arm. Once injected, the lipid nanoparticles deliver the
mRNA into cells in the vicinity of the injection site.
➔ Cellular Uptake: Cells take up the lipid nanoparticles containing the mRNA. Once inside
the cell, the mRNA serves as a template for protein synthesis.
➔ ProteinProduction:The cell's machinery reads the mRNA and produces copies of the spike
protein encoded by the vaccine and are displayed on the surface of the cell.
➔ ImmuneResponse:The immune system recognizes the spike proteins as foreign and mounts
an immune response. This includes the production of antibodies that specifically target the
spike protein, as well as the activation of other immune cells, such as T cells.
➔ Immune Memory: After vaccination, the immune system retains a memory of the spike
protein. If the vaccinated individual is later exposed to the SARS-CoV-2virus,their immune
system can quickly recognize and mount a response against it, preventing or reducing the
severity of COVID-19.

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DNA FINGER PRINTING

DNA profiling or DNA typing is a forensic technique used to identify individuals based on their
unique DNA characteristics.

It involves analyzing specific regions of an individual's DNA to create a genetic profile that can be
compared to other DNA samples for identification purposes.
DNA fingerprinting is a highly accurate and reliable forensic tool due to the uniqueness of
everyone’s DNA profile, except for identical twins, who share the same DNA profile.
It has revolutionized forensic science and has been instrumental in solving countless criminal cases,
as well as intherelease ofwrongfullyconvicted individuals.
Additionally, DNA fingerprinting is also used in various non-forensic applications, such as genetic
testing, paternity testing, and conservation biology.

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The steps involved in DNA Finger printing are as follows.

1. Sample Collection:
2. DNA Extraction: Extract DNA from the collected sample using standard molecular biology
techniques. This typically involves breaking open cells to release DNA and removing
proteins and other cellular components.
3. PCR Amplification: Perform polymer as e chain reaction (PCR) to amplify specific regions
of the DNA known as short tandem repeats (STRs) or variable number tandem repeats
(VNTRs). These regions are useful for identification purposes.
4. Gel Electrophoresis:
5. DNA Visualization:
6. Analysis and Interpretation:
7. Data Interpretation:
8. Documentation:
Importance of DNA finger printing inforensics

1. Identification of Individuals:
2. Crime Scene Investigations:
3. Exoneration of Innocent Individuals:
4. Cold Case Investigations:

PROTEINS in food Production.

Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino
acid residues.

Sources of Proteins in Food Production

1. Animal Proteins:

 Meat: Beef, pork, poultry, and fish provide high-quality proteins.

 Dairy: Milk, cheese, and yogurt are rich in casein and whey proteins.
 Eggs: A versatile source used in baking, cooking, and as an emulsifier.

 Plant Proteins:Legumes: Beans, lentils, and peas are excellent sources of proteins.
 Grains: Wheat, rice, and corn provide proteins, although they may lack one or more essential amino
acids.
 Nuts and Seeds: Almonds, walnuts, chia seeds, and flaxseeds offer proteins along with healthy fats.

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WHEY PROTEIN AND MEAT ANALOGS

Whey protein is a high-quality protein derived from whey, a byproduct of cheese production. It's
one of the two main proteins found in milk, the other being casein. Whey protein is renowned for its
excellent amino acid profile, including all nine essential amino acids required by the body.

Whey protein is obtained from the liquid portion of milk that separates during cheese production.
When milk is coagulated to form curds and whey, the curds are used to make cheese, while the
liquid whey is collected and processed further to extract whey protein.

Properties in Food Processing

1. Emulsification: Proteins can stabilize emulsions, which is essential in products like mayonnaise,
dressings, and sausages.
2. Foaming: Proteins help in forming and stabilizing foams in products like meringues, whipped
toppings, and certain bakery items.
3. Gelation: Proteins can form gels, providing texture and structure to products like gelatin desserts,
yogurt, and tofu.
4. Water Binding: Proteins can absorb and retain water, improving the texture and shelf-life of products
like baked goods and meat products.

5. Texture Modification: Proteins can alter the texture of foods, making them creamier, firmer, or more
elastic, which is important in cheese, meat analogs, and baked goods.

Production Process:
The production process for meat analogs typically involves several steps:

➔ Ingredient Mixing: Plant-based ingredients are mixed with water,flavorings, and

seasonings to form a dough or slurry.
➔ Texturization: The dough or slurry may undergo texturization processes,such as molding,
to create the desired meat-like texture.
➔ Cooking: The meat analogs are cooked using methods such as baking, frying, or steaming
to achieve the desired taste and texture.

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LIPIDS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS BIODIESEL

Lipids, primarily in the form of triglycerides found in plant oils and animal fats,
are the fundamental raw materials used in biodiesel production.

Triglycerides are the main form of lipids used in biodiesel production.

They are composed of one glycerol molecule esterified with three fatty acid
molecules.
 The fatty acid chains can vary in length and degree of saturation, affecting
 the properties of the resulting biodiesel.

Sources of Lipids for Biodiesel Production

 Plant Oils :
 Soybean, Rapeseed (Canola), Palm, Sunflower, Corn, Cottonseed:

 Animal Fats:
 These are byproducts of meat processing and are also rich in triglycerides.

 Recycled Oils:
 Used Cooking Oil, Waste Grease: These are cost-effective and sustainable

sources of lipids, although they may require more processing to remove

impurities.

Transesterification Process
 The trans esterification process converts triglycerides into biodiesel and glycerol by
reacting with an alcohol (usually methanol) in the presence of a catalyst (commonly
sodium or potassium hydroxide).

 Triglyceride + 3Methanol→ 3Methyl Esters (Biodiesel) + Glycerol

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Steps Involved:

 Raw Material: Lipids provide the necessary fatty acid chains that are transformed
into biodiesel. The nature and composition of these fatty acids influence the properties of the
biodiesel, such as cetane number, viscosity, and cold flow properties.

 Energy Source: The fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) derived from lipids have a high
energy content, making biodiesel a suitable alternative to conventional diesel..

 Mixing: Triglycerides are mixed with methanol and a catalyst.

 Reaction: The mixture is heated and stirred to facilitate the reaction.
 Separation: The resulting mixture separates into two layers: crude
biodiesel (upper layer) and glycerol (lower layer).
Purification: The crude biodiesel is washed and purified to remove
residual catalysts, methanol, and impurities.
Here's why lipids are utilized as biodiesel:
➔ High Energy Content: Lipids, such as triglycerides found in vegetable oils and animal fats,
are rich in energy. When converted into biodiesel, they provide a high-energy source of fuel
for various applications.
➔ Renewable Resource: Lipids used for biodiesel production are derived from renewable
sources such as plants (e.g., soybean, canola, palm) and animal fats, making biodiesel a
sustainable alternative to fossil fuels.
➔ Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Biodiesel produced from lipids typically emits lower
levels of greenhouse gases compared to conventional petroleum diesel. It contributes to
reducing carbon dioxide emissions and mitigating climate change.
➔ Biodegradability: Biodiesel derived from lipids is biodegradable, this propertyreduces the
environmental impact of biodiesel spills and leakage compared to petroleum-based fuels.
➔ Domestic Production: Many lipid sources for biodiesel production are grown domestically,
reducing dependence on imported fossil fuels, and enhancing energy security.
➔ Compatibility with Existing Infrastructure: Biodiesel can be used in existing diesel engines
and infrastructure with little modifications.
➔ Versatility: Lipids can be sourced from a variety of feedstocks, allowing for flexibility in
biodiesel production and reducing costs with locally available resources.

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Production Process of Surfactants

1. Saponification: This process reacts triglycerides (lipids) with an alkali (usually sodium
hydroxide) to produce soap and glycerol.

Fat or Oil + NaOH→ Soap + Glycerol

The resulting soap molecules have hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails and hydrophilic (water-
attracting) heads, which allow them to emulsify fats and oils in water, enabling cleaning.
2. Hydrolysis: Triglycerides from fats and oils can be hydrolyzed to produce fatty acids and
glycerol. The fatty acids are then neutralized with an alkali to form soap.

3. Sulfonation and Sulfation: Sulfonation involves adding a sulfonic acid group,

typically resulting in alkylbenzene sulfonates, which are common in household detergents.
4. Sulfation involves adding a sulfate group, resulting in products like sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS),
which is widely used in shampoos and soaps.

LIPIDS AS CLEANING AGENTS

Lipids, such as vegetable oils and animal fats, can be used as cleaning agents or detergents,
particularly in the form of soap. Here's how lipids function as cleaning agents:
1. Soap Formation: Soap is traditionally made by saponifying lipids with a strong base, such
as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH), through a process known as
saponification. This reaction converts triglycerides (the main component of fats and oils)
into glycerol and fatty acid salts, which are the active cleaning agents in soap.
2. Surfactant Properties: The fatty acid salts produced during saponification act as
surfactants, which are compounds that lower the surface tension between water and dirt,
allowing them to mix more easily. Surfactants help to lift dirt, oil, and grease from surfaces
and suspend them in water, making them easier to rinse away.
3. Emulsification: Lipids can emulsify oils and greases, breaking them down into smaller
droplets and dispersing them in water. This emulsification process facilitates the removal of
oily stains and residues from surfaces, enhancing the cleaning effectiveness of lipid- based
detergents.
4. Biodegradability: Unlike many synthetic detergents, which can be persistent in the
environment and may contribute to pollution, lipid-based detergents are typically
biodegradable. They can be broken down by microorganisms in the environment into
simpler compounds, reducing their impact on ecosystems.
5. Mildness: Lipid-based detergents are often gentler on the skin compared to harsher
synthetic detergents. They are less likely to cause irritation or dryness, making them suitable
for use in personal care products such as hand soaps and body washes.

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ENZYMES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Enzymes Glucose-oxidase in biosensors
Glucose oxidase is an enzyme commonly used in biosensors for the detection and quantification of
glucose levels. Here's how it works within the context of biosensors:
Function: Glucose oxidase catalyzes the oxidation of glucose to produce gluconic acid and hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) according to the following reaction:
Glucose + O2→Gluconic acid + H2O2
● Substrate Specificity: Glucose oxidase specifically acts on glucose molecules, making it highly
selective for glucose detection.
● Detection Principle: In biosensors, glucose oxidase is immobilized within or on the surface of a
electrodes in combination with a transducer. When glucose is present in asample, it reacts with
glucose oxidase, resulting in the production of hydrogen peroxide.
● Electrochemical Detection: The hydrogen peroxide generated in the enzymatic reaction serves
as a measurable signal. Biosensors of tenutilize electrochemical methods to detect this signal.
● Calibration: Biosensors containing glucose oxidase require calibration to establish a
relationship between the measured signal (e.g., current or voltage) and the concentration of
glucoseinthesample.Calibrationcurvesaretypicallyconstructedusingknownconcentrations of
glucose to determine the sensor's sensitivity and linear range.
● Applications:Glucosebiosensorsfindwidespreadapplicationsinmedicaldiagnostics
Table summarizing different types of biosensors based on glucose oxidase, along with their
specific uses and advantages:

Biosensor Type Specific Use Advantages

Blood glucose monitoring for
Real-time monitoring
diabetes management
Electrochemical
Biosensor Food quality control High sensitivity and specificity
Industrial bioprocess monitoring Rapid response time
Continuous glucose
Non-invasive or minimally invasive
Optical monitoring(CGM) systems
Biosensor Potential for miniaturization and
Environmental monitoring
portability
Wearable glucose Low power consumption
Field-Effect monitoring devices
Transistor
Environmental monitoring Direct electrical readout
Integration with micro fluidic systems
Point-of-care testing(POCT)
Microfluidic forautomation
Biosensor
Biomedical research Small sample volume required

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Bio-Bleaching Process and Role of Lignolytic Enzymes

1. Pulp Preparation:
-Raw pulp obtained from wood or other lingo cellulosic sources is prepared for bleaching.
2. Enzyme Application:
- Lignolytic enzymes (such as lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase, and laccase) are applied
to the pulp mixture.
- These enzymes are typically produced by fungi or other micro organisms.
3. Degradation of Lignin:
- Lignolytic enzymes break down lignin, which is a complex polymer responsible for the
coloration of pulp.
- Enzymes target and cleave the bonds within lignin molecules, resulting in its fragmentation into
smaller, soluble compounds.
4. Removal of Lignin Fragments:
- The fragmented lignin is solubilized and washed away from the pulp mixture.
- This process reduces the coloration and brightness of the pulp, resulting in a lighter and brighter
final product.
5. Paper Formation:
- The bleached pulp is then used to produce paper or other cellulose-based products through
various processing techniques, such as papermaking.
Benefits of Bio-Bleaching:
- Environmentally Friendly: Reduces the use of harsh chemicals and minimizes environmental
pollution associated with conventional bleaching methods.
- Sustainable: Utilizes natural enzymes and microbial processes to achieve bleaching, promoting
sustainability in the paper industry.
Role of Lignolytic Enzymes:
- Lignin Peroxidase (LiP): Initiates the breakdown of lignin by catalyzing the oxidation of lignin
fragments.
- Manganese Peroxidase (MnP): Works synergistically with LiP to further degrade lignin,
especially in the presence of manganese ions.
- Laccase: Catalyzes the oxidation of lignin and other phenolic compounds, contributing to lignin
degradation and bleaching.
Overall, bio-bleaching offers a more environmentally friendly and sustainable alternative to
traditional bleaching methods, with lignolytic enzymes playing a crucial role in the degradation of
lignin and the production of high-quality bleached pulp.

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APPLICATION OF ENZYMES IN FOODPROCESSING

Enzyme Source Application Benefits

Breakdown of starch
Baking, brewing, corn into sugars, improved
Amylase Fungi, bacteria, plants
syrup production dough handling,
increase
d sweetness
Fungi, bacteria, plants, Meat tenderizing, cheese Breakdown of proteins
Protease into peptides and amino
animal tissues making, brewing
acids, improved texture
and flavor
Dairy processing, flavor Breakdown of fats,
Lipase Fungi, bacteria, plants enhancement in cheese, improved flavor and
baking texture, enhanced dough
conditioning
Juice clarification, wine Breakdown of pectin,
Pectinase Fungi, bacteria, plants production, fruit improved juice yield,
processing reduced viscosity
Cellulase Fungi, bacteria Juice clarification, wine Breakdown of pectin,
production, fruit improved juice yield,
processing reduced viscosity
Lactase Fungi, bacteria Juice extraction, wine Breakdown of cellulose,
production, coffee improved extraction
processing efficiency, reduced
turbidity

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